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LIONEL S.BEALE, 


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LOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL 
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY; 


CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS, 


AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ZOooLoGeyY AND BOTAN YT 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 
MICROSCOPY, Sc. 


Ledited by , 


FRANK CRISP, LL.B, B.A, 
One of the Secretaries of the Society 
and a Vice-President and Treasurer of the Linnean Society of London ; 


WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PuBLICATION COMMITTEE AND 


A. W. BENNETT, M.A., BSc., F.LS., F. JEFFREY BELL, M.A.,, F.ZS., 
Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital, _ Professor of Comparative Anatomy in King’s College, 
JOHN MAYALL, Jun., F.Z.S., R. G. HEBB, M.A., M.D. (Can‘ad.), 
AND 


J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., 
Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine, Edinburgh, 
FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Ser. II—VOL. VI. PART 1. 


PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY 
WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 
LONDON AND EDINBURGH. 
1886. 


a 


ny 
Sea's 


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JAN 20 19038 


THE GA 3 
Roval Microscopical Soriety. 
(Founded in 1839. Incorporated by Royal Charter in 1866.) 


The Society was established for the communication and discussion 
of observations and discoveries (1) tending to improvements in the con- 
struction and mode of application of the Microscope, or (2) relating to 
Biological or other subjects of Microscopical Research. 

It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio Fellows. 


Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Recommendation, 
signed by three Fellows, stating the names, residence, description, &c., 
of the Candidate, of whom one of the proposers must have personal 
knowledge. The Certificate is read at a Monthly Meeting, and the 
Candidate balloted for at the succeeding Meeting. 

The Annual Subscription is £2 2s., payable in advance on election, 
and subsequently on Ist January annually, with an Entrance Fee of £2 2s. 
Future payments of the former may be compounded for at any time for 
£31 10s. Fellows elected at a meeting subsequent to that in February are 
only called upon for a proportionate part of the first year’s subscription, 
and Fellows absent from the United Kingdom for a year, or perma- 
nently residing abroad, are exempt from one-fourth of the subscription 
during absence. 


Honorary Fellows (limited to 50), consisting of persons eminent 
in Microscopical or Biological Science, are elected on the recommendation 
of three Fellows and the approval of the Council. 


Ex-officio Fellows (limited to 100), consisting of the Presidents for 
the time being of Biological and Microscopical Societies at home and 
abroad, are elected on the recommendation of the Council. They are 
entitled to receive the Society’s Publications, and to exercise all other 
privileges of Fellows, except voting, but are not required to pay any 
Entrance Fee or Annual Subscription. 


The Council, in whom the management of the affairs of the Society 
is vested, is elected annually, and is composed of the President, four Vice- 
Presidents, Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other Fellows. 


The Meetings are held on the second Wednesday in each month, 
from October to June, in the Society’s Library at King’s College, Strand, 
a (commencing at 8p.m.). Visitors are admitted by the introduction of 

ellows. 

In each Session two additional evenings are devoted to the exhibition 
of Instruments, Apparatus, and Objects of novelty or interest relating to 
the Microscope or the subjects of Microscopical Research, 


The Journal, containing the Transactions and Proceedings of the 
Society, with a Summary of Current Researches relating to Zoology and 
Botany (principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Microscopy, &c., is 
published bi-monthly, and is forwarded post-free to all Ordinary and 
Ex-officio Fellows residing in countries within the Postal Union. 


The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of 
Objects, is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays) from 
10 a.m. to5 p.m., and on Wednesdays from 7 to 9.30 p.m. also. It is closed 
for four weeks during August and September. 


Forms of proposal for Fellowship, and any further information, may be obtained by 
application to the Secretaries, or Assistant-Secretary, at the Library of the Society, 
King’s College, Strand, W.C. 

a 2 


Patron. 
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS G 


ALBERT EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES, 
K.G., G.C.B., F.R.S., &e. 


PF I I I IID DI ae 


Past-Dresivents. 

Elected, 
Str Ricuarp Owen, K.C.B., D.C.L., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 1840-1 
JouN inpuby, Ple).; WURIS i> sie alice in ee eee 1842-3 
TP HoOMAS BELL) (PAR. S.:00 « ate vie oi cin eileen 1844-5 
James Scorr BowrerBangk, LL.D., F.R.S.........-....- 1846-7 
Gnonen > Busk; FERS. 2 bem s:- @ » 2 ilele wie reel eee 1848-9 
Anrnoun Wankn, MAD), RIS eck. cl - a onteeet eee 1850-1 
Grorce JAcKsoN, MRICS. 2.050% a eu tee 1852-3 
Witi1am Bensamin Carpenter, we B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 1854-5 
GronGe-SHADBOLT joe so foee ols oo 60 ous Denne 1 1856-7 
Eowi Lankesrer, M.D: 1AL-D., '.RS.. eee 1858-9 
joun Tuomas Quexnrt, F.RS.............-..2+00008 1860 
Rovget Jauus Fannants, W.R.CS, ........2026 see 1861-2 
CrAntes Brooke, MLA: BUR Sic cin suid. sue 1863-4 
JAMES GLAIsHER, E.R. g Macnee Pigisia dae ateld eee 1865-6—7-8 
Rev. JosepH Bancrort Reape, M.A., F R.S........... 1869-70 
Wirt Kircuen Parker, WHS. 5.0... 0. - eee 1871-2 
Grantees Brooxe, MA... FURS: 22 .)ehe j- o pole see eee 1873-4 
Heyry Currron Sorzy, LL.D., F.R.S................ 1875-6—-7 
Henry Janus Suack;: P.G.8. <2). osteo. oo oe 1878 
Laonen ‘S. Bearn MS., ERCP, ERS: 2. cee eee 1879-80 


PP. Martin Dunokn, MB. FERS.4.4 ae oe ee 1881-2-3 


COUNCIL. 


Exeotep 10TH Frsruary, 1886. 


President, 
Rev. W. H. Daturneer, LL.D., F.R.S. 


Vice-Presidents. 


*J. Witi1am Groves, Esq. 

Joun Mayatt, Esq., Jun. 

Apert D. Micnazt, Esq., F.L.S. 

*Prorressor Caartes Stewart, M.R.C.S., F.LS. 


Creasurer. 
Lionet §. Beare, Esq., M.B., F.R.C.P., F.BS. 


Secretaries. 
*Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.A., V.P. & Treas. LS. 
Proressor F, Jerrrey Bett, M.A., F.Z.S. 


Ciwelbe other Mlembers of Council. 


JosrepH Becr, Esq., F.R.A.S. 

AurreD Witi1am Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S, 
*Ropert BraitHwaltE, Hsq., M.D., M.R.C.S., ¥.L.8. 
Rey. Epmunp Carr, M.A. 

Frank R. Cuesurre, Esq., F.L.S. 

G. F. Dowpeswett, Esq., M.A. 

James GuarsHEeR, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 

Joun Martuews, Esq., M.D. 

*Joun Mintar, Esq., L.R.C.P., F.L.S. 

Ursan Pritcnarp, Esq., M.D. 

Wiriu1am Tuomas Surroir, Esq. 

Cuagtes Tyter, Esq., F.L.S. 


Hibrarian and Assistant Seeretary, 
Mr. James West, 


* Members of the Publication Committee. 


CONTENTS. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY— 


I.—Fresh-water Algez (including Chlorophyllaceous Proto- 
phyta) of the English Lake District; with descriptions 
of twelve New Species. By Alfred W. Bennett, F.R.M.S., 
F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas’s Hospital. 
(Plates L & IL.) SOL MEAG want Sams ce Ais 


II.—Explanatory Notes on a series of Slides presented to the 
Society, illustrating the action of a diamond in ruling 
lines upon glass. By Prof. William A. Rogers, F.R.M.S. 


III.—On the Preparation of Sections of Pumice-stone and other 
Vesicular Rocks. By H. J. Johnston-Lavis, M.D., F.G.S. 


IV.—On the Cultivation of Bacteria. By Edgar M. Crookshank, 
M.B. Lond., F.R.M.S. (Plates III.-V.) Camas 


V.—On the Appearances which some Micro-organisms present 
under different conditions, as exemplified in the Microbe 
of Chicken Cholera. By G. F. Dowdeswell, M.A., 
F.R.M.S., F.L.S., &. (Plate VI.) FEO Be 


VI.—On “ Central” Light in Resolution. By J. W. Stephenson, 
F.R.M.S., F.R.A.S. (Figs. 1-4) = 


VII.—The President’s Address. By the Rev. W. H. Dallinger, 
LL.D., F.R.S. (Plates VIL, VIII. and IX.) 


VIII.—Upon the Life-history of an Acarus one stage whereof is 
known as Labidophorus talpz, Kramer; and upon an 
unrecorded species of Disparipes. By Albert D. Michael, 
F.LS., F.Z.8S., F.R.M.S. (Plates X. and XI.) 


TX.—On Micrococcus Pasteuri (Sternberg). By George M. 
Sternberg, M.D., F.R.MLS., si and Surgeon U.S. 
Army. (Figs. a —-80) . : ae 


X.—New Polarizing Prism. By C2 D: EDs "ig, 81) 


XI.—Notes on the Structure and Evolution of the Floridesx, 
By George Massee, F.R.M.S. (Plates XII. and XIII.) 


XII.—On some Microzoa from the London Clay exposed in the 
Drainage Works, Piccadilly, London, 1885. By Charles 
D. Sherborn and Frederick Chapman. (Plate XIV., XV., 
and XVI.) (Wigs. 154, 155 & 156) : 


XTII.—Flagellated Protozoa in the Blood of Diseased and appa- 
rently Healthy Animals. By Edgar M. Crookshank, M.B. 
Lond., F.R.M.S. (Plate XVII. and figs. 193-199.) 


XIV.—On Trichodina as an Endoparasite. By T. B. Rosseter, 
F.R.M.S. (Plate XVIII.) . erin coy Moon cet ae 


eo bartel 


S Ubarie 


« Part 3 


> 


Part 4 


~ Part. 3 


. Part 6 


PAGE 


1 


16 


22 


193 


377 


391 
397 


561 


737 


913 


929 


Vill CONTENTS. 


Summary or CuRRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BoTANY (PRINCI- 
PALLY INVERTEBRATA ,AND OryproGAmiA), Microscopy, &¢., INCLUDING 


ORIGINAL ComMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.* 


40, 208, 399, 574, 764, 934 


“ 


ZOOLOGY. ,. 
A.--VeERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 
a. Embryology. 

PAGE 
Ryper, J. A.—The Archistome Theory .. .. ve) vain Litgheelli al Perre atte eAl() 
WiepersPerG, G. v.—Development of Spermatozoa a 41 
‘Bronp1, D.—Spermatogenesis :. +. «6 3 49 
Dewirz, J.—Mechanism of Fertilization .. 3 “ 43 
Happon, A. C.—Blastodermic Vesicle of Maran aise az 43 
Surton, J. B.—Hypertrophy and its value im Evolution.. 2 44 

RypeEr, J. A.—Avuilability of Embryological Characters in the Classifica 
tion of the Chordata.. heb teld) iL, eo yeh eee a 44 
‘SroLzMANN, J.—exuai Dimorphism e Fe 
La VALETTE St. GEORGE, v.—Sper snaganesis of Bonito Sub? 45 
Youne, E.—Zn fluence of Saline Water on the Development of Tudpoles ..  ,, 45 

» » Influence of the Number of Individuals im One Vase, and gf 
the Form of the Vase on the Development of Tadpoles .. ie 46 
Cunnincuan, J. T.—Relations of Yolk to Gastrula in Teleosteans i 46 
McIntosH, W. C.—Ova of Callionymus lyra f 46 
: “py Stmuchumes resem Duin gO RGie, | lant. le 47 
Ena, W.—Special Physiology of the Embryo .. .. .. .. .. Part? 208 
Fou, H.— Tail in Human Embryo Sana SC i 9209 
Benpa, C.— Spermatogenesis in Mammals Doras 209 
Bepparp, F. E.— Ovary of Echidna... 5 “s 210 
DareEstE, C.—IJnfluence of Shocks on the Germs oF He R rowl Ss bates Ri 210 
FiscnEet, W.—Peptone in Hens’ Hggs during Incubation .. is 210 
Hiron-Rover—Spacning of Bufo vulgaris... v 211 
Sonerr, B.— Vol'-globules in the intracapsular fluid of Pisce -ord ‘ P11 

Suipiny, A. E.—Formation of Mesoblust and Persistence ue Blastopore 
in the. Lamprey iS 212 

Day, F.—Breeding of Salmon a ‘om Par, wits baa hanes never - oised ie 
Sea oy a 2ill2 
Ryper, J. A ete the Bags of Cod Se , 912 
Hertwic, O. & R.—Conditions of Bastard Fer Aeothon, 5 913 

WEISMANN, A.— Continuity of the Germ-plasnea considered as tie tee 
of a theory of Heredity ay : 213 
Morris, C.—Attack and Defence as Ag genie im Appi Heghuticn “6 ; 214 
Ryper, J. A.— Origin of the Amnion Pr See tba col ko, Lear SSO) 
BaMBEKE, C. vaN—Germinal Vesicle “ 399 
Herarr, W.—Development of the Mole 56 400 
GuipBerG, G. A.—Ovary of Echidna sk mn 401 
Warynsxi, 8.—WVonstrosities with Double-hearts 401 


* In order to make the classification complete, (1) the papers printed in the 
‘ Transactions,’ (2) the abstracts of the ‘ Bibliography,’ and (3) the notes printed 


in the ‘ Proceedings’ are included here. 


CONTENTS. 


OwsIAnnikow, P.—Zggs of Bony Fishes.. .. «1 oe 

Acassiz, A.— Pelagic Stages of Young Fishes .. : 

Conn, H. W.—A Suggestion from modern aniagotge Ps 

Drxon, C.—EFvolution without Natural Selection .. 

Disine, C.—Lzxperimental Testing of the Theory a the Regulation of the 
Relation of the Sexes at Ab ogy!) May ic 

Brenna, C.—Spermatogenesis in Meninats ay shes 

Happon, A. C.—Blastodermic Vesicle in Mammals... 

KRukENBERG, C. F. W.—Horny Investments of the see o Sey wim 
siellare .. .. SOMRG Cee chy Pcie sina Pe : : : 

Wu, L.—Vogenetic Studies 

Tnerine, H. v.—Lmbryology of Arniaditlos 

CHARBONNEL-SALLE & PuisaLix—Fost-embryonic Development of Vitel- 
line Sac of Birds .. .. ve 

Turrine, H. v., & G. A. Bearer an Onno in Pineda 

June, E Sa aibnes of Variations in the Physico-Chemical Medium on the 
Development of Animals .. SYONMnE tele aa oton Bane 

Prince, E. E.—Development of Food- Fishes SEs tian Somac 

BarFurtu, D.—Biology of the Trout 

Romanss, G. J.,.& “F. J. B. ie pay hionical ‘Selection. 

FRENZEL, J. nag ‘oplasm and Nuclear Substance 

La VALETTE Sv. GEorGE, v.—Spermatogenesis in npnbens 

Kouiimann, J.—History of the Primitive Streak : 

Mrrsvugcrt, K., & C, IsH1sawa—Germina!l Layers of Chelonia 

Prince, E. E.—Oleaginous Spheres in the Ova of Teleostean Fishes 

SELENKA, E.—Embryology of the Opossum sis MO Sata eink me 

Kuen, R.—Structure and Development of Feathers .. 

Darest4, C.—Wonstrosities in the Egg of the Chick 

Born, G.— Influence of Gravity on the Frog Ovum.. 

Prrenyi, J. v.—Embryology of Torpedo marmorata Ee 

CuNnNINGHAM, J. T.— Reproductive Elements of Myxine glutinosa.. 

Ryper, J. A.— Development of Fundulus heteroclitus 

x » Development of the Mud-minnow .. cay acts 

CunnincHam, J. T.—WMode of attachment = the Gaim of Geen US 
eperlanus .. 

ZiEGLER, H. 18.— Origin op Pieetoreitcies im T, ean Embr; te 

Hyartr, A.—Larval Theory of the Origin of Tissue hee 

Roux, W.—WMechanics of Development keer 


B. Histology. 
PrirzNer, W.—Worphology of the Cell-nucleus 
LavLani&, F.—Contraction of Striped Muscle .. 
Lerypic, F.—Cells of the Epidermis of Batrachian Larve 
Vircuow, H.—Cells of the Vitreous Body 
NissEN, F.—WNuclei of Secreting Milk-gland Cells. 
Pruatner, G.—Accessory Nuclear Body 
Gacz, 8S. H. & 8. P.—Ameboid Movement of Calbaratteus ; 
List, J. H.—Unicellular Glands in the Aen 9 of Bladder of 
Amphibians 
Macattum, A. B.—WNer oe mena in the Gteevies Epithelium - 
TRGRLAOPULGIA ee Sa RL EMR” saree agar ele Oe heehee Prat? 60 


ix 

PAGE 

Part 3 402 
Fi 402 
fe 403 

” 403 

BA 404 
Part 4 574 
1 574 
ees 575 
Part 5 764 
“ 765 

‘a 765 
of 766 
7 766 

- 767 
AA 768 

3 769 
Part 6 934 
” 935 

5 935 

s 936 

5 937 
- 937 
” 937 
rf 939 
93 939 
ss 940 
” 941 
=< 941 
941 
rf 942 
5 942 
fF 943 
5 943 

ee Part Js 47 
> 47 

. Part 2 214 
% 215 
3 215 
» 216 
RS 217 
+ 217 
PF 218 


x - CONTENTS. 


LAvLanté, F.—Phenomena of Muscular Contraction in Primitive Striated 
Fibres. TMM me ay 95, 28h 
Bitscait, O. Die ete OF the Cell os es oe. Jap ee) Ae eee aes 
Lue, A. Bonies—Siructure of the Nucieus .. .. . + «6 8 4 
List, J. H—Goblet-cells and Leydig’s Cells .. .. Pree ee. Cue 


Mosivs, K.—Wucous Threads of the Sea-stickleback’s Nest Pate or Meese 
GuicnarD, L.—Phenomena of the Division of the Cell-nucleus .. .. Part 4 
Kerup, G.'T.—New Element in the Blood.. .. «6 26 oe oe we 15 
GieRKE, H.—AHistology of Central Nervous System.. wisifropiste: bea Aes 
Ravser, A.—Nuclear Division in the Spinal Cord .. .. .. «+ « Part6 


CorniL, V.—Indirect division in Cells of Tumours .. 1. «2 2% oe 155 
GaAvLE, J.—Ilmport of Cytozoa .. .. + oc s 
- Macatium, A. B.—WNerve-endings in the Cnn Epithelium “of the 
MGT YHA 55 AO) OO) a8, aE 
Just, A.— Histology and Piisnieaa of Ciliated bein eee i 
Sarasin, C. F. & P. B.—Direct Communication of the Blood with ‘ha 
surrounding Medium ates biat™, "Ofoseniave bia cat 1 feces alm ye mee SUS x3 


vy. General. 


Haackz, W.—Warkings of Animals... .» +. +» 2. o co «ss Partl 


Amans, P. C.—dOrgans of Flight .. «. oa ie eee 
Hermann, L.—Influence of Galvanic Gee on Organs ie. Peels 
Leypic, F.—Blue Colour of Animals... ~ 


GrazBer, V.—Perception of Brightness and Colbie by Dering degen es 
Cuur, C.—Geographical Distribution of Pelagic Marine Animals .. .. Part3 
ReeGnarp, M. P.—Influence of High Pressures on Animal Tissues AD 
Spencer, W. Batpwin.—Parietal Eye of Hatteria.. .. .. « «. Part4 
Curter, E.—Probable Cause of some Monstrosities.. .. Boy eae wees 
Foret, A.—Origin of the Deep-sea Fauna in the Sub-alpine Tiaikas 


ee 9 
Bateson, W.—Ancestry of the Chordata. + . «6 «+ oe « Partd ' 


Binen, V.—Laternal Markings.. .. 0 os os am) en ee een 
Morris, C.—WMethods of Defence in Organisms ais Nabil Perot pee eater Rams 
Gripaut, N.—Correlation of Animals and Plants .. «1 1. «+s 15 


B.—INVERTEBRATA, 


MacMony, C. A.—Chromatology of Blood of Invertebrates .. .. .. Partl 
Haackz, W.—Radial Disposition of Meduse and Echinodermata .. .. 45 
Pennineton’s (A. 8.) “ British Zoophytes” ..  .. 2 os « . 

Grrop, P.—Colouring Matters of the Integument .. «1 «1 oe we eat 2 
Ricuet, C.—Physiological Action of the Salts of Lithium, Potassium, 


and Rubidium ..  «. ap) bc cad naa 
Cuatin, J.— Tactile Organs of Tens tna Coatpion eee “3 
Imnor, O. E.—Horizontal and Vertical Geographical Distribution of the 

Pelagic Fauna of Fresh-water Lakes .. . so) ) ciclo te AT 
VienaL, W.—Lndothelium of the Internal Wall of Vessels of Inver- 

tebrates .. = as Bs 
Howe tu, W. H. aie of Cite Ganeoens Hid a Tole s 
Marine Fauna of the South-west of Ireland .. .. PAA Lean 
Puate, L.—Ectoparasites of the Gills of Gammarus ie as date eee 


Cotuett, R.—Parasites of Balenoptera borealis .. .. .. « « Part 6 


PAGE 


218 
404 
404 
405 
406 
575 
576 
576 
944 
945 
945 


947 
947 


948 


218 


220 


221 


582 


582 
082 
Til 
771 
949 


CONTENTS. xl 
Mollusce, PAGE 
MacMuny, C. A.—Chromatology of Blood of Invertebrates .. .. «+» Partl 48 
VIALLETON—WNerve-centres of Cephalopoda ., «+ « ae dey Tey 49 
Parker, T. J.—Size and External Sexual Characters of the New 
Zealand Octopus. . s sae ol ay 49 
McMorricu, J. P.—Post-oral Pad of Cilia i in  Gasteropd Volayers = 50 
Bontan, L.—Development of Fissurella .. «+ At genie a 50 
JOURDAIN, S.—Limacidz of Saint- Vaast-la- Fig PA 50 
Priatner, G.—Spermatogenesis in Pulmonata . < 50 
FLEIscHMANN, A.—Vovement of the Foot in Ravens. - 52 
Mostus, K.—Resting-position of Oysters .. 5 52 
LANKESTER, EH. R.—Green Oysters .. o 52 
PELSENEER, P.—Cephalic Appendages of Cpvdlcnatoue- Pesapats * 53 
Rouzaup, H. — Development of Genital Organs of ore 
Gastropoda... ot Men oo F co bathe oe 
Scumivt, F. Sol anal jaete Tieatanivins of Najame ae , et Pst 222 
SaLensky, W.—Development of Vermetus 43 224 
Hauer, B.—Anatomy of the Marine Phipaigloantia 7 225 
SaBaTIER, A.—Constitution of the Egg and its Envelopes in the Chitonides -f 227 
Dysowsk1, W.—Odontophore of Limnea.. .. Teo ae zs 228 
Boas, J. E. V.—WNotes on Gymnosomatous Picripeit an jae ee 228 
PuisaLix, C.—Formation of Chromatophores in Pee it) ve ee par omAzOM 
Parren, W.—Embryology of Patella Sess 407 
PLATNER, G.— Development of the reproductive SENenin in Pima, sa alate SA 410 
Sarasin, C. F. & P. B.—Parasitic Gastropods  .. .. re 412 
Botot, E— Spawning of Doris .. “ge sl 413 
Lacaze-Dututiers, H. pe—Central Mevouies Biatem of Ti giles ‘evork ina. 9 413 
Mier, F.—Shell-formation in Lamellibranchs - 414 
PAwLow, J.—Opening of the Sheil of Mussels .. 7 415 
Saunpers, S.—Resting position of Oysters 5 415 
Surru, E. A.—‘ Challenger’ Lamellibranchiata Pe te ert eee x 415 
_ MacMouraicsa, J. P.—Embryology of Gastropods .. .. .. «. «. Part 4 583 
Bouvier, E. L.—WNervous System and Organization of Scutibranch 
Gastropoda re a “e 084 
CARRIERE, J.—Retina of Helie oral or + 585 
Bereu, R.S., & H. DE fy hers] eee ee of Peeters 9 585 
GRosBEN, G.—Pericardial Gland of Lamellibranchs and Gastropods op 586 
Barros, T.—Pedal Gland and Aquiferous Pores in Lamellibranchs = 586 
Suarp, B.—Lyes of Pecten aa ee ees Pe 586 
Baumert, G.— Poison of the Edible Mussel Es? eee ae el epi ar a 5s 087 
Puatyer, G.—Fertilization in Arion... de tee Gy ont LER OR alin 
Dysowsk1, W.— Tooth-plates of some Seciuniaetine ae - ce 774 
LENDENFELD, R. v.—Histological Structure of the Dorsal Papi of 
Onchidium ae eee Pe Tid 
Osporn, H. L. Huhta of the Gill i in 5 Fasdiobaris ze = 775 
Bercu, R.—WNudibranchs of * Willem Barents’ Expedition + 776 
Carrie, J. T.—Lamellibranchs of the * Willem Barents’ ce ie: atcog «os Tiaid. 
Bouvier, E. L.—WMorphology of the Mollusca... .. oy lee of feo) UAT) Gf oO 
GROBBEN, C.— Morphology and Relationship of te pegaeous bet etitae wit 950. 
Pauiet, A.—@sophageal Glands of Octopus...» ss ee egy 951 
Wanrktomont, R.—Structure of Pterotrachea .. «uu new 952 


xl CONTENTS. 


Bitscaui, O.—Symmetry of Gasteropoda Te oa ERTS 
Trampusti, A.—Jnnervation of Heart in Heliz .. 

ZACHARIAS, O.—Nuclear Fusion in Cleavage Spheres p 
Drost, K.—WNervous System and ee Epithelium of Canaan. ¥ 


Molluscoida. 


a. Tunicata. 
Lacazre-Duruiers, H. pz, & Y. Pee cana of the Coasts of 
France .. =. ja 2 ape eee ee eeu 
LanILieE, F.— Alter ae m ine Heart of Fanilates aa ae WE meee enbyatibers 
Srr.icer, O.—Budding of Silpe NE 


ce ” 
Rove, L.—Individual Variations in the Birucia é of Simple Asstgee 


» » Lhe Phallusiade of Provence oe Ane teceee aameye 5 
Herpman, W. A.—Phylogeny of the Tunicata.. .. .. .. « « Part4 
LawiuLe, F'.—Classification of the Tunicata .. . ebon teea athe 


Rove, L.—Histology of Digestive Tract of simple Asean 
LaniLie, F.— New Diplosoma .. 


Maurice, C.—Structure of Amarecium a ribet . Part 6 
Lanwiuye, F.—Polycline : 
Rove, L.—Simple Ascidians i 

B. Polyzoa. 

PENNINGTON’S (A. 8.) ‘ British Zoophytes’ so bart ll 
Osrrooumorr, A. A.—WVorphology of Polyzoa ae 
MacGiiiivray, P. H.—WNew or little known Polyzoa + {us shliteeteemyaen 

KarKa, J.—Fresh-water Polyzoa of Bohemia.. .. .. . «  « Part2 
JULLIEN, J,—Wonograph of Fresh-water Polyzoa sis alae a 

Jouiet, L.—Researches on Blastogenesis .._ .. -. Part 4 
Ostrooumorr, A.—Development of Gi Concent Mark ine Br OZOG) Wise falas 

VicELius, W. J.—Development of Polyzoa .. «1 os « «  « DPart6 
Ostrooumorr, A.—Wetamorphosis of Fresh-water Polen es 

y. Brachiopoda. 

DaAvipson, T.—Recent Brachiopoda .. ~ 1.5. =. ef) ees ee 

a », New Ehynchonella from Japan Pen rieaoe eh ag PANE 2 

Jounin, L.—Anatomy of Brachiopoda Inarticulata.. .. .. .. .. Partd 
» » Anatomy of Discina 5 
Bryer, H. G.—Structure of Lingula p yramidata s 

Arthropoda. 
LANKESTER, E. Ray.—Claus’s Classification of the Arthropoda .. .. Part3 


Ovupemans, A. C.—Affinities, Origin, and Classification of Arthropoda .. Part 4 


Bruce, A. T.—Lmbryoloqgy of Insects and Arachnids ig eo 
Cuaus, C.—On the Classification of the Arthropoda.. .. .. ..  .. Part5 
STUHLMANN, F'.—WVaturation of the Arthropod Ovoum .. .. .. .. Part6 


Gaxssi, U.—TZerminations of Motor Nerves in Arthropod Muscle 
Leypie, F.—Dermal Sensory Organs of Arthropoda 
CARRIERE, J.—Development of various kinds of Ocelli 


PAGE 


953 
954 
954 
954 


” 


53 
416 
416 
418 
418 


» CONTENTS. xl 


a. Insecta, 


PAGE 
BawsiAni, E. G.—Development of Reproductive Organs in Insects.. .. Part1 55 
VIALLANES, H.—Histology and Embryoloyy of Insects .. 4, 1. 0 95 57 
KorscHe.t, E.— Origin of the Elements in the Insect Ovary.. .. * 58 
Scamipt, O.— Metamorphosis and Anatomy ay the Male Aspidiotus Neri TO) sop 58 
PLATEAU, F.— Vision of Insects “s Tee Ce CD ee ey: 58 
Grazer, V.—Sense of Smell in Insects, eo, eh Sette) isi, Meh, aay ee uve os 58 
pry rn. Fl —Moot-Glands afi InSecuS ise, y cn) Vas icin, bee | 35] cient Teoh fgg 59 
_ Curtry, E. A.—Bees and other hoarding (ose Eom ry WW eat Men eee ey 60 
Barann, DP. J.—Antenna of Honey-bee. 2. 35 ot as eet gg 60 
Spicer, HE. C.—Sense of Hearing in Ants., .. ig We oay Gia oon Bis 61 
Bruce, A. T.—Origin of Endoderm in nemigeprianae ae pt ae 61 
CuoLopKovsky, N.—Generative Apparatus of Nematois aia ACE 61 
Rosson,.M. H.—Development of the Flev’s Egg .- «1 we ewe €2 
BEAUREGARD, H.—Development of Epicauta verticalis .. 1. 4. ee gy 62 
AVAIL ID es Ele 7 OVOSCIS| Of ELCMUPTCTE.. «cs xe, ek ek oss | eee a 8 63 
GrossE, F.—Anatomy of the Mallophaga.. ... «41 ewe egg 64 
Lemornt, V.—Nervous System of Phylloxera ..  .. 6s ee we egy 65 
Braver, F.— Classification of Insects is Wty ALE CEC Moose he 5 65 
Gresatnm H.-P ulllusiof ther Bee. wc o4 vs tm te we eee ae 186 
Sapatrer, A.— Morphology of Insect Ovaries... .. .. .. « oe Part 2 229 
Wu, F.—Gustatory Organs of Insects .... bee a 230 
FRENZEL, J.—-Wid-qut of Insects and beeen of rn oe aes 231 
CuEsHIRE, F'. R.—Bees and Bee-keeping .... * 233 
Hennessy, H.—Geometrical Construction of the Cell of the Hea Rees : 234 
QuATin: Ji—Labium, of Hymenoptera ay “<u ov ss sv ays oes tags 234 
Emery, C.—Phosphorescence of Luciola italica satiiea'scek sofmmewh kre lene 234 
BEAUREGARD, H.— Researches on the Meloide .. .. . eet? Whee erate nner e 235 
Linprman, K.—Jeromyza saltatrix and Eiachiptera cor ea om soy WSs 237 
ScHnewEr, A.—Parthenogenesis of Chironomus Grimmii  ..  .. 237 
Haass, E.— New Parasite on Iuius .... Sal lphses WL IE cigs bcc aS 237 
Lremorne, V.— Alimentary Tract of hime we slog a sony tthe get a 238 
Fern — Tr acks of Insects simulating Vegetable Grpha toe Ree are Sp 238 
ScuHNEIDER, A.— Development of the Reproductive Organs in Insects .. Part 3 419 
Perez, J.. & A. Sapatrer—Histogenesis in the Ovigerous Sheaths of 
Tess Mee oe Se Rohs Misety cutee, ores 422 
WIELOWIEJSEI, RITTER V. Sonn) of pole a : 5 424 
Ponerasmwa;; OLGa—Heart of Insects “i. . «<< se us be ee egg 424 
Carrinre, J.—Further Observations on Optic Organs .. «6 «ee 5 424 
GAZAGNAIRE, J.—Gustatory Apparatus of Coleoptera ..  .. «ee 455 425 
. » Salevary Glands of Coleoptera .. 1. «6 .. «s 355 426 
BEAUREGARD, H.—WMeloide So Sian uae eerie ek bee tle 426 
Cuatin, J.—Labrum of Figaohonieres az Sueno! tae ees a eae 427 
Car Let, G.—Structure and Movements of Sting of Hee ie See eee, 38 427 
Watter, A.—WMorphology of Mouth-organs of Lepidoptera .. 1. «oy 427 
Lvotant, L.— Vitality of Silkworm Ova .. .. “ 428 
Pouuton, E. B.—Colour-relution between larva of ‘Grier stl Uaiits 
and its Food-plants .... Seite martin ace aercatl vet Tot Lich 429 
Kowatevsny, A.—Limbryology of Barecrites aah met his semeiscedianna athe oss 429 


VIALLANES, H.—Optic Ganglion of some Dipterous Larve .,  .. «1 45 430 


X1V CONTENTS. 


WirLaczit, E.—Anatomy of Psylide .. .. . + Goes bentas 
LF » Morphology and Anatomy of the Coco BO 0) oe =H 

La VALETTE St. GEORGE, v.—Spermatogenesis .. .. .. «  «.. Part4 
Heiper, K.—Germinal Layers in Hydrophilus “ aah“, 
Kowatevsky, A.—Behaviour of Dorsal Vessel during Metamorphosis co ae 
MiLiennorr, K.—Structure of the Honey-Bee’s Cell Bs 
» Storing and Preservation of Honey eS 
PiatTeavu, F.—Palps of Mandibulate Insects Bs Es 
Craccio, G. O.— Minute Structure of the Eyes a Diptera 5 
Duszois, R.— Luminous Elateride = 
Boupier—Honey Dew Ses eal Sipe O Coe) Sig) L toe patente eam ae 

Wixi, L.—Oogenetic Studies .. .. aoe ee eS 
Korscuett, E.— Origin of Cellular Biptedts of Ovaries of Insects - 
Sater, J. W.—Origin of Colours of Insects .. .. .. «. Le 
Grassi, B.—Development of the Bee.. a: 8 
HEINEMANN, C.—Luminous Organs of the Meniean Cine 5 
GAZAGNAIRE, J.—Glands of Insects—A new type of Elastic Tissue 
Pacxkarp, A. S.—Nature and Origin of the Spiral Thread in Trachezw..  ,, 
KtncxeE., J.—Odoriferous Organs of Bed-bug.. .. «. 3 
Pryron, J.—Internal Air of Insects compared with that “ ipeates = 


Dewitz, J.—Regularity of Sperm-movements .. .. so ge oe arteG 

WIELOWIEJSKI, H. Ritter voN—Blood-tissue of Treanis 

Wasmuann, E.—Habits of some Guests of Ants 

Scu6nFreELD—(C@sophagus of the Honey Bee Ce 200) . 

- BeaurecarD, H.—Vesicating Insects BA 

Francois—Larva living without a head 

SprcHaRDT, C.—Development of Male Gendtatine Or gans im Lepitopiens 

Haase, E.—Odoriferous Apparatus of Butterflies 

Jaworowsk1, A.—Postertor Sac-like Appendages of some Lar vat Norte 

Roster, D. A.—fFespiratory System of Odonati ; 

Hoveuton, W., & W. PurLirs—Aphis rumicis and a aie Beene: 
tive of the Aphis 

Trovessart, EH. L. raiopiags m the shafts 3 Birds neq 

Braver, F.—Palxozoic Insects .. : Ain marmot =o 56 

Forses, 8S. A.—Contagious Diseases of Tac 


B. Myriopoda. 


Bourne, G. C.—Anatomy of Sphxrotherium.. .. .. .. «  .« Part2 
Gipson-CarmicHAaEL, T. D.—Anatomy of Myriopoda Ae sone | is 
Haast, E.—WVorphology of Chilopoda .. ; bay hae eae eee ie 


CHALANDE, J.—Respiratory Apparatus of Chilopoda 


Grassi, B.— Morphology of Scolopendrelle : io: Lee 
Hearucore, F. G.—Zarly Development of Iulus fom aie 18 i. Mes enamine 
Samnt-Remy, G.—Grain of Myriopods .. .. Meret Ase Leal (5 


Ratu, O. v.—Sense-organs on antenne and lower lip of ‘Cilognaies 


y. Prototracheata. 
Sepewics, A.—Fertilized Ovum of « 1 Formation of Layers in Peri- 


DOLUSIss soca avai Wipe sola ate y Main!» Wistelite lotas Mots em bar etme 
GarFFrron, EH. eer tilie aie Se ee eamtire 
Sepewick, A.—Development of the Gaps ispecies of Per ‘pate «si oe ab 


KEnNELL, J.—Development of Peripatus.. .. : die 2 oe) rap eee 


PAGE 
431 
433 
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591 
593 
594 
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595 
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970 


970 
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972 


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435 
598 
790 


re CONTENTS. 


§. Arachnida. 


Daut, F.—Duration of Life in Spiders 1. «1 «1 ee we we we ~ Part 
Kinestey, J. S.— Embryology of Limulus... A 
Broogs, W. K., & A. T. Brece—Embryology of Facaabes euenan i 
Ossory, H. L. Sein of Limulus polyphemus ..  ». * 
Howe i, W. H.—Chemical Composition and the Coagulation of the “Blood 

of Limulus, Callinectes, and Cucumaria.. .. no ple WEP 


GuLiann, G. L.—Coxal Gland of Limulus and other Araceae be wok, uss 
Weaue ©.— Peart in Gamadside.. wet we sas oe et oe See Part 2 
Meéentn, P.—Mexican Species of Argas .. .. « . = 
MicHaeEt, A. D.—Life-history of an Acarus one stage citarcop é is s Knol as 
Labidophorus talpe, Kramer ; and upon an unrecorded species of 


Disparipes (Plates Xand XT) 22 cn Ga se ee Sw es, Part 
BertKavu, P.—Coral Glands of Arachnida .. .. 12 « «6 «8 49 
SPuORELL,~T—Classification of Spiders... #2. 20 ‘ca se se. 20 | gg 
Haier, G.—Wites ..  .. scene Sent sa’ in Fae ts + 
MicHaet, A. D.—Acari of the aeuae lyiphage Any aC et ache! Ee 
Locy, W. A.—Development of Agelena uxvia Sh kant ce) Pare ete are 
Samt-Remy, G.—Brain of the Scorpion... ..  .. «2 «oe oF « Part 5 

= »  Nerve-centres of Arachnids tore as OR CE ese 
Howssay, F.—Arterial System of Scorpions ..  .» «1 «6 se #59 
Bruce, A. T.—Zmbryology of Spiders .. «1 2s ue we we weg 
Daun, J.—Psychical Development of Spiders ..  .. 61 an uw 
BeERTKAU, P.—Lyes of Spiders oh SPR eA Shas Pree er cc ey 

a »  Ant-like Spiders Aspe ce SGA “Sent Rohe aly ed Le Balas 
NOMEKEMB W-—Heartof Acarimg <5. s.- sac wel sy ine om, me 


e, Crustacea. 


; 
Woop-Mason, J.—Blind Brachyurous Crustacean... .. .. «. « Partl 
Brooxss, W. K.—WNotes on the Stomatopoda .. .. tem aby 
PackarD, A. S.—Structure of the Brain of Sessile-eyed ruiuccaics aes ahs 
McIytosu, W. C.—Processes formed by Cerapuson Tubularia indivisa.. 
Hauuipurton, W. D.—Blood of Crustacea ..  .. 4. ae ee Sw Part 2 


PackarD, A. 8.—Woulting of the Lobster Sop rack oo ot wa A ees ya 
Gites, G. M.—Cyrtophium calamicola : 


Buppe-Lunp, G.—Terrestrial Isopods ees aie Oa 
ScHNEIDER, R.—Gammarus pulex var. alkene ee ae ge ee. oe 
JOURDAIN, E.—Anatomy of Chloremians ..  .e «6 es wee 


Detace, Y.—Nervous System of Peltogaster c= Cary 
Sorrx, 8. L—Abyssal Decapod Crustacea of the North Atlantic tte eee AES 
Faxon, W.— Revision of the Astacide aE OY Re ha Cae 

Sars, G. O.—‘ Challenger’ Schizopoda A 3 
AURIVILLIUs, C. W. S.—Crustacea Parasitic on Apatite oka Ss 
KatrmMann, A.—Anatomy of the Cytheride ., .. on A 
Cuaus, C.—Structure and Development of Branchipus a Aetetiis .. Part 4 
Brooss, W. K.—‘ Challenger’ Stomatopoda SA ies F 
Korner, R.—New Isopod S6a | Sse Peed eteh i oo 
Grarp, A., & J. BONNIER—Lntoniscus sess 

Bravy, G. S.—Australian Fresh-water Entomostraca ; 
Grarp, A., & Y. DELAGE—Orientation of Sacculina carcini .. 


XV 


377 


438 
599 
791 
973 
974 
O72 
975 
975 
977 
977 


69 

69 

69 

70 
241 
242 
242 
242 
243 
243 
243 
438 
439 
439 
440 
440 
602 
605 
607 
607 
607 
608 


Xvl CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
MArsHALL, C. F.—Physiology of Nervous System of Lobster . bon Le) 
JOURDAN, E.—Germinal Vesicle of Siphonostoma aiploohoeiog: it Rees 7 792 
Grarp, A.—IJnfluence of Rhizocephala on the External Sexual Cumann: 

Dip age HOSE BAY ORES EM ce eh. ge 792 
Dewace, Y.—WNervous System oe Prades} PAM ui ro) Woccl Aa 4) ap 792 
Ryover, J. A.—WVetamorphosis of Homarus americanus .. .. .. .. Part6 978 

x8 a5 Monstrosities amongst Young Lobsters .. 1. «1 + 455 979 
Mercanti, F.—Post-embryonic Development of Telphusa  .. «. + 45 979 
Nuspavum, J.—Development of Oniscus murarius .. ee iS) 
Criaus, C.— Development and Structure v Pedhmentaned I Hes a 

eee : Be cc ne soreike Fe 980 

Vermes. 
MacMonn, C. A—Chromatology of Blood of Invertebrates .. .. .. Part1l 48 
HatscHex, B.—Development of the Trochophore of Eupomatus uncinatus ,, 70 
Betz, F. J.—Lumobrici with bifid ends Seo meats JOA a! ep 71 
SALEnsKy, W.—Development of Branchiobdella  ..  .. «2 «2 ss ‘45 72 
APpEL, W.—Priapulus caudatus and Halicryptus spinulosus 0 te Re 73 
Greer, R.—Pelagic Fauna of the Coast of the Guinea Islands .. .. 4 74 
Hatiez, P.—Development of Nematoids 46, seal wary gee ens 79 
Niemrec, J.—Nervous System of Txniade fai) t oa'e acto eligi ee Ra 75 
Puatez, L.—WNatural History of Rotifers oe ¥ 716 
Davis, H. [& C. T. Hupson |—Desiccation of Batters a sit al eae 78 
Hopson, C! 0, & P. | Gossu— The-Rotiyjernas | 2.) 0 se ee ee 79 
Uns, H “Dipset Pores of Terricolous Oligocheta .. .. .. .. «.. Part2 244 
Sronc, A.—Hyodrilus coccineus .. .. os 4 lies Se ey ae 245 
LANKESTER, E. Ray—Goljingia ect e ab 5 245 
Saint JosEPH, DE—Polycheta of Dinard 5 246 


Lemmy, J.— Worms in Ice... .. da a ee 246 


Linstow, O. v.—WNew Mode of Devale pine) m LN ates 246 
May, J. G. De—WNoies on Nematoids we ‘A 248 
ScHNEIDER, A.—Sphzrularia Bombi.. a 248 


Lixstow, O. v.—New Nematodes and Trematodes .. .. .. 1. 249 


ScHwarzeE, W.—Post-embryonal Development of Trematoda .. 5 249 
OriEy, L.—Entozoa of Sharks and Rays of the Bay of Naples 4 251 
Imuor, O. E.— ae Animals from Fresh-water Pools in Alsace and 

Lorraine Aah Dee 39 251 
Smituson, T.8., & ae D. Wem Te of Melicer ae i Salas 251 
Marton, A. He eavaanvoseue =f naa Fanaa ee 252 
Ka@ater, R., F. J. Bevy, & G. I Dayana De nee ash sarmiensis 2, + 4, 252 
JAQuEeT, M.—Vascular System of Annelids .. .. .. .. « «. DPart3 442 
Wurman, C. O.—Germ-layers of Clepsine ~ PMs er) nar \ Gan!) oy 443 
Dvti~LevL, G.—Genital System of Pontobdella ..  . Bop a oomen A; 443 
Vespovsky, F.—Clussification and Morphology of the Oligo BE ate 7 444 
Benuam, W. B.—tudies on Earthworms.. ..  ..  . 35 ER Ae On 444 
BovsFIELD, EH. C.—Slavina and Ophidonais MMMM LIN sez yslyole 445 
Roupr, E.—WMusculature of Chetopoda 2. .. 6. s- «s» ts «6 ‘gy 445 
Rove, L.— Development of Dasychone lucullana i 446 
SeLenKA, E.—‘ Challenger’ Gephyrea Es 447 


CosgoLp, T. 8.—Strongylus Avnet .. .. ae tit 5, 447 
ScHAUINSLAND, H.—Lmbryonic Development of Bothr iocephndee) L 448 


> CONTENTS. 


Hatiez, P.—New Sense-organ in Mesostoma 

Jaworowsk1, A.— Mesostoma personatum 

Puessis, G.—Fresh-wuter Monotide .. 

Lorp, J. E.—Rotifers 

F., M—Keeping Melicerta einen iia 

Beren, R. 8.—Generative Organs of Eurthworms 
(eee Ovum of Clepsine and Gnathobdellidz 

Wurman, OC. O.—Leeches of Japan.. : 

Bereu, R. 8.—Metamor phan of Aulostoma glo 

HaAswe tu, W. A, 

Bepparp, F. E. Bis Sate: ies and Oviducts of Eudrilus 

Sarnt-Lour, R.—New Ichthyobdellid 


M‘tnrosu, W. C., & R. Marcus Gunn— Challenger Polycheta.. 


Husrecut, A. A. W.—Embryology of the Nemertinea 
Pecunin, N.—Filaria terminalis dg “he 
Buancuarp, R.—Notes on Entozoa .. 

Hamann, O.—Anatomy of Jenia lineata.. ; 
DvTILLEUL, G.—Genital Organs of Pontobdella mur ah 
Grarr, L. v.—Turbellaria of Lesina 

Navsen, F.—Anatomy and Histology of Myzostom da 
ZACHARIAS, O.—New Rotifer ..  .. ae 


Kewuicotr, D.S.—New Floscule .. . feed 
Wuitman, C. O.—Differentiating Embryonic Ticaties 
OERLEY, L.— The Rhabditide 


phorus “F 
Fritscu, G.— Parastios of aah UrUus .. 
Boumic, L.—Studies on Rhabdocel Turbellarians 
Dewace, Y.— Histology of Acclous Rhabdocela 
Remy bE Sarnt-Lourp—Cephalic Pits of Nemertines 
Korotnerr, A.—Ctenoplana Kowalevshii 
Bug, F. JerrreEY—Bipalium kewense 
Hastines, W. N.—Floscularia ornata “a a 
ZAcHARIAS, O.—Revivification of Rotatoria and Tardigr es a 
Barnson, W.—Development of Balanoglossus .. 
Cuworostanky, U.—Genital Organs of Hirudo and eaigicona 
NEvULAND, C.—Reproductive Organs of Earthworms 
VIALLANES, H.—Endothelium of Lumbricus and Arenicola 
Bepparp, F. E.—Acanthodrilus Layardi 

is Microchxta rappi.. .. 
Bmwnay, W. B.—Studies on Ear tenes : 
Bepparp, F. E.— Variations in Perionyx onan 
Stoic, A.—Anatomy of the Naidomorpha ae 
Roupr, E.—Histology of the Nervous System of Cheet: pt = 
JourDAN, E.—Antennz of Eunicide 
VIALLANES, H.—Branchial Skeleton of Sabella 
ZirTe.L, K. v., & J. V. Ronon—Conodonts 
RIETSCcH, Me dee Gephyrea or Echiuroids .. 
Verspovsky, F.—Morphology of the Gordiidz .. : 
Liystow, O. v.—Jntermediate Host of Ascaris lumr is 
PENNETIER, G.— Vitality of Smut-Anquillule.. .. 4. 
Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. 


» ‘Part 3 


Porter, J.—Zzcretory and Nervous System af Dut lacus and Soleno- 


xvil 


PAGE 
449 
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» 988 


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XVill CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Niemtec, J.—WNervors System of Cestodes.. .. so» «« «s « « Part6 989 
GiarD, A.—New Parasitic Rhabdocel .. 1. 1° «ee 1» «2 «8 99 990 
We pon, W. F. N.—Dinophilus gigas .. ; pad hlahamens 991 
ZACHARIAS, O.—Spontaneous Division in Fresh- ae Planaiene be oa 991 
SaLensky, W.—Structure and Metamorphosis of Pilidium 6 992 


Bourne, A. G.—WModification of the Trochal Disc of the Rotifera .. .. 45 993 
Miunr, W.—Defectiveness of the Eye-spot as a means of generic distinc- 
NOD OD HG IEIONIOOENEDI 3 0 994 


KOoueErR, R.— Affinities of Belomontonsrs 5 es 995- 
“5 », Littoral Fauna of the Channel [sl als is Nepal SN Nata 996 
Betz, F. J.—Bipalium kewense Per rie me eben AGL ng!) oa ps LOG 


Echinodermata. 


Haacke, W.—Radial Disposition of Meduse and Echinodermata .. .. Part1 48, 
Howe.., W. H.—Hezmoglobin in Echinoderms i BM tcp 79 


Ayers, H.—Structure and Function of the Spheridia of Rooee 80 
Dunoan, P. M.—Ambulacra of Diadematide .. og STR toe areata ones 80 
PrrRier, H.—Star-fishes of the ‘ Talisman’ .. earch oy cy) _ 80 
Sarasin, C. F. & P. B—Zchinoid covered with Coupee Byes « o Patt 2) 203 
MertscuniKkorr, E.— Wandering-cells of Echinoderms .. .. . ee op 253 
Hertwic—I/nfluence of Gravity on the Division of Cells .. Bia high 254 ~ 
Duncan, P. M.—Perignathic Girdle of Echinoidea.. .. . pee) gy 204 
Monier-CHatmas—Apical Area of some Cretaceous ee Ti etary 

’ Echinids .. .. SPCR RI Gps y ba.'s\ op 254 
Grarr, L. von—Defor mitees of Fossil Chine rote <h  e 255 
Wacusmuty, C., & F. SpRINGER— Revision of the Balieoornoaee Hard cp 255 
Provuo, H. EN penis System of Echinus acutus .. . oi . Part 3 450 
Sarasin, C. F. & P. B.— New Echinothurid and its Poiso-opparatas ss 451 
Hamann, O.—WNew Organs of the Echinida 7a 452, 


3 »  Lransversely striated Muscles in Kohintda oie: >| Basse crane aaa 452 
Barrois, J.— Development of Comatula mediterranea .. .. .. « Part4 622 
Hamann, O.—WNerve-terminations, Sense-organs, and Clans m the 

Pedicellariz of Echinids .. : creo ejepes een tite eis ates 622 
BEDDARD, F'’. E.—Striated Muscles in the Honinida © 0 SOh ep 623 


Frewkes, J. W.—Development of Ophiopholis and Echinar dela: > 623 
Perrier, H.—Organization of Star-fishes.. Pa ema Het i= ny 624 
ProvHo, H.— Vascular System of Spatangus purpureus .. .. 1. 0s 4 625 
KorHier, R.—Circulatory System of Hchinoids .. .. .. .. .. Part5 801 
Duncan, P. M.—Hamann’s Researches on the Echinoidea .. .. .« 45 802 
Provuo, H.— Vascular System of Dorocidaris papillata .. .. . . 802 
Curnot—Functions of Ovoid Gland, Ticdemann’s ara and Putian 
Vesicles of Asterida.. OM ities pment 802 
Drnpy, A.—Regeneration of Visceral ras im sherds TOSACCUS te: ene 803 
Carpenter, P. H.— Variations in the form of Cirri in Comatule .. ... 4 803 
3 Comatule of the * Willem Barents’ iigecanren do. oF £03 
verre H.—Holothuroidea of the ‘ Challenger’ BOM Osco co oo) Letty O) OOS 
Lupwic, H.—Six-rayed Holothurians .. ta) tee cles A eee 997 
Kouuer, R.—Circulatory System of Owniurine® Latase pitied ed 4065 997 


Wacusmutn, C., & F. SpRINGER— Revision of the Pulses 


_ CONTENTS. 


Ccelenterata. 


Haackn, W.—Radiul Disposition of Meduse and Echinodermata .. 
PENNINGTON’ s(A.8.) ‘ British Zoophytes’ 

Gorrtr, A.—Development of Aurelia aurita and Cot, orca einica Bc 
Hvusrecat, A. A. W.—New Japanese Pennatulid . 

MarsHauit, Mitnes—Sexual Organs of Hydra : 
Metscunikorr, E.—Gastrula and Mesoderm of Gimaphordee : 

Fow er, G. H.—Anatomy of the Madreporaria 

Cuun, C.— Cyclic Development of oes 

MeETscunikorr, E.—WMVedusx : 

ALLMAN, G. J.—New Hydroids.. 

_ Ryper, J. A.—New fresh-water Celenter Lae a Ryders. 
Erpmann, A.—New Zoanthee .. 

DanieEtssen, D. C., & J. Koren—WNorth Atlante Peautabils 
Brooxs,. W. K.— Origin of Metagenesis in Hydromedusx 

Bepot, M.—Nematocysts in the Siphonophora.. ie 

Sciatrer, W. L.—Stephanotrochus moseleyanus Py oar 

Korotnerr, A.—Polyparium ambulans 

Ussow, M.—WNew Form of Fresh-water Gnledterate ; ; 
Koon, G. v.— Relation between the Skeleton and the Tissues in Madr ee es 
Cuats, C.—Classification of the Meduse .. gh Wes 3 

Haacke, W.— Ontogeny of Cubomeduse .. .. al Soh 
Kraavscn, H.—Formation of a new stalk in Tubularia ee See 
Hickson, 8. J.—Clavularia viridis... PE ee ee eae 
Fow er, G. H.—Anatomy of the Wateuatavn 

Cuaus, C.— Ctenophora g. shs ci ey 


Porifera. 
LENDENFELD, R. v.—Australian Homocela and the Homodermidx 
Perr, F.—Spongilla fragilis ..  .. Co ae! Od MR ae 
Potts, E.—Fresh-water Sponges from Hers ae 
Vosmasr’s (G. C.J.) Sponges .... ae 


Vespovsky, F.— Observations on Fresh- ileseee Seon ges LD a: 
Carter, H. J.—Sponges from South Australia aan ' tek Mira tim FS bee 
Poéra, P.—Siliceous Sponge-spicules from the Chalk <s 
» »  Sponge-spicules from the Horn-stone of Priisan .. .. 
Scuuize, F. E.—Relationship between Sponges and Choanoflagellata 
Scumipt, O.—Origin of new species owing to the loss of older characters 
LENDENFELD, R. v.—WNervous and Muscular Systems of Horny Sponges 
Scuuuze, F. E.—Oscarella lobularis (0, Schmidt) var, cerulea 
LENDENFELD, R. v.—Sponge destructive of Oysters... 
re Australian Sponges .. 
SoLas, W. J.—Sponge Spicules ; 
= Fe Artificial deposition “ Crystal of ‘Calcite on pice of 
Calci-sponge J Ha Se 
FRANTISEK, F'.—Sponges of Boheme, Sek aspera 
Soiuas, W. J.—Classification of Sponges .. és 
Hever, K.—Wetamorphoses of Oscarella lobularis 
Gortr, A.—Relationship of Sponges .. rf 
WierzeEssk1, A.—Sponge-gemmules ..  .. ww ee 


. 


Past 5 


” 


. Part 6 


Part 4 


xix 


XX CONTENTS. 


LENDENFELD, R. v.— Vestibule of Dendrillu cavernosa 
3 » Gigantic Sponge ; 
5 -5, Sponge mith remarkable salen arg power 
% »  Mimicry in Sponges 


,, Alga forming a Pseudomorph of a ‘Siliceous Sponge 


Can. H. J.—Sponges from South Australia 

Gortr, A.—Development of Sponges : 
Lamer, W.—New Tetractinellid Sponge with aaa oe ae 
Denpy, A., & S. O. RipbEy—WNew Vonaxonid Sponge .. 

Carter, H. J.—Sponges from Port Phillip Heads .. 6 06 
Hinpz, G. J.—Greensand Beds of Sponge remains .. ..  .. as 


Protozoa. 


Bbrscuxt, O.—Glycogen in the Protozoa . 


Fount, 8. G.— Reproduction of ee cath (alee salles Ee 
Entz, G.—The lintinnodea .. .. stop) aie mee ie 
Stones, A. C.—New Symbiotic Infusorian 


io i New Fresh-water Infusoria 


Wattuicu, G. C.—Critical observations on Leidy’s < Phestiucaen ieee 
of North America’ and Classification of the ee m ala 


BrayLey, E. B.—Abnormal Ameba.. 

Fours, S. G.—Fndoparasite of Noteus .. 
Burson.’ 8 (O.) ‘ Protozoa’ Bs 
Pritzner, W.—WNuclear Division in Proioe an Ais 
Maupas, HK —Glycogen in Ciliated Infusoria .. 


Fasre—Dinlytic Properties of the Membrane of the Cyst oF Tnjucones ie 


GRENFELL, J. G.— Temporary Encystment among Infusoria.. 
BLANCHARD, R.—Letoparusitic Peritrichous Infusorian.. 
Povucuet, G.—Peridiner .. Bema oor bd 
Stokes, A. C.—Peridinium and athe Infuse A) 00) 46 ‘or 

of A New Infusoria . see ei MMe Se ta 
Fasre-Domercur, P.—New Ciliated Jnfuconins Aqeirod uo 

»  Microthorax auricula.. 

HALLEZ, P. —WNew Rhizopod a 
Nusspaum, M.—Spontancous and Apical Dao 
BLANCHARD, R.—Sarcosporidia 
KUnstueR, J.—New Sarcodine .. 
Mzenin, P.—Pathogenic Role of certain Pauesonern ms a 
Bursennis |(O))\ePratozod aa) 0y.ae eee ae 
Braver, A.—Bursaria truncitella .. .. .. 1s es 
Canu, E.—Spirochona i i 
Burtscuut, O., & HE. AskENASY—Characters of the Cilio- agelaee 
Dapay, E. ee idium : 
Juuien, A. A.—Phosphorescent Flag pellete Wnfusonen 
Fiszer, Z.— Pulsating Vacuoles of Infusoria .. 
GrusBeR, A.—Protoplasmic Layers in Rhizopoda 
BaLKwIiL., F. P., & J. Wricut—Recent Lrish eeaniosere, 
Dercuter—Parasitie Protozoa in Asthmatic Sputa.. 
Grassi, B.—Protozoan Parasites in Termites .. 
Mauvpas, H.— Amyloid Granules of Gregarinida 


PAGE 

. Part 5 810 
4 810 

Bree earl 

a 811 

x 811 

: és 812 
. Part 6 1000 
» 1000 

» 1001 

» 1001 

» 1001 
Part 1 83 

” 83 

- 84 
odes 

» 85 

” 85 

rene 

” 86 

} 86 
4 Pane 258 
260 

56 260 

Fr 260 

“ 260 

49 261 

FA 261 

e 262 

a 262 

» 263 

Pe 263 

55 264 

35 265 

- 265 

5 265 
wate 266 
.. Part 3 459 
35 460 

a 460 

5p 462 

A 462 

3 463 

x 464 

i 464 

i 464 

% 464 


» 465 


CONTENTS, Xxl 


PAGE 
GrusBer, A.—Physiology and Biology of Protozoa... .. .. «. « Part+ 630 
Biscuit, O.—WMorphology of Vorticelline and allied Ciliata et a 632 
WILLE, N.—Species of Chromulina as Stages of Palmella ..  ..  .. 45 633 
Imuor, O. E.—Wicroscopie Pelagic Animals of the Mediterranean .. 5 633 
Sroxes, A. C.—MNew Fresh-water Infusoria .. 6. 66 ue ewe 633 
Kexuicort, D. 8.—Fresh-water Infusoria Pe 634 
DaniLewsky, B.—Parasites of the Blood ; o 635 
Suerpory, C. D., & F. Coapman—On some Microzoa fr om ‘the meen 

Clay, ezposed in the Drainage Works, Piccadilly, London, 1885. 

Chlatesei VEX. igs, Lot=VOGy ee Tian se) we ee ee Barto Tor 
Maupas, E.— Conjugation of Ciliated Infusoria 6p Torsha’) tad ak er: 812 
Dapay, E. v.—Infusoria of the Gulf of Naples .. 12 60 see gg 813 
Cunnincuam, D. D.—Aerial Habits of Eugene ete tein Sea de 813 
LENDENFELD, R. v.—Australian Fresh-water Rhizopoda aortas tse 815 
Fouin, DE—Amphistegina of Porto Grande 5 815 
Zorr’s (W.) Monadina 35 815 


CrooksHank, E. M.—Flagellated Pratae oa in the Blood of Seed 
and Apparently Healthy Animals. (Plate XVIT., § Figs 193-199) Part 6 913 
Rosserer, T. B.—On Trichodina as an Endoparasite. (Plate XVIIL.)  ,, 929 


GruBeER, A.—Significance of Conjugation in the Infusoria .. 4. «. 4, . 1002 
Mavpas, E.— Conjugation of Paramecium... ao a LOO 
Harker, A.—Zoocytium or Gelatinous Matrix of Oph inane ver, satile Stee cp UE: 
Se.ico, A.—Flagellatu sith aes) Pear eae wan Nee lec. seam hOOEE 
KRASSILSTSCHIK, J.—New Plageltate eer, Sete yard C5. 
Watuicu, G. C.—Lndogenous and Exogenous Deteints in ee 3»  LOUG 
PacHINGER, A.—WNotes on Sporozoa.. .. Se ee Wag) Peas eas ean ee LOG 
Biocumann, F.—WNew Species of iFeisabadotels rT ooh coe men LLG 
DANILEWSKY, W.—Parasites of the Blood 1. 1. 4s ue wee 1006 


BOTANY. 


A.—GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology of the Phanerogamia. 
a, Anatomy.* 


Vries, H. pe—New Organ in Protoplasm ya hogtied be oe ate. ES 
Koat, F. G.— Distribution of Protoplasm in the Cet Parts of Plants ,, 87 
BamBEKE, C. van—Structure of the Cell-nucleus ‘ es 87 
BERNIMOULIN, E.—Division of the Cell-nucieus in Tradesc ee 5 87 
KossE., A.—Chemistry of the Cell-nucleus  .. 6. 4n su te te gy 87 


Scuuncz, E.—Chemistry of Chlorophyll .. 33 88 
Tim1rRiAzEFF, C.—Colourless Chlorophyll .. ma 88 
TscuitrcuH, A.— Researches on Chlorophyll * 88 


Rernke, J.—Crystallizability of aie Ac cae eer ee, 89 
Kraus, J.— Solub’e Starch” .. ce ce ee eee 89 
Mouiscu, H.— Proteinaceous Boies in Pion. 2 89 


* This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm (including the 
Nucleus and Cell-division); (2) Other Cell-contents (including the Cell-sap and 


Chlorophyll); (8) Secretions ;*(4) Structure of Tissues; and (5) Structure of 
Organs. 


Xxii CONTENTS. 


Kraus, G.—Formation of Gum-Arabic 1. 46 on ne ew 
Berruerot & G. ANDRE—Ozalic Acid in Plants .. 4. «2 «2 
_ Ko6prrrt, O.—Growth and Increase of Crystals in Plants cio rete 
Mosivus, M.—Spherocrystals of Calcium oxalate in the Cactace® .. .. 
SoLEREDER, H.—Anatomy of Combretacee .. tae tera 
RorsEert, W.—Comparative Anatomy of the Sip ee Rigeoae in 
Herbaceous Plants .. 
Haupt, F.—Anatomical Structure of the Stem is a Under ous 
Stolons .. .. o Ee ce 
DeENNERT, E.— Anatomy of the Stem of Crrcipane ANAS Bee 5 
KLeKcker, J. H. F. ar—Anatomy of Ceratophylium ; 
Guinier, E.— Form of the Stem of Dicotyledons and Conifers 
Weiss, J. E.—Formation of Cork : 
GERBER—Annual Formation of Cork in aienn 
Kassner, G.—Pith of Woody Plants .. .. 
Ercuizr, A. W.—Development of Palm-leaves.. 
HernricHer, E.—Contrivances for Storage of Water in the ee 
Kny, L.—Relative Resisting-power of the Upper and Under Surfaces of 
Leaves .. ; 
3 9 Lrotection of Lewes ‘against Ae Mechanice Morn of Rain 
and Hail .. . 
SoutHworrn, HE. A <Dewalsinani of the Sonu of fhe Oat 
Kraus, G.—Contents of Sieve-tubes .. pole 
Mesnan, T.—Heterophylly of Quercus poinaite 
Lrncrrten, A. V.—Organs of attachment of Ampelopsis 
ARCANGELI, G.— Absorbing Hairs of Dipsacus.. .. .. 
Kienast, H.—Oil-receptacles of Hypericum and Ruta ac 
Daniel, J—atra-floral Nectaries in Gunnera .. «1 26 
Cos, D. Lopate of the Calyx .. .. 69. (00 
Moetus, M.—Shimmer of the Petals of Rinineice aha fieueeete 
PLANTA, A. DE—Composition of Pollen .. .. « oF « 
ZACHARIAS, E.—Ovum-cells and Antherozoids .. Hestikes 
Martiroxo, O.—“ Luminous Line”’ in the Seed of Malpighiaceee 3 


55 » Seminal Integuments of Tiliacer .. .. set ders 
% »  Suberification in the Seminal Integument of Tilia 
"Harz, C. O.—Lignification of the Testa of Seeds .. 1. . 
BERGERON, J.—Strobili of Walchia piniformis.. .. aH loa 


.Sotms-Lavpacu, GRAF zU—Sexual Differentiation in the Fig 
Vaiss, H. pse—Wovements of Protoplasm in Tissue-cells.. 
Scuuncr, E.— Chemistry of Chlorophyll .. 1. «+ 
Jopin, V.—Studies on Chlorophyll ..  .. 
Fiscuer, A.—Contents of Sieve-tubes .. .. . 
Baccarint, P.—Colouring Matters of Plants .. .. 
Linpt, O.—Pigiment-bodies in Neottia nidus-avis .. 
Weiss, A.— Occurrence of Calcium Oxalate in the Epidermal Cells - 

Acanthacee .. Ad) «od Sn closes 
Wiesner, J.—Formation of Gum m iret 
Barpaciia, G. A.— Wax of Box-leaves .. 
GARDINER, W.—Stimulation of Gland-cells in entaes of proses 
dichotoma .. : 
Scorr, D. H.—Ar Deiateg Lehner ous ona 


oe ee ee ae oe oe 


Part 2 266 


267 
267 
268 
268 
268 


269 
269 
269 


269 
270 


CONTENTS. XXxili 


PAGE 
Kirrperc, A.— Medullary Rays of Conifers .. .. «2 « «  « Part2 270 
Preuss, P.—Leaf-stalk and Cushion., ..  . re samy Vicon Mere Aare 271 
WissELINGH, C. vaN—Structure of Bindiedheat® See eae Some cakes aie 271 
BRuNcHORsT, J.—Tubercles on the Roots of Dagindiasnade Oreesee. haste itye 271 
* 55  Lubercles on the Roots of the Alder .. .. 7 272 
Lawrence, P. E., & C. S. Rappin — Cell-markinys as Specie 
Characters of Egogenous Trees... oe ve ee mn iS 272 
DCHENOK, Hj—Diology.of Water-planis 2. se) we en es ue ce tg 272 
Dercaany, C.—Pollen-tubes és se SPS oy As 273 
Merenan, T.— White-seeded Variety of the Fionisyclacias a tack > 273 
WILHELM—Germinative Power of Seeds after exclusion 2 Air and Dr; Pe 
at High Temperatures .. .. 0 A OCRed, OR ea 273 
KronFewp, M.—Distribution of the Fruits of Composite Ste Game cate ee 274 
Caspart, H.—Zpidermal System of Cactacex . TOM i ee ie See 274 
Scuusen, T.—Anatomy of Leafless Plunts SR adr teach wr ae ge 274 
-Lupwiac, F.—Flowers of Figs .. .. 40, ace 274 


Kramer, A.—/ruit-scales of Compionsinces onl Placenta of Abie me Sees 275 
Mautert, A.—Structure of the Leaves and Stomata in Conifere .. .. 4, 276 


Exper, G.—Peculiar Epidermal Organ Pinkie Gris Ores Game OL ae 277 
Tscutrcu, A.—Aril and Seed Ofpuher Nac lMmeyix cer one octet oy Aso oe 277 
Dincirer, H.—Phuilociades of Phyllanthus  .. 12 oe un eee gg 277 
Moors, 8. Le M.—Continuity of Protoplasm.. .. .. .. «. « Part3 466 
Wicann, A.—Currents.of Protoplasm .. 1. ss 00 oe newegg 466 
Mixoscu, K.— Origin of Chlorophyll-grains .. 2 se ae ue weg 467 
Hansen, A.— Amount of Chlorophyll in Leaves... prise 467 


TimIRIAZEFF, C.—Chlorophyll and the reduction of Cimon ‘Acid. eed 468 
Bonntzr, G., & L. Mancin—Action of Chlor syle in the Ultra-Violet 


eanuihy rey he Taft Toshi peal Jen aay aks 468 
Minrz, A.—LZlements of eee in ‘Plants outer Se » 469 
Moors, S. Lz M.—Rosanoff’s Crystals in Bacoanetereacils of Manihot 

Glaziouwwi .. . sas Gee aety Brace es 3 470 
Scuuuze, E., & E. BossHarp—Allantoin, erage Hh sia taarore ‘an 

Guditi mPlanise? soy Aesly ser, sisi SEERA Msetw) coat Ueto lees 470 


ANDREE, A.—Eucretion of Salts from Deane ae airy mC Beit (re 470 
Groom, P.—Growing-point of Phanerogams ... 1. 4. os te weg 470 
ScHEencK, H.—Lining of Intercellular Passages .. «2 «2 0s 00 oy 471 


Mann, R.—Capacity of Bark for Swelling .. oe sg 471 
Beccoari, O.—‘ Ant-plants” of the Indo-Malayan Aroipelag anil New 

Guinea a) see | Sete ost t's Ba eres Th 5 471 
Prrorra, R.—Dimorphism of ee Ane te Regt amet vt 472 
VocutTiIne, H.—Causes of the Zygomorphy of ee EqNCIe el Weewee os 472 
Griss, J.—Bud-Scales of Conifers .. .. igh hes cae 472 
Brcr, G.—Mechanism for the Opening of Potts easiies BE Bcc thas 472 
JANCZEWSEI, E. DE—Dorsiventral Structure of the Roots of Or eaten. ¥ 473 
Mier, Fritz—Roots acting as Leaves... .. Jermniw 473 
Henstow, G.—Vernation and Methods of Devens of Rekags as 

protective against Radiation .. .. bares Piss 473 
Hom, T.—Anatomy and Morphology of iad AE Raooki tation 1.2 Nies 474 
CosTaNTIN, J.—Leaves of Sagittaria ., te el PAN ena aes 474 


Dauitzcu, M.— Anatomy of the Leaves of Avoids ie ok ees 474 
Sraby, L.—Closing of the Scar ufter the Fall of the Tent «) Jan Eee ss 474 


XXIV CONTENTS, 


PAGE 
Vriss, H. pe—Plasmolytic Studies of the Membrane of Vacuoles.. .. Part 4 637 
55 o Aggregation of Protoplasm in Drosera .. .. ee ams 638 


HorrMann, R.—Jnfluence of Mechanical Forces on Cell-division, ie ae ho 639 
Scuimper, A. F. W.—Chlorophyll-grains and Chromatophores step ate a 640 
Meyer, A.—Formation of Starch-grains in leaves se Sugar, Memnite. 


and Glycerin .. wie) eke em eae 642 
Laurent, E.—Formation of Sianeh ae of. Giseaa gee See ess 643 
WESTERMAIER, M.—VFunction of Tannin .. 1» 6. se te es SS 643 
Puanta, A. v.—WNectar .. .. zee lisa) “a ot a Seer 5 643 
GREEN, 7. R.—Proteid Substance in fate oe ales Bete 644 
SSE E., & EH. BossHarp—WNew Nitrogenous Constitient of Piantate as 644 
MENTOVICH, B, v.—Pith of Dicotyledons..  .. sin na 8 oa en SR ee 
Mapius, M.—Wechanical Sheaths of Secreting Vessels sje) ‘GES pee ee 645 
ZacHE, E.—WMedullary Rays of Dicotyledons ..  .. 11 ss es we SCD 
BEYERINCK, M. W.—WNormal Root-buds .. 1. 66 se we we egg 645 
VELENOVSEY, J.—Serial Buds .. .. . i hal a “e 646 
Linde, O.— Anatomical Structure of Cee oot Pr eric Any 646 
Cuos, D.—Partition of the Avis ..  .. aes ages 647 
Darwin, F.—Relation between the Bloom on Tomes and ‘the Distr bution 

of the Stomata sei Veah) il eee “he an 0) cit ae mae ne ee 647 
WooLs, W.—Double Flowers vj cmd” ele, oe) on) yee 647 © 
Mernan, T.—Superposed Stamens ..  . 25! gat ea es eagles 648 
Panta, A. y.— Composition of the Pollen of the Pine Soa, ass 648 
Famintzin, A., & D. S. ee of the Ash ai the 

Pollen of Pinus sylcestris ne 5 ue ae Be ee 33 648 
Lunpstrom, A. N.—AHeterocarpous yatits ail‘) vale’? rela ga eter eee Remee S mnEy 648 
PammMeEL, L. H.— Testa of Leguminous Seeds 1, 11 0s oe weg 649 


M‘Nazs, W. i — Vegetable Metagencsisis seem esis) els eee 649 
Wiesner, J.—Structure of the Cell-wall ., .. « « «o « « Partd 818 
Beuzune, E.— Development of Starch in Plants ae in the dark.. 4, 819 
Durowur, J.—Svluble Starch .. .. aks face 819 
Mtnrz, ae — Occurrence of the Elements of Metiouyar in ani: We ah cae 820 
Hanausex, T. F., & R. Czermax—Reactions of three Red bees 


Pigments vey ce. ise) vont ae yap ai tae teat Mice matey aie 820 
VUILLEMIN, P. See a PME MR ice oe. 255 820 
x »  Pericycle of Car jonni vie bel Reie2 ny ihets arr Stains 820 
Desray, F.—Fibrovascular Bundles of Piperacee .. .. 5 821 
Van Tizcuem, P.—Fibrovasculur Bundles and ca ee Nepean of 
the Nympheaceze .. ; AED oO. ot. | 821 
VUILLEMIN, P.—Secreting S, stem of Ya: wataile KGa neat re 822 
Prrotta, R., & F. ee Vessels as Assimanane 
Onde Ae for Be ele: lata a ee 822 
Douptey, P. H. = Duels m Cstuieaased | De its 822 
GIRARD, A.—Superficial extent of the Tie aad) Par ts of ‘Plants op 822 
Jouow, F.—Non-chlorophyllaceous Saprophytes .. . doe eas 822 
LEcLERC DU SABLON—Fall of Branches of the White Pose on seme 823 
Trout, A.—First Vessels in the Leaves of Crucifers .. .. + o 9 823 
CosTANTIN, J.—Structure of the Leaves of Water-lilies., .. «1 «+ 9 823 
DccHARTRE, P.—Tendrils of Cucurbitacee 1. ss .s ss 08 «8 49 $23 
Prout, P:—Glands of Bunias Erucayo: 3. fen be 


Boum, J.—Turgidity of the Pithand Leaf ., 1. 1s an we we Say 824 


CONTENTS. 


Durovr, L., & L. Mer—ZJnfluence of Light on the Structure of Leaves 
and on the number of Stomata ot ey Hoe et Soni 

CosTaNntin, J.—IJnfluence of Water on the Number of Stonnata 

Urpan, J.—Biology of Unilateral Inflorescences eS. 

Hecke, E., & F. ScHLAGDENHAUFFEN—Lecithin in Ponte Sieh EE 

ApraHam, M.—Thickening of the wall of Epidermal Cells of Crucifere . 

WIssELINGH, C. VAN—Endoderm 

Remuarnpt, M. O.—Conducting-tissue in some eee. oats of Mone 
cotyledons .. 

Tscuircu, A.—Mechanical i en Bes SRA catentte. OS 

WieLER, A.—Cambium of the Medullary Rays Ne ih eee a 

STABY, E: —Closing of the Scar after the Fall of the toe 

Nixusson, A.—Assimilating System of the Stem : 

HeEraiL, J.—Comparative Anatomy of the Stem of Dizoteiledons 

SoLereDeR, H.— Value of the Structure of the Wood as Divot) Lime ks oe 
Classification . ph “2 BE 

ScurnDueR, F.— Tubercles on the Roots of Papi fonacee. . 

ScoumMann, K.—Causes of the various kinds of Aisteontion 

Famintzin, A.—Formation of Buds in Phanerogams 

HABERLANDT, G.—Anatomy and Physiology of Stinging Bind 

MUier, O. —Tendrils of Cucurbitacer 

REICHE, 3s — Changes in the Perianth durin 7 the D. velopment of the 


B. Physiology.* 
Manton & pe Sarorta—Lvolution of Phanerogams ot 
Hami.ton, A. G. [& E. Haviranp|—Fertilization of eee: a 


TanGL, E.—Zndosperm of Grasses .... ope OF 
PENHALLOW, D. P.—Distribution of eee ane of ree in Bere 
tion to Diseases eis soy ain ee 


Fuicue, P., & L. Granpeau—Food-mater ial of the Dios, 

Meyer, A.—Products of Assimilation of the Leaves of Angiosperms 

Kraus, G.—Function of Tannin... 

Herne, H.— Physiological Functions of the Star ‘ch- aa 

alas J.—Growth of Leaves ..  .. Eee EG Rice) nce 

ec of Electricity on  Oroiths. hs ated kore Bose 

Firrsocen, J.—Influence of Calcium Sulphide on Barley 

Cootry, G. E.—Movement of Water in Plants 

Koun, F. G.— Conduction of Water. dt 

Kraus, C.—Conduction of Sap ieee the Roots Me 

BRUNCHORST, J.—Galvanotropism .. «1 ee nes 

VeESQUE, J.— Variations of Transpiration .. 

BertHeE.ot & G. ANDRE—Witrates in Plants .. - : 

GrREnANT, N., & J. ee et of the ee in F Hing ane 
aainaaed Leaves 

Kraus, C.—Amphid-Substances in the Sap of Plants 


Bid 


” 


. Part 1 


XX¥ 


PAGE 


. Part 5 824 


824 
824 


Part 6 1007 


1007 
1008 


1008 
1608 
1009 
1009 
1010 
1010 


1011 
1011 
1011 
1012 
1012 
1012 


1013 


99 
100 
100 


100 
101 
101 
102 
102 
102 
103 
103 
104 
104 
104 
104 
104 
105 


105 
105 


* This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction (including the formation of 
the Embryo and accompanying processes); (2) Germination; (3) Nutrition; 
(4) Growth; (5) Respiration; (6) Movement; and (7) Chemical processes 


(including Fermentation). 


XXvl CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
PrinesHEem, N.—Llimination of Oxygen from Plants .. .. .. « Partl 105 
Terxemra, J. F.— New Alcoholic Ferment which does not invert sugar 26 105 
Paumert & Comes—Fermentation in the Living Sugar-cane .. Es 105 
Wiesner, J.—Gum-ferment, a new diastatic Enzyma Friars ss: ‘hoy 106 
HABERLANDT’S (G.) ‘ Physiological Anatomy of Plants’ a can eal 
Dopet-Port, A.—Lzcretion of masses of Sexual Panis nefane and 

during Impregnation 56 on wie ge Newt eee WME eee teen 
STRASBURGER, E. Fp vedere Boe ope hast s yas 0 279 
CaLLoni, S.—Unisexual Flowers and Mecenent of the ‘Statione in 

Anemone .. * 279 
Forses, H. O.—Self- fertilization m Or ciao ve 280 
Kuess, G.—Worphology and Physiology of Cornero 1 280 
Scurmmerr, A. EF. W.—Formation and Transport of Canbondnatee m the 

Leaves .. Aeohs ao no | Ge és 280 
Timrriazerr, C. Ser pchons of Chlorophyll “ 281 
Orp, W. M.—Temperature of Growing Fruits.. ..  . nA 281 
DexeEratn, P. P., & L. Maquenne—fespiration of haere in ie Dark y 282 
PFEFFER, W. —ifrenpalvaaniiny Respiration Baran, Meo wns’ 9p 282 
Esse Eee. G., & L. Manc1n—Fespiration of Pits URC AG Sor, Ge 5 282 
Montson, H. eaten 283 
ZIMMERMANN, A.—Godlewski’s Theory a the Motion = Water m Plants Pe 283 
Nout, F.—Circumnutation of Etiolated Seedlings 5 283 
Dorovr, J.—/nfluence of Gravitation on the Movement of Floral naan ss 283 
Scuert, M.—Znsufficiency of the Imbibition Theory.. .. 2) 283 
Wortmann, J.—WVechanism of Twining Plants .. .. .. «oF - 0 4 283 
Amepronn, H.—WVechanism of Twining .. " 284 
PFEFFER, W.—Sensitiveness to Contact . : 3 284 
Miuier, N. J. C.—Polarization-phenomena of Mises : i, 285 
Anpuns, J. M.—Ezhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants a 285 
Sestini, F.—Disinfection of Plants .. : 20 a 285 
Levatuois, A.—Desiccation of Plants in Acneeus Solutions j She uating 285 
Warmine, H.—Fertilization of Greenland Ericacee .. .. .. .. Part3 475 
JOHANNSEN, W.—Influence of Oxygen at high pressure on the Disongare 

ment of Carbonic Anhydride by Germinating Plants 5 475 
KReEvSLER, U.—Assimilation and Respiration ... ... .. « ee ®%» 475 
ScHWENDENER, S.—Apical growth and Phyllotamis.. .. a et 475 
Woutny, E.—Jnfluence of Light on the Formative Teas: im Plone 6 476 
Kraus, C.—Growth of Shoots of Potato when the roots are removed A 476 
Morren, E.—Sensitive Movements of Plants 5 476 
Henstow, G.—HLffect of different parts of the Solar Soectmine on 4 

Transpiration .. y 476 
Weseir, C. A.—/nfluence oF high enpenneats on the Tronsgeraie 

current in Wood EA G0. 0) 55 477 
RowRBACH, C-oonducingecaney of inanien a eset 9 477 
GopLEwskI, E.—Imbibition of Wood.. .. .. Bok 60 > 477 
BertHeLor & G. ANDRE—Carbonates in Living Fats. ; Bs 478 
Wanrpure, O.—Relation of the Vegetable Acids to Assimilation os 478 
LavRrent, E.—Assumed Bacterian Oriyin of Diastase .. .. «. «se 45 478 
BourQquELot, H.—Selective Alcoholic Fermentation .. ie Se 479 
Krurrscunitt, J.—Fertilization by Pollen-tubes .. 11 «+s oe «+» Part 4 649 
HeEGELMAIER, C. F.—LEndosperm of Dicotyledons .. «1 « 4 650 


’ CONTENTS. XXVli 


PAGE 
JaRius—Action of Saline Solutions on Germination.. .. .» « «. Part4 650 
Scuir, E.—Action of Hydrocyanic Acid on Seeds .. ... C 650 
Scuvuuze, B., & E. Fiurcustc—Formation of Amides di the Dae 

tion of seeds in the dark... aeeeosta a se 651 


ReinkE, J.— Absorption of Light by the pare On Ae ae aes, er 651 
Bonnier, G.—Development and Absorption of Heat by Plants Lene are 651 
PrennHAiow, D. P.— Movements of the Tendrils of Cucurbita sere edt Hs55 652 


Errera, L.—Ascent of Sap... ae Oe ee 653 
Pamwarcow, D. P.— Variation of Water in Trees Wid Shrubs. oS Ps Pee 653 
Carus, G.—WMigration of Nitrates in Plant Tissues... .. «2 ss 08 5 653 
GrirFiTus, A. B.— Action of Salicylic Acid on Ferments  .. .. nS 654 
Leumann, V.—Behaviour of Guanin, Xanthin, and = alee im the 
Fermentation of Yeast .. .. PER ES Mirra 654 


MULLER, Fritz—Cross-fertilization of Plants :? Birds Be Gd tbc, © peas gar) erat, 
PRINGSHEIM, N.— Evolution of Oxygen from Plants in the Microspectrum  ,, 825 


Mo.iscu, H.—Causes of the Fall of the Leaf ... «1 so» os 08 oF 495 826 
PAVANT J-—Ieanspination Of Plants: Gwe: liek ae eer Sa, foe oe ay 826 
pereearrmn, i —Covses OF Farsi 6 6 oe one Niwa) bah) iow ps (do, ow gg 826 
WGRIMANN, J.— Causes of Timing <5 se ose, sends “oe sa 08) 49 827 
Krats, G.— Metastasis in the Crassulacee  ..«. anne wee 827 
GUIGNARD, L.—Zimbryogeny of the Santalacee .. .. =: Part 6 1014 


JorvDAN, K. F.—Position of the Nectaries in relation to Fer titizabion fei kage LOE 
Trmm1azerr, C.— Functions of Chlorophyll .. 1. «2 © oF «© 9 1015 
Dincier, H.— Apical growth of Gymnosperms stethy Ware's ‘acess ae aR pene 
MUuier-Taurcav, H.—Resting-periods of Plants... .. .. «+ «+» 45, 1015 
ScuroprrR, G.—Resistance of Plants to Drying .. 1. ee oe «+ 55 1016 
Bonnier, G., & L. Manetn—Respiration of Plants .. .. .. «o 5, 1016 
GopLEwsKI, E.—Circulation of the Sap .. 1. «6 «6 «8 oF of yy 1016 


Scuert, M.—WMovementof Water in Wood ., .. oe LOKT 
Darwin, F., & R. W. Purirs—Transpiration-stream in ak brace ee LOT 
BRuUNNER, H,, & E. Couarp—Phytochemical Studies ..  .. » 1018 
Bonnier, G., & L. Manein—Action of Chlorophyll aang ree 

respiration Br Ae , om Pa ee gg LOLS 


Ervine, F.—Jnjfluence of “Ether Pe Chlcragerin on Plants ees 2 sel OLS 
Mintz, A.—Chemistry of the ripening of Seeds .. «2 +» + « 55 1019 
FANKHAAUSER, J.— What is Diastase? .. ... mb nage teitenc essay kOLO 
Mi.ier-TuurGav, H.—Action of Diastase a loneciin wth Gone aan Lolo 
Warnes 8(S. 1.) “Vegetable Phystology,”. scp ase, 35. se tee ow) ee + aye 2020 


B.—CryYPTOGAMIA. 
M‘Nas, W. R.—Apospory in the Thallophyta .. .. .. «2 «+ «» Part 4 655 
ScHNEIDER, A.—Underground Algz and Fungi .. .. «2 « « Part 5 828 


Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


CAMPBELL, D. H.—Development of the Prothallia of Ferns .. .. .. Part1 106 
Lerrers, H.— Budding on Apogamous Prothallia of Ferns .. .. « 55 107 


Kinston, R.—Carboniferous Lycopods .. .. ey 107 
BrELAsEerr, W.—Antheridia ard Antherozoids of the Heterosprou Sica 
podiaceze (Selaginellacez) apeceral eet A op, beer al stihd DRO ASS 


SrauHL, E.—Jnfluence of the Direction of the eis on the Division of the 
Spores of Equisetum Sree “ier he ee AML icidy eee AY sn) Wh ss 287 


XXViil CONTENTS, 


PAGE 

Weiss, C. E.—Culamites of the Coal-measures.. 1 11 a» 8 4 Part 2 287 
RENAULT, B.—Sructification of Sigillaria,. .. “ane 288 

Lecierc pu SasLon—Mode Ae Dissemination of the aon es in Vostlenae 
Cryptogams .. EE in | ay ear, ay Zu7/y 
TreEcuL, A.— Vascular System? in ican PRR ope A bs 3p 480 
- »,  Stolons of Nephrolepis ap Aa eee 480 
CAMPBELL, D, H.—Development of the Aediieniaiirn of Fer mS... + Part 4 655 
Scuropr, J.—Bursting of the Sporangium of Ferns.. .. .. .. « Part5 828 
Renavtt, B.—Fructification of Calamodendron .. «as te wey 828 
Trevus, M.—Development of Lycopodiacez : a 828 
Luerssen, C.—Rabenhorst’s ‘ Cryptogamic Flora of Bon miny * (Ker ia &30 
Prantyi, K.—Dehiscence of the Sporangium of Ferns .. . 3 Part 6 1020 
Scuenck, H.— Rods in the Intercellulur Passages of the Marciiyee re eee 020) 
Baker, J. G.—Rhizocarpee .. PUR a tis heh ay 5 U2 
Wess, C. E.—Fructification of Sigillari ia oy OZE 

Muscinez. 
Venturi, G.—Section Harpidium of Hypnum.. .. .. « « «. Part 1 107 
ScHNETZLER, J. B—WNew Aquatic Moss .. 2 5. ss 6 ee og 108 
Massatonco, C.—Hepatice of Terra-del-Fuego .. .. «+ 2» «1 4 108 
ROL, J.—Classification of Sphagnacee .. «1 46 on ae tng 108 
Rapennorst’s ‘ Cryptogamic Floraof Germany’ (Mosses) .. .. + y 108 

Puitwert—Peristome of Mosses  .. .. Part3 480 
GorrscuE, K. M.— Abnormal avelopnenie in the apes of ‘Mosses ita, ea 481 
Puiiwert—Fructification of Didymodon ruber enese bse! ees 481 
GriinvaLy, A. L.—Scandinavian species of Orthotrichum Le Tate 5230 ae 481 
Vocutine, H.— Regeneration of the Marchantie# ..  «. 5 481 

Gorrscue, K. M.—Abnormal a hee of the Sporagonin of 
Lejeunia .. +. voi) isles cooky erg 5 482 
5s Bopaiee jriblosed in i Anaier aa 3 . a 483 
FIABERLANDT, G.—Assimilating System of the Sporogonium of Mosees .. Part 4 656 
Limpricut, K. G.— Formation of Pits in Mosses .. +1 ++ +5 weg 656 
Krenitz-Ger.orr, F.—Paraphyses of Mosses ob, “loui) (i sea 657 
Arcuer, W.—Huair-like Filaments on Moss-stems .. ++ 1 +e ws Fe 657 
Lovpricut, K. G.—New Genus of Mosses EROS hbo oA. Gy 657 
Spruce, R.—Hepuatice of the Amazon and Andes ... .. ss +1 08 657 
Warnstorr, C.—Wicrospores of Sphagnum .. «1 « «1 « «+ Part 5 830 
Jack, J. B.—Physiotum . .. a 830 

Sapion, LECLERC De Daas Ate Dire es of Ge Sporaqenenn 
of Hepatice .. . narra ep erin (0) 1D 
Mirren, W.—New Species of Metzgeria CTR ORTON oh) tin wo URE 

Characez. 
Vacat. 
Alge. 


Bennett, A. W.—Fresh-water Alyze (including Chlorophyllaceous Pro- 

tophyta) of the English Lake District ; with Descriptions of twelve 

mew species, (Plates I. § II.).. «6 o» 6 «+ «+ « o Partl 1 
Wiz, N.—Assimilating System of Algx ae! aie he As a ee 109 
Bornet, E.—Algw from Madagascar «5 seen eae gg 109 


CONTENTS. XX1X 
PAGE 
Marre, E.—Fresh-water Algw of Rome... .. «ve .. Part 1 109 
Havck, F.—Alge of the Indian Ocean Tress 110 
LAGERHEIM, G.—Phxothamnion, a new Genus of Wivene ‘dee ige Seto Sa 110 
a » Chlorochytrium Cohnii . a 110 
ArescuouG, J. E.—Fronds of Laminariacee .. Fe lll 
OvupeERDONE, C.—Wotion of Diatoms Bed ks biti 
Hicx, T.—Protoplasmic Continuity in Sunbihia . Part 2 288 
Dovet- Port, A.—Cystosira barbata op) =p: ry 288 
M‘Nas, W. R.—Zmbryo Plantlets of Fucus TM Gaken ke OX ss 290 
GRABENDORFER, J.—Durvillea Harveyi .. oor wee Nee | 290 
s, Lessonia ovata . a ie 290 
GILEs, G. M.—* Prothallus” of Padina 2 3 290 
Lanz, M.—£ndochrome of Diatoms.. .. .. 5 291 
Macapam, W. I.—Diatoms in Town Water a 291 
Scumip1’s ‘ Atlas der Diatomeenkunde’ F 291 
Ractporski—New Desmidieew .. ..  .. 33 291 
New Algological Journal, ‘ Notarisia’ 3 Ea ee 291 
Hecxer1, E., & J. CoareyrE—Lvolution of Alga e . Part 3 483 
Acarpu, J. G.—Agardh’s Floridez .. - + 484 
Wot.e, F.— New Fresh-water Alge.. i 485 
JosHua, W.—Burmese Desmidiee .. .. - » 485 
Royston-Picort, G. W.—Animal character of Dios Se se erecta 485 
Masser, G.—Structure and Evolution of the Floridex. (Plates XII. 
eX EELS. : : Y . Part 4 561 
WIiiLE, N. = ecehamant of nee ie tami in tee Pa 658 
Woutyy, R.—Lithoderma and Hildenbrandtia .. at detteeah yates 659 
Kseiimay, F. R., & J. V. Petersen—Laminariacer of Jigen Eat a beat 659 
DEWILDEMAN, E.— Vaucheria sessilis : 3 659 
Perit, P.—Ausospores of Cocconema and ; oe ae ss 659 
Cox, J. D.—Hoops of Diatoms .. ag 659 
Vorce, C. M.— Division of eudeuaieons’ Naka ea a3 660 
Ne son, E. M., & G. C. Kanop—Finer Structure of certain Dionne fh at 661 
STROMFELT, H. F. G.—New Genera of Seaweeds .. Jo Beg) hoe Pare oteer 
BreAL—Zoospores of Chlamydomonas... «see Pe ee 831 
Cooxe’s (M. C.) British Desmids a a 831 
Scntrr, F.—formation of Auxospores in Bhdcotstonst alti “ . 832 
Beurens, J.—Fertilization of Fucus ‘tense Part 6 1023 
Wattuer, J.—Formation of Structureless Chath iy ee lei iliensry) esd! hts: 
Wiz, N.—Physiological Anatomy of Alge ares 1 LOZ 
CamPpeBeELL, D. H.— Abnormal Forms of Vaucheria .. et fas Ue 
Roy, J., & J. P. Bisset—Japanese Desmids ae.) ee ee 
Depy, J.—Structure of the Diatom Valve » 1024 
Scumipt’s ‘ Atlas der Diatomeenkunde’ ..  .. » 1026 
Naruorst, A. G.—Alleged Fossil Alge .. O26 


Lichenes. 


ZuKAL, H.—Lichen-studies ceiiee a 
ForssELu, K. B. J.—Lichens of Secandiercioii = 
Gleolichenes ..  .. 


” ” ah 
Gonidia of Lichens .. .. 


” ” 


eg She Legh 8 Cam ID. 
ae. ee es 112 
NAN ie Patho 460 
Ho ry Sar Part 662 


0:04 CONTENTS. 


Fungi. 
Frank, B.—Wycorhiza he 
Scuroter, J.—Fungi of Cellars.. .. ely rele teaelets SMe ae 
Hanrtic, R.—Development of Merulius lacunae Erna oie) ch. ot 


Maenus, P.—Polyporus Schweinitzii as a Parasitic ee oe 

PortTeLe, K.—Sour-rot of Grapes : 

Lupwic, F.— Disappearance of Insects in Priester of He pee ance 
of Puccinia malvacearum.. 

Uz, E.— New Ustilaginez .. 

Maenus, P.—New Chytridiacea.. 

RABENHORST’S ‘ Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Fungi) 

Fiscu, C.—Behaviour of the Nucleus in the Coalescence of the Cells op 


Fungi .. Co. 6 

Bovpier, E —Tiresteen ta of the SDRSRHIOEHES Breer) FOL) OC 
Biscen, M.— Aspergillus Oryze .. i ae ate 
JACOBASCH, E.—Poisonous Properties of the Mor a. Se 
Woronin, M.—Peziza baccarum.. Som teas 
Lupwie, F. —Agaricus cirrhatus, a new I iasiionescane Pe 
Voexrrno, P.—Pestalozzia.. ... tab ete 
Marcuat, E.—Bommerella, a new ile of Pirie po loa oe 
Gost, C.—Tubercularia persicina Ditm. ..  .. ct eects ance 
Emam, E.—Basidiobolus, a new genus of Degree io. ones 


Bizzozero, G.—WNew Genera of Fungi .. Bey occ 
Saccarpo, P. A., & A. N. Brriese—New Canna of Fung 

ZiGKAT:. eV) Hunge: ven feet se eed eels 

Rostrup, E.—Heterecious Gncdinees 

Voss, W.—WNew Uredinee . 

Fartow, W. G.— Seem poenornn ce OF the “United States 


Ress, M.—Zlaphomyces and Fir-roots .. ss «5 se we 
TRELEASE, W.—Apple-scab and Leaf-blight .. .. «» .. «- 
Borzi, A— New Fungus parasitic on the Olive vin! kets: SReSIS Peles 
PRILLIEUX, E.—Olive-disease .. «2 su ue wets 


Hartic, R.—New Parasitic Fungus... 1. «1 oe wee 
» 3»  Lrametes radiciperda and Polyporus annosus .. .. 

Gatiprg, V., P. VAN TincHem, & M. Cornnu—Fungus in Human Saliva 
Rostrup, E.—WNew Diseases of Cultivated Plants .. 1. «1 os 
ARCANGELI, G.—WNew Peronospora of the Vine .. «» «. 
PLAUT, EH ovaiam albicans .. ae) Loos trae 
Baccanrint, P., & C. Sommer) of Rone. AA sccuoaaicte 
RENAULT, B., & C. EH. Bertranp—Fossil Chytridiacea.. .. «. 
Boum, R.— Toxicological Ingredients of certain Fungi .. .. «. 
WETTSTEIN, R. v.—Organ for excretion of resin in Fungi .. .. 
Tun, G.— Trichophyton tonsurans : 30. 605 
WETTSTEIN, R. v.—Anthopeziza, a new genus of Descanycten Son oc 
SaDEBECK, R.—Conditions for the Development of the Pileus of 

Hymenomycetes ben ike ac 5 ; 
EIcHELBAUM, F'.—Proliferous eee im Hamneneriteriee 

a 5, Formation of Conidia in the Hymenomycetes : 
Otpemans, C. A. J. A, — eee Spore-formation in the 

Hyphomycetes .. Shy abe acer. 3. 
Lavrent, E.—Turgidity in Pineenaces Be 
Beck, G.—Germination of Ustilago Maydis 


. Part 1 


. Part 2 


PAGE 


113 
113 
114 . 
115 
115 


116 
116. 
116 
116 


291 
292 
293 
293 
293 
293 
293 
293 
294. 
294 
295 
295 
296 
296 
296 
297 
297 
297 
297 
298 
298 
298 
298 
299 
300 
300 
300 
300 
486 
486 
486 
487 


487 
487 
487 


488 
488 
489 


CONTENTS, 


BApEBEOK, R.—Hroascus 16 ce oh) ae seca tees 
Cocconl, G., & F. Morrs1— New Fungi a 

Fayop, V.—WNew Parasitic Fungi a 
GawnronskI, F.—Cleonus ucrainiensis, a new | en ey on rae 
Tuten, F. von—Fungus-parasites .. 

SaDEBECK, R.—Pathogenic Fungi .. ats 
Penzic, O.—Wycorhiza of the Spanish Chestnut ae 
ZIMMERMANN’S (O. E. R.) Atlas of the Diseases of Plants 
Hartic, R.—Symbiosis in the Vegetable Kingdom .. .. 
Mi ier, P. E—WMycorhiza of the Beech.. 

Grirritus, A. B.— Vitality of Spores of Parasitic Fungi 
Harz, C. O.— Formation of Lignin in Fungi 

Duptey, P. H.—Fungi which cause decay in timber 


ZUKAL, H.—Fungus-bulbils NEP te IT ce 
Hesse, R.—Octaviania lutea .. ww ws -- 
“ » Sphxrosoma fragile aly "yeaa fais aissve els 


Burriwu, T. J.—Uredinex of Illinois .. .. =: 
SrEynes, J. DE—Acrogenous Development of the Shaves of Fungi ee 
Mort, F.—Germination of Spores of eee Vaillantit .. 
Errera, L.—Glycogen in Fungi «gwen 
Wess, A.—Laticiferous System of See. : 
FiscHer, E.—Development of the aa) - Phalloidex 
Ricuon, C.—New Spheriacee .. 
Marrrrowo, O.—Polymorphism of the Hy ypocreacese 
Cornu, M.—Alternation of Generations in the Uredinez.. 
MU ier, J.— Uredinez parasitic on Rosa and Rubus 
LinDemMAann—Pine-destroying Fungi and Insects 
PRILLIEUX, E.—Fungus-parasites of the Vine.. 
Morini, F.—New Parasitic Fungi on Corn re 
Ber.eseE, A. N.—Parasitic Fungus on Forest Trees 
Cornu, M.—Polystigma fulvum, a new Almond Disease . 
Diaxonow. N. W.—/Jntramolecular Respiration and ierabaa aie of 
Moutas. a eae oe 
BacuMann, E. Siemens 
Morgner, C. J.—Ldible Fungi .. is 
ZUKAL, H.—Structure and Development of ye ae 
Boupme, E.—Richonia, a new genus of Pyrenomycetes .. 
TuUBEUF, FREIHERR V.—Cucurbitaria Laburni on Cytisus Tisiienian 
Emam, E.—Entomophthoree .. .... 
Fawcett, W.—E£ntomogenous Fungus .. .. aud ‘sole esi Ses 
Maenus, P.—Melasmia Empetri, a new parasite on Rance nigrum.. 
Wasr.icy, W.—Parasitic Fungus of the Roots of Orchidee . 
Barciay, A.—New Uredinex parasitic on Himalayan Consfores 
Bary, A. DE—Sclerotiniex and Sclerotium-diseases .. 
Erigsson, J.—Diseases of Crops .. .. So ec 
BRUNCHORST, Z—- —Tubercles on the Roots of Teas fied ‘the Bieigies 


-* oe o- - 


oe oe 
o* 
oe 


Protophyta. 


” 


3? 


9 


” 


XXXI 


PAGE 


. Part 3 489 


490 
490 
490 
490 
490 
491 
491 
662 
663 
663 
664 
664 
664 
665 
665 
665 
832 
832 
833 
833 
833 
833 
833 
834 
834 
834 
835 
835 
835 
835 


835 


» Part 6 1026 


1027 
1027 
1028 
1028 
1029 
1029 
1029 
1029 
1030 
1031 
1032 
1033 


CrooKsHANE, E. M.—On the Cultivation of Bacteria. (Plates IIT-V.) Part 1 25 


DowDEsweELL, G. F.—On the Appearances which some Micro-organisms 
present under different conditions, as exemplified in the Microbe of 
Chicken Cholera. (Plate VI.) ea) o 


*e oe ae on oe 


32 


XXX11 CONTENTS. 


: PAGE 
Scunerzier, J. B.— Movements of Oscillaria ..  ..  «. « « « Part 1 116 
Corn, W— Floating Rimularia. 22 os an ss as ee Poe 117 
Hrrera, L.—Glycogen in Beer Yeast Woy « ein; a isis aS oe ae 117 
SoyKa, J.—Rise of Micro-organisms in Damp Can. stay hes 117 
Bocxuart—Ztiology and Pathology of Gonorrhea of the Ur sine igh es 117 
FEHLEISEN— Micrococei of Erysipelas .. «1 26 sh ws «» 02 49 117 
TRELEASE, W.—Zoogleex and Related Forms .. 4. .. « « «1 5 117 
Dovrreteront & J. Scutitz—Bacilli of Syphilis .. 3 118 
Minrz, A— Oxidation and Reduction under the Influence of Micro oscopic 

Organisms in the Soil vie eR Oem 3 118 
Ke, E., & H. Ginpes—Ltiology of Asiatic Gitera MMMM Sasatanie eth... ap 119 
CRooKSHANK? § (E. M.) ‘ Practical Bacteriology® =... «2 @2\ =. yy 121 
Dauincer, W. H.—The President’s Address. (Plates VIT-IX.) .. Part2 193 
Krasser, F.—WNucleus in Yeast-cells tees ee Bat bo! 00%). 5 301 
Bucuner, H.—WNomenclature of Schizomycetes aa Rae emt 301 
Fou, H.—Wicrobe of Rabies .. Meret Maree So Woon ob. ado op 302 
PreirreR, l.— Microbes of Calf- aren Jon Sone Mage Seba AG, 0! ftp 302 
Downes, A.—Action of Sunlight on Micro-organisms, vel 3 3 302 
SrmrnBerG, G. M.—On Micrococcus Pasteurt oe nber yp ea 75- 80 Part 3 391 
Gomont—New Microchexte TCM eiak Wea: esl saree tee 491 
Cusont, G.—Origin of Saccharomyces .. . PRS Ste Oh Waly, 491 
ZaLEwsEI, A.—Formation of Spores in the Saccharoniestes a 3 492 ° 


Ovupemans, C. A. J. A., & C. A. PEKELHARIG — Saicenamonanes 

cappillitii dd, 0 POU Tne cco 55, tN 3 492 
Kuy, L.—Jnfluence of inane on Hie rout of ¥, aa rie lop 493 
Hivrr, F.—Resting-form of Comma-bacilli 1. «1 «6 «se «2 « 45 493 


Bumm, E.—Abscess-producing Diplococcus Pen ee otis ong 0 es 494 
Laurent, E.—Lacterium of Panic Fermentation .. .. « « « 4 494 
Marrerstock— Bacillus of Syphilis.. ea TEN Miers reeeauta 495 
De Bary’s (A.) Lectures on Bacteria .. 1. «2 «2 se «2 «2 45 495 
GarRBInr’s (A.) Guide to Bacteriology .. .. SMUD ER Sana 495, 


Lacrruem, G.—WMastigocoleus, a new genus of ‘Sirometonden «ae Part 4 665 
Havszr, G.—Presence of Micro-organisms in the me Tissue of 

Healthy Animals 0 iets oie 665 
Perroncito, H., & Aare dpearety of Life im Miers ococci st i, 666 
BUCHNER, "Leora of the Spores of the Schizomycetes to the 


Anilin-dyes ¢ MEO oO BO. 8 Gp 666 
Curtis, L.— Cultivation of Racer ue Cob rabaaiies a NEGL yD. 5p 667 
ZuKAL, H.—WNew Bacterium .. . diol hy Nee Serene 667 
Marcuiarava, E., A. Ceiui, & ©. Towarasr-Cxupent — Bacillus 

Malariz .. .. Got do! ob 9 667 
Prrroncito, EH. _- Preineeeore of he Ho SE. PRA Son cs fy 668 
DowbDESWwELL, G. F.—WMicrobe of Rabies.. 1. «1 se 46 ee 48 145 669 
Fou, H.—Rabies.. del Pied, Bee Set anne SS 669 
Hiprn’s (F.) Methods for iy Study of Paiiene ao wila’e), Biloi6e MORAL Oe a 669 
LavRENT, E.—Wicrobes of the Soil .. .. .. .s « «+ +es 4. Part d 836 
Manrrepi, L.—WNew Pathogenic Por aseeere Bore: 836 
Hansen, HE. C.—Physiology and Morphology of Wiconore Ger ane Part 6 1033 
Gayon, U., & HE. Dusourc—Abnormal Secretion of Nitrogenous Sub- 

stances by Yeasts and Moulds.. .. .. AM Withee e288) 


GAUNERSDORFER, J.—Gum-ferment in Barley and Matt... » 1034 


XXXlil 


CONTENTS. 
Brown, A. J.—Acetic Ferment which forms Cellulose .. Part 6 
ScHNETZLER, J. B.—WMicrobe of Nitrification ..  «. i 
Oxtvier, L.—Organisms of Sulphuretted Waters is 
Dueuer & J. i tg le i furfur, the Hiiteopend Bitrohe 

of Tuberculosis .. .. Pade isan eae Cale - 
Preirrer, A.— Tewisen dactibias ts we % 
Fopor, J. von—Bacteria in the Blood of Eioing Aebincil ae * 
Nigscu, J.—Phosphorescent Bacterium nS 

MICROSCOPY. 
a, Instruments, Accessories, &c.* 
Rocers, W. A.—Explanatory Notes on a Series of Slides presented to 

the Society, illustrating the Action of a Diamond in ruling lines 

upon Glass Rae sare | 
STEPHENSON, J. W.—On “ Central 3 Light in nouns (Figs. wee = 
Butuocu’s (W. H.) Lithological Microscope (Fig. 5) «se us weg 
CHEVALIER’s (C.) Portable Microscope (Figs.6and7) .. . . af 
Kue1n’s (C.) Horizontal Heating Microscope oe O)i aes sales 9 
Frencu Dissecting Microscope (Fig. 9) at 
Kionne & MtLuER’s Pendulum Object-frame or aoe tal ener Fas 10 

and 11) Pee s¢ ay 
Hevecs, H. VAN == Mishascépen at the ° Habbecyi Eahibition -e 
Hieristey’s (J.) Lens- and Slide-holder (Fig. 12) ..  « 33 
GrirritH’s (EK. H.) Substage Diaphragm (Fig. 18) .. a 
Sorsy’s (H. ©.) Direct Iluminator (Fig. 14) . a 
Netson, E. M.—£qualizing the Thickness of ‘Slips with Ugcaneertins 

Condensers (Figs. 15 and 16) .. 5 
CoxETER & NEHMER’s Silico-Carbon Batter a Electric Lamp a 48. 

17 and 18) Be ead ah cc eae aoe ee 
Butwocy’s (W. H.) Cobweb Micbimnatee <) dda ce 3 
JunG’s (R.) Nose-piece Adapter (Figs. 19 and 90) . Betts 
HartTnacnr’s (E.) Fluid for Homogeneous imeeion at ee 
Fuirt, J. M.— Rotary Object-carrier oe a 
Karop (G. C.) & KUNCKEL D’HERCULAIS’ preter (Fig. 21).. 5 
Martius’ Vethod of Determining the Absolute Rate of Ciliary Vibration 

by the Stroboscope (Fig. 22) .. .. Sei) ia. ae a 
S., G. S—Accessories for Microscopical Tena (Fig. 23) . 
Donnrnc’ 8 (C. G.) Zoophyte-Cell (Figs. 24-26) .. . 5 
Harpy’s (J. D.) Examining Tank for Pond-Life, &c. (Fig. 27) - 
Bostwicx’s (A. EB.) Absorption Cell 2 ce 
VERICKE’S, BENECKE’s (B.), & MorrTesstEr’s (A) Pisce erageantia 

Cameras (Figs. 28-32) ‘ a 
Morresster (A.), BeNECKE (B.), & For? 8 (H.) donde hs for taking 

Stereoscopic Photo-micrographs (Figs. 33-36) Co ee Bee 
Wa.mstey, W. H.— Objectives for tener A s 
PuotocraPyy and Minute Details : pee 


PAGE 
1034 
1034 
1035 


1035 
1635 
1036 
1036 


16 
37 
122 
122 
124 
126 


127 
129 
129 
130 
130 


131 


131 
132 
132 
133 
133 
134 


135 
137 
138 
139 
140 


140 
143 


145 
146 


* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Hye-pieces and Objectives; 
(8) Illuminating Apparatus; (4) Other Accessories ; (5) Photo-micrography ; 
(6) Manipulation ; (7) Microscopical Optics, Books, and Miscellaneous matters. 


Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. 


c 


XXXIV CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Howe, L.—ZJmperfection of the Eye and Test Objects .. .. « « Partl 147 
Netson, E. M.—Pygidium of the Flea as a Test Object... .. .. «. 55 147 
Waiee's (W.) Lords Prayer 26 sis ulm ea wis ee 147 
LEEUWENHOEK Medal., .. . io. Peet epee eee 148 
Berens, W. J.—Lules for ip Use of the Mier OSCOpPe «. eekacbesn 148 
Houtmes, E.—A Simple and Handy Compound Selenite and Mica Giage pee at, 150 


Nerson, i. Mi Testing Objectives: s2 2. “uit se - keg) EE 151 


Watt, O. A.—Pinhole Microscopes .. as 152 

> + Photo-micrographic Cameras : bia Sia 7 ah aon mre 152 
Watmstey, W. H.—How to make Pigiommerarnenis 3) sscisien fare cae aes 153 
Swirt’s Photo-micrograph of Tongue of Blow-fly .. .. « cies 184 
Mercer’s (A. C.) Photographs of inked sur ie covering base fies epeltss 185 
EizasetH THomPson Science Fund Boeaeste Pct be 187 
New Aperture Table .. ~ 187 


LEASES Unt): PAPIGMOIIG ENS. nic. Geis 7h ein) | voile Solel els ee 188 
BECKS Peirologucal “Star Microscope, 2. 1s.) 2s esse 189 
Draper, J. C., Deathof .. .. 50 seen uss 190 
Fou’s (H.) Wraveliing and Dissenting: HOR en (Figs. 45 ripe 46) -» Part 2 304 
Hetmanoutz’s (0. L. F.) Vibration Microscope (Fiy. 47) ; + 305 
Retcuert’s (C.) Stand with New Stage and Iris Diaphragm (Figs. 48- 52) Fs 307 
Tuoma’s (R.) Microscope for observing the Circulation of the Blood 
(CH, BB) 55° Bo sie. loth Vp Malae an ste a crs 309 
WAatTsoNn’s Collector’ 5 Pocket ietosane (Fig. 54) . Sa pas 
Barnes, C. R.—Cheap Dissecting Microscope .. .. .. «» «8 « 
Warp, R. H.—Hand-rests (Figs. 55 and 56) .. .. ss 2» 22 os 4955 312 
Gunpbuaca, E., & J. K. OUT O Teper. cat key 313 
MALASSEZ’S (a. ) Camera Lucida (Figs. 57 and 58)... .. «. «1 «= yy 314 
Ewet, M. D.—Relative merits of Filar and Ordinary Bites Eye-piece 


Micrometers’ sis aie) Mg ese ae | as kay ea Ce Pa 316 
Tue New Objectives .. .. rns OM are Set 5 53 316 
LEBIEDZINSEI, P.—Liquid Lensés Be Te sel ou oem es 321 
KoristKa’s Abbe LMluminator (Figs. 59 Be 60) Perec 90 ion 322 
CENTRAL v. Oblique Light . Ben Ne na igs a 322 
Brevoort, H. L. = Tinton by aid of Viinatios aa cae iran 324 
Neson, E. M.—Campbell’s Fine Adjustment (Fig. 61) .. .. .. « 4 324 
ANDERSON’S Double-action Fine Adjustment (Fig. 62) a 4 325 
Fritscu’s (G.) Stage for Stereoscopic Photo-microgr eS i. 63 

GGABL)) Wee ee Betts saiy gic eaten Oa pes ees pul iae 325 
Keuicort’s (J. 8.) Moist (Caaber in oo Foe pe en ee 326 
BEHRENS, W.—Klénne and Wiiller’s acer igs oo 327 
EXNER’S S. ) Micro-refractometer (Figs. 65-67)... Bs 328 
Lowne, B. T.—Apparatus for (Gehe the Reflex in the Compound 

Bye of Insects .. .. a die) aie) eile cag ae 330 
Tuoma’s (R.) Frog-plate (Fig. 68) Se es » 9330 
Tuompson, F. C.—Lasy Method of mein Dia reoiote nani +5 331 
Houtman, D. 8.—Jnstantaneous Micro-photography.. .. .. «ww + 7 333 
ALTMANN, R.—“ On the possibility of improvement in the Uverostenee Ht 

(figs.69 and70) .. .. . Pah 333 


CASTELLARNAU Y DE LLEOPART, J. M. ae ponte ustie Steph gee 335 
Read, H. T., & A. E. Ourersripce— Fine Platinum Wire and Thin 
Gold ee Fiimelb auc oman oe Arye) 4 Ba 5 336 


CONTENTS. 


CALLIANO, C.— Mechanical Stage with Rectangular Movements 

PROFESSIONAL Vicroscopy .. . 

Aurens, C. D.—New Polarizing vie (Fig. 81) 4 

VIALLANES’ (H.) Photographic Microscope—Compound enlace by the 
Method of Successive Exposures (Figs. 82-84) By. Sues 

BEcE’s (R.) Demonstration Microscope (Fig.85) .. . 

ProgectTion Wicroscopes—Chevalier’s (Fig. 86), Cooke's (Fig. a 
Pléssl’s Electric (Figs. 88-91) iss 

Homes’ (S.) Microscope with Swinging Radial Mirr irror 2” ig. 2) 

Mayer’s Dissecting Microscope (Fig. 93)... <P és 

Kine, T.—Magie Lantern v. Microscope .. .. 

INOSTRANZEFF’S (A.) Comparison Chamber for the ‘Biterdencgical Study 
of Opaque Minerals and other objects (Figs. 94 and a : 

Gunobiacu, E.—Astigmatie Eye-piece a Ss 

»  Lmmersion Objectives - 

Sony, H. C.—Application of Very High Pats to the Study ioe the 
Microscopical Structure of Steel 3 

Wicumann, A.— Use of the Microscope with Cea Polari oa ‘Light 

Fiescu, M.—Experiments with the Electric Incandescent and Are Ti 

Mayer’s (A. M.) Black-ground Illuminator sa) Sauer 

ZeEtss’s (C.) Monochromatic Illuminator (Fig. 96) . = 

Gutay, E.— Theory of the Camera Lucida (Figs. 97-101) Zs : 

Vorce’s (C. M.) Combined Focusing and Safety 49 bs use in Micro- 
metry with High Powers (Fig. 102) “Cae on mat ae 

Loean’s (J. H.) Life-Stide (Fig. 103) ae 

Warson’s (G.) Reversible Compressor (Fig. 104) 

Rocers, W. A.— Ruled Plate for Measurement of Bioodcorpuscles 

Kioénnz & Mtiiuer—Yeast Counting Apparatus : 

Ewett, M. D.—Wetal Micrometers .. ..  -s 

Gace, S. H.—Cireulation Plate for Frogs, fe... 1.0 01 we we 

MALAsse7’s (L.) Hemochromometer (Fig.105) «wk een 

TuHieRRy’s (M. DE) Hema-Spectroscope (Fig. 106).. 

Soret, J. L.— Apparatus for Microscopical Observation of Fapour-deps 
Chin ter ee A ices ce eas te cs ee 

Ketuicott, D. S.—An efficient Pipetie P 

Logan, J. H.— Device for enabling two observers fo view ejects aed 


taneously .. 9... = sa 
PoWELL’s (T.) Achromatic Ct acta as Clakdaiians “ 
Swirrs Hadial Microscope 4.5 sc ws ss cet et 


Evans, F. H.—Photo-micrographs ae St Se cae aa Bae 

Warson-Crosstey Microscope (Fig. 113)...  .. as 

Bauscxu & Lome Optical Co.’s Physician’s Mi aes fy 9. ns) . 

Brcr’s (R.) Mineral Microscope (Fig.115)  .. 

DevtGen’s (H.) Micrometer-Microscope (Fig. 116). ee “ 

Gracomint’s Microscope with large Stage (Fig. 117)... .. 

Nacuet’s Corneal Microscope (Fig. 118).. .. .. : 

Hoprsis, G. M.— Use of the Microscope in the pe Alis (Figs. 
119-128) .. °.. = ase 

Rocers, W. A.— The Mi eee in the erie oe 

K1iOnneE (J.) & MULLER’s (G.) Diaphragm we igs. 129-181) 

Gitzs, G. W. M.—Lieberhiihn Stops = <a 


XXXVI CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Ross’s (A.) Centering Glass (Figs. 135 and 136) .. .. « « « Part 4 681 
Amici Polarizing Apparatus (Fig.137) .. .. ae bie gee ees 682 
WinkeEt’s (R.) Wicrometer Eye-piece (Figs. 138 a 139) ae) hee acta 683 
Gini, D.—Wethod of Webbing the Filar Micrometer.. .. ie 684 
Scur6pEr’s (H.) Differential-screw Fine Adjustment cee 140 ae 141) 43 685 
DeEnicavTe Fine Adjustment (Fig. 142) .. «. «+ 2 2 28 s+ 4 686 


Moors, A. Y.—WMechanical Stages .. .. «1 oe «1 2 28 oF 5 687 
Uxrzmann’s (R.) Saccharometer (Fig. 143) ate £0 arnt lf ee 687 


Baxer’s New Microscope Lamp (Fig. 144) .. .. 5° 688 
ScuReiBER, O.—Laxamination of Graduated Circles oath As ae fuk 
Microscopes .. emia eee 688 
Lommet, E.—Weasuring he Hoa Peagth of a ete (Fig. 145) ah) eee ae 689 
45 ,, Weasuring Indices of Refraction (Mig. 146) .. .. ” 689 
Lipinay, M. pE—Optical method 1s the absolute measurement of ee 
TRH go on 00 Oo « AD Moe op 690 
Dancer, J. B.—Dotted penne on Bieta. anguatim welhekait Nise 691 
“ CENTRAL v. Oblique Light”... .. x 692 
Neuson, E. M.—ZJnterpretation of the Sin Snectnn “of Plearosigna 
ONGUICHUTY ss a tole a . oo 694 


Henocovur—Apparatus for the iabrunnetped ear x the Blood PCM CORI Cuan} re 696 
Hireucock, R.—WMicroscopical Exhibitions aia kv, Wen} hee aah eaat mt am Pr 696 . 
§!, H. G. Wi—A Concentric Microscope Ga. 2) me ees 697 


RuEsoLvIne 152,000 lines to the inch .. 11 0s we . co on 697 
Cuesuire, F. R.—Device for the Examination of Rates in Bultic 

Tubes Bs Pee a Coes yee 8 734 
Nacuet’s (A.) Large Macros (Fig. 157) a0 Ee -. Part 5 837 


Microscope with fixed Revolver for Tires (Fi 1g. 158)... x 839 
Photo-micrographic Microscope (Figs. 159 and 160) .. %, 840 
5 », Lhotographic Microscope for Instantaneous Photographs 
(Figs. 161-163) .. .. oc Poot, Bas eco) cca of 841 
Fourss’s (R.) Petrological iaepee bes (Figs. 164-168) aay sume eee nemeng 843 
Drievponnt, E.—FElectro-megaloscope (Fig. 169) .. «1 os 02 2 99 846 
Cramer’s (C.) Movable Stage (Figs. 170 and 171) «2 «2 es awe gg 848 
Zetss’s (C.) Apochromatic Objectives, ee Eye-pieces, aa Pro- 


ty) 39 


” ” 


jection Eye-pieces .. Poy ie sae 3» 849 
AntTHoNy, J.—Observation of Opasne or Gee ane Objects m the 

Microscope ore . ee othe) ors 857 
Fresca, M.—Zzamination of pene by Tee Light ee i a ie 859 
AuRENS’ (C. D.) Polarizing Prism .. .. PRA er Oo}. co 859 
Micuen-Liivy’s Comparator (Figs. 172 and 173) . Sea oe 859 
IsRaEL’s (O.) Warming Apparatus as a hater for the Hot Sie 

(Figs. 174-176) .. er helen Sietaimanetas 860 


DELAGE’s (Y.) Reversible Canine stor (Figs. 177 and 178) aay’ te ale ate COPD eas 862 
Corn’s (A. H.) Self-adjusting Frog-plate (Fig. 179) 4. cu we we ogg 863 
Fuiriscuu, KE. v.—Wicro-stroboscope for observing Muscle-contraction in 

UV SCCTS ee Arie 3G) ote 863 
StTane., H. erie the Thickness of Wateeiat Walls ch, (denne 2 864 
Neuson, E. M.—Resolution of Diatoms whose Strix are of unequal fine- 


ness (Fig. 180).. .. «+ cei. ial see as 864 
Pirerso, G. A., J. W. QuzEN, & R. Oreapsonere eee Condes in 
ia REET Gye 2 bcge oe 865 


ALFrERow, §8.—New Apparatus for pie Counts of Iieegico nein aoe 3 867 


CONTENTS, XXXVii 


PAGE 


Fasoipt, C.—Resolution of 200,000 Zines to the inch.. «. «« « Part5 868 
Netson, E. M.—Jnterpretation of Microscopic Images with High Powers  ,, 869 
CrooKsHANK, E. M.—Photomicrography aathakgrioa Weer eel. eater lilOD 
PowELw’s (T.) Apochromatic Objectives ..  .. arm eye LO 
Bauscu & Loms Optical Co.’s New Student iiorcoane (Fig. 201). faye LOST 
Croucw’s (H.) Grand Model, jituebiid and Student’s Micr eee 

(Figs. 202-205) ae ee nt0s9 
Currer’s (E.) Cam Fine Aactenae ( Fig. 206) ah poate vitae, LOL 
Swirr & Son’s Paragon Microscope (Wale’s form) (Figs. 207 wat 208) » 1043 
QuEEN’s (J. W. & Co.) Acme No. 4 Microscope (Figs. 209 and 210) .. 4, 1045 
Warson’s (W. & Son) New Histological Microscope (Fig. 211) .. «+ 5, 1046 


Newrton’s Microscopic Attachment for Lantern Projection ( ae sae sie LLOEG 
LEEUWENHOEK’S Microscopes (Figs. 213-216).. .. .. cones wee LOtg. 
MusscHENBROER’S Microscope (Fig. 217) ate eee eC ec ace a 0d9 
BEELDSNYDER’S Achromatic Objective (Fig. 218) .. .. «oe «2 oF 5 1050 
Queen's (J. W. & Co.) “ Parfocal Eye-pieces”  .. ao hi US 
Czapsk1, S.—Fine-Adjustment to the new Zeiss Stands (Fig. 219) “a on L058 
Wenuam’s (F. H.) Frictionless Fine-Adjustment (Fig, 220) . sie 2052 


Swirt’s (J.) Cam Mechanical Stage (Fig. 221) ee Sah: Tacege hook Gk pelos 


Execrric Jncandescence Lamp (Fig. 222) : se LOas 
QuEEn’s (J. W. & Co.) Acme Lamp (Figs, 223 and 204), » 1053 
TuHompson’s (S. P.) Modification of the Nicol Prism, giving wider angle 

of field (Figs. 225-227) . » L054 


NacuHET’s (A.) Camera Lucida (Fig. 298) ch oc 7 LOod 
Warp, H. MarsHatt—Apparatus for cultivating Dieaiigdics ‘(Fi. 229) ~ | L0a7 
Kicu, R.—Apparatus for the microscopic detection of Rhombic Pyroxene 

Cig 230)a5 ee. fe » 1058 
SauHur’s (H.) Automatic Ranier fe an pldcaarie “handed mi ‘Bete 

(Figs. 231 and 232).. HOLS dae Wie Creal as, Bere oe dL OS 
Tursinr’s Photomicrographic Apparatus .. .. » 1060 
DENAEYER, A.—Phototypic Process applicable a the Reproduction of 


Photomicrographs . sy 1 2060 
Exner, 8., & L. Mea etrarneane— Colindars he eek as Lens aad 

give an Optical Image (Figs. 233-237) a = ) 1062 

Roysron-Picort, G. W.—Definition of Huirs, “ Test Binas! » 1065 


Becks, J. D.— Working Distance of High-power Objectives .. . «. 5 1066 


Hacke., E.—Use of both eyes with the Microscope .. ae es YY gg LOGT 
Proctor, R.—WMVinute Writing... .. HEE Rar Oe Oey kD ec » 1068 
Scripner, F. L.—Wethod of | tan anes of minute portions of 

plants... oj,. Bencvee Bekoumatinacst! (Gano JOGE 
Van Auten, J. F. C. 900, 000 ” the ‘nich «at his, b069 


pre Gc Dime Ge | toys ‘hi. inp. ved)! ee) Laut — Sad) gee.) Se BEE Cane) ge pee 


B. Collecting, Mounting and Examining Objects, &c.* 
Jounston-Lavis, H. J.—On the Preparation of Sections of Pumice-stone 

and others Vesicular ROCKS) ys Psa es) we eles) ves. (as. 5 won ski tele ye 
Case, Convenient Microscopical .. ee 149 


* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects; (2) Preparing, (a) in 
general, (6) special objects; (3) Separate processes prior to making sections; 
(4) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes; (5) Staining and Injecting ; 
(6) Mounting, including preservative fluids, cells, slides, and cabinets; (7) Ex- 
amining Objects, including Testing; (8) Miscellaneous matters. 


XXXVIli CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Mtuuer, K.— Obtaining Diatoms from poor Material .. ..° .. « Part1 153 
Gizson, R. J. raat! Trough Chg. 31)! 2s) 9s.) seas eee 153 
Wuitman, C. O.— Differentiating Embryonic Tissues .. .. % 155 
Fiemme, W.—Preparing Mammalian Ovaries for eanianion of 
Graafian Follicles 1. .. PURO OAM od) oc) xp 156 
Ocenew, T.—Preparation of Connective Tissues wie tale SG eee 156 
Rosertson, C.—Preparing Spinal Cord... .. .. . a 156 
Maurer, F.—Preparing Teleostei for pening Dareonani of Thyroid 
and Thymus Glands... .. .. epee + ‘eis arnt an Ueto ee 157 
Haziewoop, F. T.— Permanent Mounting of rages ay LISCCTS) tam ens 157 
Coxz, A. O Benham Silkworms .. .. .«. . {> See eee 158 
FRENZEL, J.—Preparing Alimentary Canal of Giistheen ie Santas eee ee 158 
Haacke, W.—Preservation of Meduse .. .. . eis cide til 158 


James, F. L.[C. H. Stopper, & Arwoov}— Mounting Dae in situ 159 
Pearcey, F. G.—Preparing Thin Sections of friable and decomposed 
Rocks, Sands, Clays, Oozes, and other Granulated Substances 


é (Figs. 38 and 39) .. .. ria acmae dl Yooh. wc 160 
Lez, A. B.—Cedar-wood Oil for Paraffin Ganeiien Soioxe 163 
STEIN, S. v.—Apparatus for Imbedding Preparations necianiy adapted 

for the Nervous System .. .. a p 163 
Minot, C. S., & R. G. Hepp—Imbedding im Celloidin in a 10) bios Patent utes 164 © 
Dimmocr’s Imbedding-Box (Fig. 41).. .. . AAA evil 165 


Wurman, C. O.— Orientation of Small Objects ot) aa ea ren 165 
5 Prevention of sBUbvles as © ee eee ese ee 166 


Bowrocw’ 8 (W. H.) Combination Microtome .. .. SE bl tie cp 166 
Mauassez, L.—IJinproved Roy Microtome (Figs. 42 and 19) . tiejhe acts: aoe 166 
Warrman, C. O.—Sharpening Microtome Knives (Fig. 44) .. . «» 45 168 
FRENZEL, J.—Chrome Mucilage asa Fimative .. 1. 40 on ewe gy 169 


Lersouca, H.—VFixing Serial Sections on the Slide .. 1. +e 1 00 49 169 
STUHLMANN, F.—Treatment of Sections with Osmic Acid .. .. +.» 455 169 
BERNHEIMER, §.—Staining Nerve-fibres of Retina .. .. « «8 «0 94 169 
DovtitLevuL, G.—Picroborate of Carmine. 1. ss « «1 « «st 459 170 
PirraRD, B.—Staining with Iodine Vapour .. 2. .s «2s 08 on 7 170 
BsrLoussow, A. K.—Cold Mass Injection for Anatomical Preparations  .,, 170 
GeRLacu, L.—Wounting in Gelatin .. .. 21 oe ve es ww 170 
JAAUBERT, A. B.—Styrax for Mounting os 2. ss 3. sue 171 
Meares, W. C.—WMounting Medium... 1» 21 00 aa se SS ws Sg 171 
JAmes, F. L.—Limpid Solution of Dammar .. 1. 11 10 oe we Sg 171 
Marx, EH. L.— Repairing Balsam Preparations aie Mi, elas ete oa ea 172 
FrEsincer, C.—Arranged Diatoms .. 1. «1 ss 6 «6 oF oF 4 172 
Moorz, A. Y.—Gold-plated Diatoms ite is 172 
Desy, J. [A. Trvan y Luarp]— Test Deeps thls lene pelea 

nie A, Lindheimerii alate siay\\), e's) yee), ole’ | = 3,60) ora rr 172 
Woouman, G.'S.—Bevel-edge Slips 2. 1. 6. oe as os) 173 
Avperrt, A. B.—Adhesiveness of Cements PNM RR AS coe Sp 173 
DTRONG CEMeNtS 65° te ee”. ony as oe ae oe) ee es ee 178 


Waurrman, C. O.—Test for Preservative Fluids 1. 10 on oe agg 174 
Motysgpic Acid Test for Protoplasm wie) sein) ibe Gre) a aor 174 
WAYLOR, L——Dutter Ond Fats. ae ne ss aes oe 174 
Lronez, T.—WMicro-organisms in Potable fae ia” iste _¢ Ipa) Ne eee ee 174 


Sorsy, H. C.—WMicroscopical Structure of Iron and Steel at) ae ee 175 


CONTENTS. 


Srrenc, A.—WMicroscopical Chemical Reactions uit bcrait ts moni’ 
Hussax’s (E.) Guide to the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals 
Waurrman’s (C. 0.) ‘ Methods in Microscopic Anatomy and Embryology’ 
STOWELL, C. H.—Ezamination of Blood .. .. 0 «6 oF 8 
Dermers, H. J.—Wicroscopical Fue aeradits See CO. Te 
CemENT for Fixing Wood to Glass .. .» oo oF of oF . os 
CLEANING Glass Slides and Covers .. 4. 00 ae oe wees 
Hennine, P.—Preserving Planis ..  .« 08 «8 8 oF 8 os 
Ketiicorr, D. S.—[ Modified Pipette] 1. 16 «6 ee os 
Lacrorx, A.—Optical Examination of Minerals... +e uu we 
Strarmine Wood Sections, Mounting Orange Peel and Sponge .. ..  « 
Muciuace for Slide Labels.. 1. . eh Sh 
Watt, O. A.—WMicroscopical latin of Deas 3h See ce 
Scuvuze’s (F. E.) Net for Catching Small Free-swimming Cnaals 

- Mud Pipette ae San. Sah teey Hse 
Campsett, D. H.—Wethod of Spore Gecminaiion = 
Burrit1, T. J.—Germinating Fungus-spores and Pallercgrain 
CouttTer, J. M.—Cultivation of Pollen-grains .... s.r 
Monvrno, C.—Silver treatment of Medullated Prriphoral Nas VES 4. 
Pautsen, E.—Preparing Nasal Mucous Membrane .. selegite 
Fortincer, A.—Chloral Hydrate for Preserving Lower mane <a cae 


Pe »  Collodion for Fixing on the Glass Objects to be pre- 
served in Alcohol .. . siew do hate 

»  Lurifying and ae Crane Poros oc 
Canntinn, J.—Bleaching the Arthropod Eye .. .. sn ate 


Dimmock, G.—Separating the Layers of the Wings of Tees 
so » Method of Bleaching Wings of Lepidoptera to Facilitate 
the Study of their Venation .. .. 
Firrerer, G.—Wodification of Ehrlich’s Method for Zi ee bs Bacills . ae 
Vaiss, H. pE—Wethod for Determining the Acids in Plants when combined 
with Bases =: aoe tg ictal ate — as 
TscutrcH, A.—Separation of Chlorophyll .. Seba age seus tc Rye yom urres 
Burriuy, T. J— Preparing Starch-grains in Potato ae ae 
STEINBRi GaE, H.— Deceptive Results produced by ees Siete 
PROVIDENCE Vicrotome (Fig. 71)... ome ccam tees 
HeEnxrne’s (H.) Simple Microtome Knife (Figs. 72-74) .. ae ee cr 
ORDINARY v, Serial Sections .. 
Weicert, 0.—Serial Sections of Celloidin "Preparations of ¢ Central Ner- 
vous System .. . ot Nene rine xp ASS 
B1zz0zEr0, G. sje of ene Se 
IG ER —— ter 0-ChT OMG AGM | an) sel inc) va 4 em ee) say Eeeeeie 
Mrnort’s (C. 8.) Picric-acid Carmine ae me oe. ae 
Ryov_er, J. A.— Differential Action of Eafrahen ae Metintoces aoe ee 
Benpba, C.—Staining Spermatogems .. .. + se «0 . 0s so oe 
Martinotti, G.—Picro-nigrosin as a Stain for Neca 
PavuLsEen, E.—Staining Mucous Glands and Goblet-cells .. 
FRIEDLANDER, C.—Staining Capsule Micrococci aT ec 
Gintuer, C.—Staining Spirilla in Blood-preparations .. .. + 
DourreLeront & Scutitz—Staining Bacillus of Syphilis 
Gracominr’s (C.) Process for Preserving Microscopical Preparations 
Breyoort, H. L.— White Rosin as a Mounting Medium Soe, lear 


XXX1X 


Part 1 


” 


PAGE 
176 
176 
176 
177 
177 
178 
179 
180 
180 
181 
181 
182 
183 
341 
341 
341 
342 
342 
342 
343 
343 


343 
344 
344 
344 


344 
345 


346 
346 
346 
347 
347 
348 
349 


349 
350 


359 


xl CONTENTS. 


Suirn’s (H. L.) Newer Mounting Medium of High Refractive Index 
Meares’ (W. C.) New Medium of High Refractive Inder 4. us 
Morris's (W.) Mounting Medium .. . ao Teas aa Ee ctiaveewe 
SEAMAN’s (W. H.) Mounting Media of High Refractive Undet ennets 
Britran, W. C.—Black Ground for Opaque Mounts. «1 «1 
Burr, T. J.—ELchibiting the Streaming of Protoplasm .. .. « 
Geruacu, L.—Lzamining Embryo-growth in Birds’ Eggs 1. « 
Garrison. F. L.—LHazamining Iron and Steel .. 1. +5 us ewe 
Draver’s (E. T.) Graphic Microscopy «2 «2 «1 08 08 28 we 
BuysmMann's Vedicinal Plants .. .- ae} hoa 2 ge) Sees eee 
Fennessey, E. B.—A New Microscope Slide os) au ae! COI 
Hrrcucocs, R.—Liquid Preservative eo awe get ek eas 
Hunter, W.—Recent Histological Methods ., «1 «ss ss oe 0 
Moorez’s (A. Y.) Shdes of stained Amphipleura ie han ebeemats 
Tayior, J. E.—Hunting for Amebe BG en 1s 
GirForD, J. W.—Preparing Sections for Aaanstien ae the Highest 
Powers .. 
Warman, C. O. Osi Weg ap? Merhel’s Fluid for Palo Fishcoggs: Gc. 
APEL, W.—Wethod of Killing Gephyrea .. 
Grenxe, H.—Wacerating Mixture for central nervous sieien of a 
brates a os ae) © taal Gain ate a Ray eee 
Douvau, M.—Preparing sie Hot: s Bi ain) lade) Mates RS center 
Wurman, C.O.—Wounting the Blastoderm in toto. + «8 «8 os 


Korotnerr, A.—Preparing Siphonophora MM EDO hah 55 att. 02 
LenuossEk, M. v.—Preparing Spinal Ganglia Oi ob 50 5 
Lzewascuew, 8S. W.—Wodification of Pancreatic Cells airs ing active 

SCCrEtION 16 «6 08 v6 eee AD. vic. OF 


Hat, L. B.—Mounting Fresh- ante es PN aah Fi = OS. * oc 
Fou, H.—Cultivation of Microbes 12 se 08 we te www 
Brown, A. J.—Pure Cultivations of Bacterium aceti .. se ae we 
Bizzozero, G.—Wicrophytes of Normal Human Epidermis #3 
Guorieux—Preparing Tubercle-bacillus ..  «. is DOGO SE cee 
Scuvuize’s (F. E.) Dehydrating Apparatus (Fig. 109) PPPS i ai doi e200 
Ost, J.—Efficiency of the Micrometer-screw 4. 24 6s ssw 
Watney, J. E.—Rapid Section-cutting (Fig. 110).. 6. «1 06 ae 
Wuirman, C. O.—WNatural Injection of Leeches +1 se se ss 0 
Jaquet, M.—Wethods of Injecting Annelids 1s ss os oe new 
Barecci—Anilin Staining... .« . na is 
Marrinorti, G.—Chrome Alum in eroaepied Technine até 
Francorre, P.—Wodification of Arcangeli’s Carmine Stain .. 1. « 
Goue1, C.—Staining the Central Organs of the Nervous System ..  .. 
GELPEE, T.—Application of Weigert’s modified Hematoxylin Stain to 
the Peripheral Nervous System Sai. wtes Wie eee 
Summers, H. E.—Fizing Sections to the Slide.. .. .« « 
Prerce’s (J.) Cell for Opaques (Figs. 111 and ae Pita 
Ewinc, P.—WYounting Small Mosses.. .. sd sa ae 
H., J—Balsam Mounts .. . Pee ers! ac 
James, F. L.—Cleaning old and Wanda Slides ; 
Mapan, H. G.—WNote on some Organic Substances of High Refract 
Power Tiles tr aC owed os 2 mete 
Warp, M. §8.—Preparing Géetions of Hain Tootail AR 


Part 2 


PAGE 


356 
357 
357 
357 
358 
358 
359 
359 
360 
361 
362 
364 
364 
376 
530 


531 
531 
532 


532. 
532 
O34 
535 
535 


935 
536 
536 
536 
537 
537 
537 
938 
539 
540 
540 
541 
541 
042 
042 


044 
544 
545 
546 
547 
548 


548 
550 


CONTENTS. xlt 


PAGE 

MetrTzer, S. J., & W. H. ics i aap oli the Red Blood- 
corpuscles .. . « te S., Part. 4, 608 
Totson, J.—Counting Tisakcer genta Belge Sad Pee Ua ab eo a pelt 9 698 
Srery, Sr. v.—Obtaining Hemoglobin Crystals Pe Ar Lech are yescty ian~ 699 
Mays, R.—Preparing Muscle to show Nerve Extension ..  .. 7s 699 

Fiescu, M.—Demonstrating silat in Striated par ‘Fibre 
of Man .. ” 700 

GRUENHAGEN, A. fe an “Endothelial Bisson os the 
Primitive Nerve Sheath .. .. + 700 


Mayer, S.—Preparing Batrachian pee aa endeleay the Circulation ~ 700 
Rossier, R.—Preparing the Radula of Cephalophorous Mollusca .. .» 4 701 


Gites, G. W. M.—Thin Sections of i a = SAV TAtW ERR See 701 
Hamann, O.—Preparing Echinodermata... .. 61 4 ee we eo 702 
Biscuit, O.— Preserving Cilioflagellata .. «1 ee we ee wee gy 703 
CARPENTER, J.—Mounting Foraminifera in Balsam <i shy staal Mee ba 703 
Taytor, G. H.— Water-washed Diatoms.. .. ARE ery hare tage 703 
- a Cleaning Diatoms from ae Mua Bt TACO «a FP 704 
ENGELMANN’s (T. W.). Bacterium Method ar ect Boe eis. elk Bey: 705 
FREUDENREICH, E. DE—Solid Nutritive Media for Bates oe eee ey 705 
Hiprr, F.—Cultivation of Comma-bacilli., .. 1 se we ee we gy 705 
VouToLini—Special Criterion of Tubercle-bacilli ..  .. +s aw we gy ~S 706 
List, J. H.— Application of ‘‘ Ranvier’s” Alcohol .. .. «1 «+ «» 57 += 706 
Leg, A. B.—Schéillibaum’s Collodion.. .. enarsG 706 
Brass, A.—IJmbedding with Benzol and Cutting cary delicate Objects a aa 706 
Britran, W. C.—Sections of Teeth.. .. .. i 707 
Henxine’s (H.) Microtome Object-holder for acura adjusting the 
Object (Rigs AAT) veep apy te, ets es 708 
FiescH, M.—Staining a i 709 
pe pet Oo Gee Bs Se Weiger?’s F nee sere Stain for the 
Central Nervous System .. .. Ee ee 709 


WelceErt’s (C.) Improved Method for ie Central ects Systeme x er 710 
Marttiro.o, O.—Skatol and Carbazol, two new Reagents for Woody 


ERT Cra ae Be des kee aa ae 710 
Bory, C., & G. Wier —New F eaten Maden Safes’ alee ot Tae ss 711 
= eee) N.—Chlorophyll for Staining... .. aes io aC) ert 711 
Hucues, C. H.—Staining with Phenol and aca Sh Ag sc ms 712 
RiIspeRt—Staining Pneumonia-cocci.. .. AS tS 712 
GintTuHErR, K.—Staining Recurrens Spirilla in Bloodprowte sition A we 712 
FRIEDLANDER, C.—Staining Capsule-Cocct Be ak Pk) SA 33 713 


Fieminc, W.—After-Staining by the Haidenhain Method Sat ae kee, 713 


a » Nuclear Stain in Osmic Acid Preparations .. .. .. 4 718 


re » Demonstration of Goblet-cells ..  .. 5 714 
Erernop, A.— Horizontal Lathe for a and Polishing Fa ard Otc 
(Fig. 148)... .. ap bee ce ey 714 
Watt, O. A.— Various Kinds of ‘Slides UP ois iy ue a 714 
James, F. L.—Cleaning Slides .. .. a 716 
HippisLey, J.— Apparatus for Sorting tad ee Objects (Fig. 149) +p 716 
Suanks, S. G.—WMounting several Groups of small Microscopic Objects 
(ile ONES CODEN 3" Bisa) Avon Rew eel sane aed sed MeN Sos call “oe 2 717 
Cassia Oil for Mounting .. eee i eap ey cs). one miei 1 sy 717 
STEEL, T.—Mounting with Carbolic Aci. x 718 


Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. Wee Eo d 


xiii CONTENTS. 


GrirFitH, E. H.—Turntable Improvements .. « « « «+ o Part 4 719 


Dovewas, J. C.—Cover-glasses in the Tropics .. Re Bo 

HeybENREIOH, L.—Cover-glass Cement .. .. . 30 

Brnrens, W.—Amber-lac for closing Microscopical Pr wpandtine a0 

Booru, M. A.— Why do Dry Mounts Fail? 

LABELLING Slides... 660g B0 

Grirritus, EH. H.—Slide Teabcls 40. Gc 

EXTERNOD, A Cabinet for Microscopical Prop ations (Figs. 150- 152). 

Summers, H. H.—Jmproved Method of Constr pee: Slide Cabinets 
(CHigaAS3) ee eer “ Sree: 

Reryno.ps, R. N. = Pransnatting) Sections a Post cae nee 

Pout-Prnots, J.—Polarized Light as a means of recegnizing Irritable 
Conditions of the Nerves of the Scalp : 

Lockwoon, 8.—Ffeather-crystals of Uric Acid from a Cater sill Be 

Havsnorer, K.—Preparing Micro-crystals .. .. «2 «+ 

Lorw, O.—Wicro-chemical Demonstration of Albumen .. «1 + 

Mayme, A.—Wicro-chemical Reaction for Demonstrating Reducing Sugars 

Kaurowsky, E.—Polarization of Bi-axial Crystal Plates cut vertically 
14D C1 ORANGES sn pp 08 aa, 80 

Enocnr’s (F.) Sketches .. a elon eee 

FRAncorre’s (P.) Manual of Mier asain een een letey ie tcl mete 

Buse, W. G.—Preserving Paste Eels... 

C.—Lxamining Rare Fluids containing Cr stats or Lymph 

Cement, Insoluble .. .. « « 3 ; 

G., R.—Gum Tragacanth .. 39 bot ge ee 

Poeun, Rush, § Vegetable ‘Bory Pionaran Deh eee mein Mate 

SEYMOUR’S GI. L.) Injecting Apparatus .. 

W., E. W.—Cement for Micro Work... 


> 


Romitt, G.—Preventing the crumpling up of the Germinal Dise owed aeyeauttie) 


BizzozERo, G.—New Method for demonstrating Karyokinetic iigunese a 

List, J. H.—Reagents for studying the Structure of Gland-cells .. 

RouiertT, A.—Preparing Striated Muscular Fibres... 

Minor, C. 8.—ZJsolating the Epidermis of Human and other Dinibhajon 
from the Dermis HognOo. «00 

Bizzozmro, G.—Preparing Stratified Epithelia , 

Beiuonci, T.—Preparing Central Termination of Optic nore of 
Mammalia Bee ae vit Ait, ore. Obes 0 

Fiscun, J.—Preparing the Brain a, eS NE setae le 

Nisst—Laamination of the Cerebral Cor bes 

Kocanel, J.—Preparing the Iris of Man and Vortman 

Krause, W.—Preparing the Retina.. 

Barrett, J. W.—Preparation of the Eye jor ‘Histologiont Hamas a 

Fiemminc, W.—Substitute for Bone-grinding.. .. Oia 

FRENZEL, J.—Preparing Mid-gut Gland (Liver) of Molise 

Carnoy, J. B.—Karyokinesis in Arthropods Ne 

FRENZEL, J.—Preparing the Mid-gut of Insecta 

Fraront, J.—WVethods of Studying the Nervous System of Anmelids 

Waener, F. v.—Preparing the Nervous System of Myzostoma 

Brayiey, E. B. L.—WNatural Preservation es Rotifera aud Pond 
Organisms ob at ie ete 

MicuLta, W.—Preserving Pauraiens oF lye G8) i A LS 


PAGE 


719 
719 
720 
720 
721 
721 
721 


722 
723 


724 
724 
725 
725 
726 


726 
727 
728: 
729 
729 
729 
730 
732 
732 
732 
870 
870 
871 
872 


872 
873 


873 
873 
873 
874 
874 
875 
876 
876 
877 
877 
877 
878 


878 
880 


CONTENTS. xii 


PAGE 
Wirt, O. N.—Removal of Siliceous Coverings from Fossil Diatoms _., Part 5 880 
Hauser, G.— Byhegea SEFAZOMUYCOLGST cass ain 2 To MI teal foe tae - 881 
List, J. B.—New Hardening Mixture 1. se ce se newt og 882 
Strern’s (8. ee Simple Imbedding Apparatus .. 16 45 oe ee egy 882 
Vinassa, E.—Jmbedding Pharmaceutical Preparations .. 4. s+ 55 883 
Desy, J.—Imbedding Media for Diatoms.. .. ah ae 883 
SPENGEL, J. W.—Becker’s Sliding Microtome (Figs. 181 ne 182) Sk 884 
HI“pesranv’s (H. E.) Simple and Effective Microtome (Fig.183)  .. 5, 886 
Vinassa’s (E.) Vicrotome for Pharmacologists (Fiys. 184-186) .. .. 5, 887 
Wereert’s (C.) JImmersion Microtome for Large Sections - gs. 187 
ang W88)\. ie. Soper tag CC Taree 890 
Brass, A. = -Aecrotiine etic (Figs. 189 ee 190). sei Yoete bacterin hee 892 
» »  Lreparing Adhering Series of Sections (Fig. 191) eh kat TA, 892 
LenuossEK, M. v.—Apparatus for facilitating the preparation of 
Serial Sections (Fig.192).. .. . svete: Nie 893 
GirrorD, H.—Wethod for retaining Series of ae in Pon ae Alaa) ness 894 
EimInHNAIN S(t.) Staining Methodic% vs. - ahi igie’) en Sin ens Be G5 894 
KtKentTHaL, W.— Simplification of Staining” .. .. . A 894 
SanpMANN, G.—ZJsolating the Primitive Muscular Bundles aad Stacia 
Nerve-endings ..  «. an echt. OS one 895 
Gouel, C.—Staining black the eee: ean Gabquen eae Eve Weer. M7 896 
Marriott, G.—Bizzozero’s Picrocarmine .. .2 «2 «2 « s+ 9 896 
Pian CHP = Met hiyl-biue so, ‘set ias Sues o Aer Myo cae Dye. See ees 896 
JELGERSMA, G.—Anilin-blue-black 2. «2 0 au eee egg 896 
Souterrarpxcknn, P.—Anilin-green Fatal sah,” heat ee 24 897 
Prsenti—Modification of the Formula for ne, ee ja as ay a 897 
Fiescu, M.— Weigert’s Haematoxylin Stain... diy 898 
BrErver, C. E.—Staining in toto the Central ieee eee with 
Weigert’s Hematoxylin .. .. Sb ae Meas oat) Graces 898 
Garpini, A.— New Method of Bette. bi ee oe 899 
Fiescu, M.—Werkel’s Double Stain with Indigo and Caries eo Rea. 899 
Krause, W.— Watney’s Double Stain with Hematoxylin shh Gostsisee 139 900 
Srmnverine Diatoms .. . a ee tigiaed, esac) Miers MadkGe lh x6 hs bs 900 


Suitu’s (H. L.) New High- spafeaihine Media “COT hug Od Poon wane Aer 901 
Voxrcn, C. M., & R. Hrroscock— Was for Cells .. 1. 16 ss os 55 903 


Jupp, J. W.—The Mer OSCape tie: MIRE AIG S sctm fare) taslyillgee®, MisGi\, sans 904 
Brox, J. D.—New Methods and Mailing Boxes mriiieatie cr, Secu Ah aie tio ts Leee 904 
Buock, J.— Technique ee BO ob eens. een Mee er 905 
Burruam, T. H.—Preserving Menwis mee Scop UO be COMPUTA pico cope 1 oy 905 


MPRA, We TEChINGUE oa. aa, aia, aap IS doth dp ateny, > ae RADA doo age 906 
Minor. © Si——Sicining Dish wi sc, ive.” os, one ied! Vena fenutlce Fr 907 


QenEN. J.) W.—=—Grip Cement wi, vs. ses. wearer Ly Souk Meee <a % 907 
Rocrrs, W. A.—Sweating.. .. cee Mah Baw thu ee 907 
Srumons, W. J.—Method of using Baek a i 908 
Wiuurams, C. F. W. T.—Preparation of Epidermis, Moms Paton fe 5s 908 
Woopwarp, A. L.—Remounting Balsamed Objects in Fluid .. .. .. 908 
Carnoy, J. 3B. —Cytodieresis of the Egg) ay sec as 08, ay saan Se Part 6 1069 
Coun, A. C.—Preparing Spermatozoa... ingly BW a3 aolOTO 
Merk, L.—Demonstrating the mucous eae af the A es the Trout 

Embryo .. on diese: ty LOT 


Vircuow, H. Bend Cells - ie meena: in Caan. eal BO = 5 crawl 


xliy CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Unwna, P. G.—Freparing Elastic Tissue of the Skin.. ..» o» « eo» Part 6 1071 


EivERssuscn, O.—Preparing the Iris... « a dos oc 
Lenuossi&Kx, M. von—Preparing Spinal Ganglia of the Bg. ee 
GrReENAcHER, H.—Preparing Eyes of Heteropoda .. ++ «6s os 
La VALETTE Str. GrorGce, v.—Preparing Spermatic ener of Cock- 


TOUCH je wae sce 1 Sole: | aot Sale pero amt 
DELAGE, Y.—Prepari on Aosions Bhabdocula iv Taps). ate tee ene 
Puate, L.—Preparing Rotatoria .. yy sis | tae eto ene ae 
Coxz, A. C.—Mounting Spicules of Goraenis fie: TH llisiot. pdla fale eto aes 
Braun, M.—Preparation of Anthozoa 4. «+ «4 40 os oe we 
Vaiss, H. pE—Prevention of Browning in Plant Preparations .. .. 
BEHRENS, J.—Preparing Fucus vesiculosus .. . a 


Witetr, C. L.— Separating Desmids, Diatoms, and aie ne ee ae 
Deszs, E.—Collection and Treatment of Living Diatoms aia OMe niets 
TRUARN Y LuaRD, A.—WMounting Diatoms  .. 1» oe ae ne 
Hircucock, R.—Mounting Isthmia .. 1. oe «+ 08 oF or 
BacumMann, E.—WMicro-chemical reactions of Gaehens FAL shriek on 

Errera, L. Danie ating Glycogen in the Basidiomycetes .. 1. «+ 


ZALEWsEI, A.—Demonstrating the Nucleus in Yeast €ells .. 11 
Ryper, J. A.—/mbedding Fish Eggs iia: Valor sie © dois) vee aoa 
Nacuet’s Microtome (Figs.. 238 and 239) vie aaa aye Senite oe cant ami 


SCHIEFFERDECKER’S New Microtome (Figs. 240-242) .. «. « 
GorrscHav, M.—Lffciency of the Micrometer Screw AGM 
Brawuns, R.—Use of Methylene Lodide for Petrographical ae Optical 
Purposes 1. « S08 
QUEEN, J. W.—IJmproved Whitney Scotion: Mappa (Fig. "043) 
Sepewics, W. T., & G. E. Stone—Alcoholic Drip for the TO eed 


Microtome (Figs. DAA an 240) ee” tere cost ete) eo) ee Te 
ScHALLIBAUM’s (H.) Fixation Method .. .. os 
Exe.icu's (P.) Hematoxylin Solution .. s 


Benpa, C.—WNew Staining Method for the Central eas ee 
Exnruicu, P.—Action of Methyl-blue on Living Nervous Tissue 


Wirric, A.—Gold Chloride for Sclerosis of Nervous Tissue .. . s+ 
Kitnstier, J.—Fizing and Staining Flagellata  .. «1 cs oe ae 
B.Sc.—Double-stained Botanical Preparations ., 1. ss ss 0s os 


Beppow, F.—Double Staining Vegetable Sections .. .. .. 

ScHouz, H.— Congo Red as a reagent for free acid' .. 1. .. os 5 

GortstrIn, A.—Decoloration of Stained Nuclei and Micro-organisms by 
salt solutions 

OBERSTEINER’S (H.) Seation sinter (Fig. 246) . a0 

WsNA, P21G.— Washing Sections t.ne tet ies) Wrest ees vee ees 

Minot, C. 8S.—Histological Technique  .. 4. ss an we 

List, J. H.— Lau de Javelle ; : 

HetnricHer, E.—LZaw de Javelle as a Jak Hors very wine ‘Star a 
particles .. .. Abie ice ° aie Trae Naeem 

Wirt, O. N.—Resins used for Berge Pungo Apibectecadacs 50 

LAzaro & IpizA—Carbolated Glycerin-gelatin ., «1 se we we 


SurroLK, W. T.—WMounting in Glycerin-jelly .. 1. 

JoLy, J.—WNeedle for manipulating objects sy inerael m Cae Bae 
(Citi ZA og Cb os? Wot Yai Ser Maeest Ome 

GrirritH (E. H.) Trntaeee (Figs. 248-250) BoM Haima Ub) cai 5 


Hitcucock, R.—Shellac Cement oe sig Non ivle, anes Lee Fe ea 


1072 
1072 
1072 


1073 
1073 
1074 
1074 
1075 
1075 
1076 
1076 
1077 
1079 
1079 
1081 
1081 
1081 
1081 
1082 
1084 
1087 


1087 
1088 


1088 
1089 
1090 
1090 
1090 
1091 
1091 
1091 
1092 
1092 


1092 
1093 
1093 
1094 
1094 


1095 
1095 
1097 
1097 


1098 
1099 
1102 


CONTENTS. xlv 


PAGE 
BIBLIOGRAPHY—MICROSCOPY a se a6 rue a, Yan cat os ark bY 148 
A ~~ 2337 

” PG wy a 

s 3 pe te Re ee ee 

x Peer Besa os 8 St areee ce Tie ie BAF 

= Pe A as OS™ i aeet Sear er ear 61066 
WEGRGNOOR Ascot tan) ae aac ca Nes eek tek Lee Park 178 
a ee aa seen aot «nln aaa eet. et SE 

re 5 p » & 945 

” «=. & (28 

” » 0 904 

” s 61101 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY— 
BIBGEMNEr GION ese Wade = sem dak Vee sm ect Wad les) cas (art) Ly 1st 
January 13,1886 .. .. Silt ale Neves Wh ter eicle sid ft 188 
February 10, 1886 (Annual Means Oh, bodes Wall. wesl eee “ea barber ous 


Report of the Council for 1885 oN OL Bee MECN ed maya ae 370 
Treasurer’s Account for 1885 a & See ee PUY oe, Piao 5s 372 
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June 9, 1886 ze 0) Vax coe sa ees ERD 
November 25, 1885 (Conversazione) try bre Tee ee 
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October 13, 1886 BGP) Se neg iy tee Ep ane rite er Part 6 1104 
NEMEMNI NCE LOS ESO) 6 ces Cask spay Cte, A icale oh ines nen cay eee ame OS 
EAMM TE ect octets wu 28m de) Mae esky Agee, ee ec) cc tog Sb 


Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. 


) 


yal 


LTC 
Sak 


West, Nevanan &Co-lith. 


A.W.B.del.aduat. 


istrict. 


Alge &e. of English Lake-D 


JOURN.R-MICR.SOC. SER IIVOL VERE IL. 


West, Newman &Co-lith. 


Algee &c. of English Lake-District. 


A W.B .del.aduat. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


FEBRUARY 1886. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. 


I.—Fresh-water Alge (including Chlorophyllaceous Protophyta) - 
of the English Lake District; with descriptions of twelve 
new species. 


By Aurrep W. Bewyert, F.R.MS., F.LS., Lecturer on Botany 
* at St. Thomas’s Hospital. 


(Read 13th January, 1886.) 


Puates I. anv II. 


Tue following is a record of the fresh-water organisms observed 
during a six weeks’ stay in August and the early part of September 
1885, in the district between Windermere and Langdale, West- 
moreland. As nearly every day’s observation added some fresh 
species to the list, it 1s probable that the record is a very incom- 
plete one of the microscopic aquatic flora of this very rich district. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. anp II. 


Fig. 1.—WMerismopedia? paludosa Benn. x 600. 
2.—Nostoc hyalinum Benn. X 200. 
; % ‘3 portion of trichome, with heterocyst x 600, 
»  4.—Pediastrum compactum Benn. x 400. 
+ : oF % marginal cell x 1200. 
»  §.—NMicrasterias cornuta Benn. x 200. 
7.—Holocystis oscitans Hass., most perfect form x 200. 


sys Oe 5 » another form x 200. 

eo os ss » dividing x 200. 

LO: a » empty frustule x 200. 

» 11.—Luastrum multilobatum Wood x 400. 

a LIE a4 ornithocephalum Benn. x 400. 
nL: 2 Lundelltt Benn. x 400. 

5) WAS 3 crenatum Ktz., empty frond x 400. 
» 15.—~Cosmarium Wittrockii Lund. x 400. 

hy Gs os oblongum Benn. x 400. 


» 17.—Xanthidium spinulosum Benn. x 400. 
Ser. 2.—Vo1. VI. B 


2 Transactions of the Society. 


Nor does it include even all the species actually observed, but only 
such as previous knowledge or the books at command enabled me 
to identify, or such as I had reason to believe were hitherto un- 
described forms. In particular the Oscillariacee and Diatomacez 
require much more careful working out. 

The Desmidiez naturally form a considerable portion of the 
list. During the year 1884 the most important addition to 
the literature of this interesting class since Ralfs’s ‘ British Des- 
midies’ (1848) has been made, in the publication of the Rev. F. 
Wolle’s ‘ Desmids of the United States.’ Although something has 
been done in the interval by Archer, Cooke, Bisset, and others, 
yet, notwithstanding the great beauty and variety of the form in 
desmids, and the ease with which a large number of species can be 
recognized, it is probable that more still remains to be done in this 
group than in any other of the English flora. It is impossible to 
praise too highly the beauty and accuracy of the drawings, as a 
whole, in Ralfs’s work. In many instances, however, my measure- 
ments ranged somewhat larger than those of the veteran desmidio- 
logist. 

‘ With regard to the distribution of desmids, many species seem . 
to be almost ubiquitous, occurring in nearly all gatherings, from 
all altitudes. Whether other species are, like those of flowermg 
plants, limited in geographical area or in adaptability to climate, is 
a question which has yet to be answered, and the answering of 
which will be by no means easy. I have thought, however, that I 
have noticed that the larger and more striking species are especially 
abundant at high altitudes. Gatherings from about 1800 feet, 
above Codale and Hasedale Tarns, were especially rich in these. 

Unless otherwise stated, all the species named were observed in 
the district of Loughrigg, Westmoreland. The gatherings were 


Fig. aM Nes bullosum Benn. x 400. 


en: “Fy ae empty frond x 400. 

35 a BS 6 front view x 400. 

a s teliferum Ralfs var. convexum Benn., front view x 400. 
a5 ee + a dividing, early stage x 400. 

Bs Os Bs nA later stage x 400. 

» 24. 6 tuberculatum Benn. x 400. 

9) 20s enorme Ralfs x 400. 


BA PAGS — Tetmemorus penioides Benn. x 200. 


» 27.—Zygnema cruciatum Cleve, zygosperm germinating while in parent- 
cell x 200. 


% Le Rah Benn., filament in non-conjugating condition 
x F 


ends) 55 i filament before conjugation x 200. 
re aby os filaments in conjugation x 200. 
rye _—Mesocarpus ? neaumensis Benn. x 200. 

59 Os 5 with zygosperm x 200 


Sy A GBP — Edogonium macrandrum Wittr. x 200. 


Fresh-water Algx, &e. By A. W. Bennett. 3 


made especially from bog and moor pools, wet rocks, and the 
smaller streams. None were taken from the larger streams or 
lakes.* 


PROTOPHYTA. 


PAaLMELLACE2. 


Eremosphera viridis dBy. 
Gleeocystis vesiculosa Nag. 

‘5 rupestris Rabh. 

: botryoides ? Ktz. 
Schizochlamys gelatinosa A. Br. 
Palmella mucosa Ktz. 
Botryococcus Braunii Ktz. 


What may possibly prove to be a second species of this genus 
was frequently met with in bog pools. Each colony was about 
40 uw in diameter, composed as a rule of thirty-two cells, with no 
evident investing gelatmous envelope, swimming with considerable 
velocity and at the same time rotating in the water, without any 
apparent motive power. The cells themselves were elliptical, and 
filled with a light green endochrome. 


Rhaphidium faleatum Cooke (R. polymorphum var. ¢ fal- 
catum Rabh.). 
Nephrocytium Agardhianum Nig. 
" Nagelii Griin. 
Ophiocytium cochleare A. Br. 
I take this to be identical with O. majus Nag.; but is the 
genus rightly placed under vegetable organisms at all ? 
Scenedesmus acutus Mey. 
“ quadricauda Bréb. 


PRoTOCOCCACER. 


Protococcus viridis Ag. 
Chlorococcum gigas Grtin. 
Chlamydococcus pluvialis? A. Br. 


CHROOCOCCACER. 


Chroococcus turgidus Nag. Wetherlam, Lancashire. 
Aphanocapsa virescens Rabh. 


Forming jelly-like masses on a moist rock along with Nostoc 
humifusum. 


* The names of new species are printed in SMALL CAPITALS; those of species 
new to Britain in italics. 
B 2 


4 Transactions of the Society. 


Aphanocapsa rivularis Rabh. 

Forming large green shining jelly-like masses on grasses 
hanging over into a spring on Park Fell, Lancashire, inclosing 
numerous rhizopods, diatoms, &c. 

Microcystis marginata Kirch. 


This interesting organism was observed several times in gather- 
ings from moor pools. The pale blue-green cells were seen to be 
in constant motion within the hyaline investing membrane. 


Merismopedia glauca Nag. Wetherlam, Laneashire. 
MERISMOPEDIA ? PALUDOSA nD. Sp. Plate I. fig. 1. 


Each family composed of eight cells, closely packed together 
without intermediate spaces, and with no evident gelatinous en- 
velope. Cells square in outline with rounded corners, remarkably 
regular in form, and each divided into four; cell-contents blue- 
ereen. Length of colony, 50 «; breadth, 25 w; cells 12°5 » in 
length and breadth.* 

The small number of cells in a colony, and the absence of 
spaces between the cells, seem sufficient to characterize the species. 
It was gathered in bog pools, Loughrigg. 


OscILLARIACER. 


Oscillaria violacea, Rabh. 
#5 tenuis Ag. 
Lyngbya ochracea Thar. 
e inundata Cooke (Phormidium inundatum Ktz.). 
Ambleside. 


SIROSIPHONEZ. 


Stigonema saxicolum? Nag. On damp rocks, along with 
Nostoc humifusum. 


NostTocacEZ. 


Anabeena Hassallii Nords. & Wittr. 

Cylindrospermum macrospermum Ktz. 

catenatum Ralfg. Furness Fells, Lanca- 
shire. 

Nostoc humifusum Carm. On moist rocks. 

Nostoc HYALINUM n. sp. Figs. 2, 3. 


9) 


Free-swimming, very minute. Gelatinous envelope globose or 
slightly ellipsoidal, 0°21 mm. in diameter, lamellose, perfectly 
colourless and transparent. ‘Trichome single in each envelope, 

* These measurements correspond nearly with those given by Nageli 


(‘Gattungen einzelliger Algen’) for MU. glauca, but I cannot reconcile Dr. Cooke’s 
relative measurements of the different species of Merismopedia with his plates. 


Fresh water Alge, &c. By A. W. Bennett. 5 


interwoven. Cells ellipsoidal or nearly globose, green, 5 mw in 
diameter (about forty to the length of the envelope). Heterocysts 
intercalary, very few in number, three to four in each envelope, 
spherical, green, 6—7 y in diameter. 

Several specimens obtained from a bog pool, Loughrigg Fell. 
It bears some resemblance to N. minutissimum Ktz., but is much 
smaller, and the trichomes are much less densely packed in the 
hyaline envelope. According to Kiitzing all the free-swimming 
Nostocs are attached at first; but this does not seem to be the case 
with this species. 

ALG. 


PEDIASTRES. 


Pediastrum angulosum Ehrb. 

BS Boryanum Turp. 

is Ehrenbergii A. Br. 
PrpIasTRUM comPactuM n. sp. Figs. 4, 5. 


Cceenobium oval and perfectly regular, 0°09-0'16 mm. in 
length (or probably more), rather more than half as broad as long. 
Periphery composed of thirty-two lunate cells (in the smaller speci- 
mens), with two somewhat divergent, very slender tapering, not 
bidentate horns, quite as long as the cells themselves. Inner cells 
irregularly polygonal and densely packed, without any lacuna, in 
2-4 rows. Ccenobium invested with a distinct gelatinous en- 
velope. Endochrome yellow-green; that of the peripheral cells of 
a deeper colour, which gives the appearance, under a low power, of 
a deep green border. Length of cells about 6 pu. 

Bog pools, Loughrigg, not infrequent. ‘The perfectly regular 
elliptical form, the much yellower endochrome, and the absence of 
any interstitial spaces between the cells, give this Pediastrum a 
very distinct appearance from all others with which I am ac- 
quainted. In shape it resembles P. ellipticwm Ehrb. (judging ~ 
from Ralfs’s figure), but differs widely in other respects. 


ULOTRICHACE. 


Hormiscia moniliformis Rabh. 
as cateniformis ? Ktz, 
Ulothrix zonata Ktz. Grisedale, Cumberland. 


CoNFERVAOEZ. 


Conferva fontinalis Berk. 
4 tenerrima Ktz. 
»  bombycina Ag. 
Microspora vulgaris Rabh. 
floccosa Thur. 


” 


6 Transactions of the Society. 


CH#TOPHORACEE. 
Draparnaldia glomerata Ag. Furness Fells, Lancashire. 


On previous occasions of observing this beautiful plant, I have 
been struck with the extremely long hyaline seta with which the 
branches end, many times longer than the green portion of the 
branch. This is not so figured in this species by either Hassall, 
Kiitzing, or Cooke, though it is in other less common species of 
the genus. 

DIATOMACEH. 


Eunotia Arcus W.Sm. Above Easedale Tarn. 
,,  diodon Ehrb. 
Cymbella Ehrenbergii Ktz. 
a affinis Ktz. 
Surirella biseriata Bréb. 
» linearis W. Sm. 
»  pinnata W. Sm. 
Nitzschia sigmoidea W. Sm. Above Easedale Tarn. 
» linearis W. Sm. 
»  Amphioxys W. Sm. 
Navicula rhomboides Ehrb. 
5,  rhyncocephala Ktz. 
As ovalis W. Sm. 
»,  amphirhynchus W. Sm. 
Pinnularia major W. Sm. 
- viridis W. Sm. 
mA oblonga W. Sm. 
a lata W. Sm. 
. acuta W. Sm. 
= radiosa W. Sm. 
gracilis Ehrb. 
Stauroneis Phoenicentrum Ehrb. 
65 gracilis Ehrb. 
pe anceps EKhrb. 
Synedra pulchella ? Ktz. 


a minutissima Ktz. 
» radians W. Sm. 
a Ulna Ehrb. 
ee fasciculata Ktz. 
Gomphonema geminatum Ag. Ambleside. 
as constrictum Ehrb. Do. 
e acuminatum Ehrb. Do. 
is tenellum W. Sm. Do. 
Himantidium pectinale Ktz. 
+6 undulatum W. Sm. 


+ Arcus W. Sm. 


Fresh-water Alge, &c. By A. W. Bennett. a 


Odontidium hiemale Ktz. Ambleside. 
Fragilaria capucina Desm. 
Diatoma vulgare Bory. 
» grande W. Sm. 
»  ¢longatum Ag. 
Tabellaria flocculosa Ktz. 
E fenestrata Ktz. 
Melosira varians Ag. 


DESMIDIEZ. 
Hyalotheca dissiliens Sm. 
Didymoprium Borreri Ralfs. 
Desmidium Swartzii Ag. 
i quadrangulatum Ralfs. 
Frequent in bog pools, Loughrigg, forming, together with 
Hyalotheca dissiliens, dense green slimy floating masses. 
Spheerozosma vertebratum Bréb. 


- excavatum Ralfs. 
Micrasterias denticulata Bréb. 
: rotata Grev. 


MIcRASTERIAS CORNUTA 2. sp. Fig. 6. 


Frond oval, very large, 0°355 mm. in length, 0°305 mm. 
in breadth. The two terminal lobes urn-shaped, very light green, 
slightly projecting beyond the margin, and quite distinct for their 
whole length, reaching down to an oval quite colourless piece in 
the centre; ends of terminal lobes colourless, concave, not dentate 
or fimbriate. Each quarter with two deep and three less deep 
incisions. Margin 27°5 wu wide, perfectly colourless, consisting of 
six distinct pieces, each with a deep indentation. 

Stream between Codale and Stickle Tarns, at an elevation of 
about 1800 feet. Seems quite distinct, not only from its very 
large size, but in other characters. Differs from M. denticulata in 
the prominence and distinctness of the terminal lobes; from 
M. rotata in the terminal lobes and segments of the colourless 
margin not being bidentate. 


Micrasterias fimbriata Ralfs, 
. papillifera Bréb. 
3 truncata Corda. 
eS crenata Bréb. 
Holocystis oscitans Hass. (Micrasterias oscitans Ralfs ; 
Tetrachastrum mucronatum and oscitans Dixon ; Micras- 
terias mucronata auct.). Figs. 7-10. 


This very polymorphic species seems to me to have been well 
separated by Hassall as the type of a distinct genus ; and, according 


8 Transactions of the Society. 


to the laws of priority in nomenclature in use among phanero- 
gamic botanists, his name excludes Dixon’s J'etrachastrum. The 
complete absence of radiating lobes and of marginal incisions, as 
noted by Hassall, separates it well from Micrasterias. The general 
form and the thickness of the frond seems to me indeed to bring 
it nearer to Euastrum, which genus it approaches through 
E. pectinatum. The most perfectly developed form is that repre- 
sented in fig. 7, which is not, however, drawn by either Hassall, 
Ralfs, or Wolle. ‘The apical segment is bidentate; the basal 
segment bidentate at the base, and with an additional tooth on the 
shoulder; but any or all of the teeth may be wanting; and that 
this does not constitute specific difference is seen by the frequent 
occurrence of specimens, as shown in fig. 8, in which the two 
halves exhibit this character in very different degrees. Fig. 9 
represents an individual dividing. The cell-wall is finely punctate, 
as shown in fig. 10. The size is as variable as the form. In the 
specimen figured, the length of the frond is 175 ~; breadth of 
basal segment, 140 »; of apical segment, 115 p ; breadth of isthmus, 
30 ww; width of neck, 55 w. Both Ralfs’s and Wolle’s measurements 
are smaller; but I have seen specimens considerably larger. ; 

Very common in bog pools. In the genus Holocystis I should 
include Micrasterias pinnatifida Ralfs, M. laticeps Nords., M. 
Kitchelit Wolle, and M. disputata Wood (probably none of these 
are specifically distinct) ; also Huastrum intermedium Cleve, 
and var. cuspidatum Wolle, and E. urneforme Wolle. 


’ Euastrum yerrucosum Ehrb. Yewdale Fells, Lancashire, 


and Ambleside. 
Ms oblongum Grev. 
a mulitlobatum Wood (‘Fresh-water Algze of 


North America,’ p. 135, t. xii. f. 10). Fig. 11. 


Length of frond, 90 w; breadth, 65 w; breadth of isthmus, 
25 pw. Differs from EH. oblongum in its smaller size and in the 
more horizontal direction of the lobes, but agrees in general out- 
line. The terminal lobe is also quite undivided by any vertical 
incision. The specimens observed by me correspond very closely 
to Wood's description and figure; the species has apparently not 
been observed before in Europe. Bog pool, Loughrigg. 


Euastrum crassum Bréb. 


55 pinnatum Ralfs. 

ay affine Ralfs. 

s ampullaceum Ralfs. 
~ insigne Hass. 

o cuneatum Jen. 


This seems to mea very well-marked species. 


Fresh-water Algx, &c. By A. W. Bennett. 9 


Kuastrum Didelta Turp. 


& ansatum Ehrb. 
2 circulare Hass. 
Pe pectinatum Bréb. 
a gemmatum Bréb. 


ey rostratum Ralfs. 
EUASTRUM ORNITHOCEPHALUM n. sp. Fig. 12. 


Frond minute, 57 w long, 30 w broad. Hach frustule with a 
basal and central rounded lobe, and a terminal lobe moderately 
deeply divided vertically, and with a single projecting tooth, the 
lobe resembling a bird’s head. Sutural division somewhat shallow. 
Cell-wall tuberculated. Near to H. rostratum and to E. pseud- 
elegans Turn. (Journ. R. Micr. Soc., 1885, p. 935), from the 
United States, but somewhat larger; the terminal lobe resembling 
that of H. elegans. Bog pool, Loughrigg. 


Kuastrum elegans Bréb. 8 inerme Ralfs. 
= binale Turp. 
EKvastrom Lunpeui n. sp. (EH. binale y elobatwm Lund., 
Desm. Suec., p. 23, t. u. f. 7). Fig. 13. 


Frond very minute, 28 yw long, 14 pw broad, truncately elliptical 
in outline. Frustule three-lobed ; terminal lobe truncate, gibbous, 
slightly concave, entire, 11 w broad. Sutural constriction deep. 
Each frustule with a moderately conspicuous projection in the 
centre. 

Among Sphagnum, Loughrige. Agrees in form and size with 
Lundell’s variety of H. binale, but seems sufficiently distinct to 
merit specific rank. 


Euastrum erosum Lund. 
ia insulare Wittr. 
5 crenatum Ktz. (Phyc. Germ., p. 185). Fig. 14. 


Frond minute, about the size of H. elegans, 45 wlong, 30 wu 
broad, hexagonal in outline; terminal lobe with quite straight ex- 
tremity and very slight vertical incision, 20 ~ broad. Each frustule 
with about three shallow crenations on each side. Suture shallow. 

Cell-wall not punctated. 
; Bog pool, Loughrigg. This little-known species presents well- 
marked distinctions from H. elegans. Although named in Ralfs’s 
‘ British Desmidiez,’ it does not appear to have been noticed in 
Britain before. 


Cosmarium sublobatum Arch. (Huastrum sublobatum Bréb). 


This species seems clearly to have been placed in the wrong 
genus by Brébisson and Ralfs. 


10 Transactions of the Society. 


Cosmarium quadratum Rallfs. 
‘ Cucumis Corda. 
; Ralfsii Bréb. 
# pyramidatum Bréb. 
e crenatum Ralfs. 
undulatum Corda. | 
# tetraophthalmum Ktz. Above Easedale Tarn. 
55 Botrytis Bory. 


* margaritiferum Turp. 
a“ Brébissonii Menegh. A good species. 
x speciosum Lund. 
This beautiful species has already been recorded from Ireland 
by Archer. 
m amoenum Bréb. 
A celatum Ralfs. 
- ornatum Ralfs. 
a cristatum Ralfs. Furness Fells and Wetherlam, 
Lancashire. 


.: Logiense Biss. (Journ. R. Micr. Soc. 1884, » 
p. 194, t. v. fig. 4). 
mM turgidum Bréb. 
ss Cucurbita Bréb. 
. moniliforme Turp. 
Wittrockii Lund. (Desm. Suec., p. 31, t. iii. 
f.14). Fig. 15. 


Frond very minute, shape of C. margaritiferum, but not 
crenulated, nearly circular in outline, 25 w long, 22°5 pw broad; 
the two frustules slightly unequal; constriction deep; isthmus 
10 w broad. Cell-wall not punctated, perfectly smooth. 

Frequent in bog pools, Loughrige; not recorded before in 
Britain. Certainly a mature form, as it was several times seen in 
division. 

Cosmarium oblongum mihi (Cosmariwm sp. Reinsch, Cont., 
p. 82, t. xlu. f. 3). Fig. 16. 


Frond minute, 55 pu long, 22 w broad at its broadest part; each 
frustule elliptical, longer than broad, equally rounded at the base 
and the apex; isthmus 11 m broad. Cell-wall not punctated, per- 
fectly smooth. 

Bog pools, Loughrigg ; new to Britam. Resembles C. monili- 
forme, except that the frustules are elliptical instead of circular. 


Xanthidium armatum Bréb. 


: aculeatum Ehrb. 
i fasciculatum Ehrb. 


XANTHIDIUM SPINULOSUM n. sp. Plate II. fig. 17. 


Fresh-water Algz, &c. By A. W. Bennett. ft 


Frond moderately large, the shape of X. fusciculatum; each 
frustule elliptical or slightly hexagonal, 80 u long by 40 p deep; 
isthmus 60 ». Each frustule furnished with four pairs of geminate 
curved spines about 25 uw long; the whole of the rest of the edge 
ciliated with closely set spines or teeth, in one specimen about 
12 w long, in another specimen much shorter. Endochrome very 
granular, with a lighter less granular portion in the centre of each 
frustule. 

Stream between Codale and Stickle Tarns, at an elevation of 
about 1800 feet. Resembles X. fasccculatum in general outline, 
the length and breadth of the frond being almost exactly the same ; 
but the constriction between the frustules is much less deep, and 
the secondary spines seem sufficient to establish it as a distinct 
species. 


STAURASTRUM BULLOSUM n. sp. Figs. 18-20. 


Frond moderately large; each frustule elliptical, more than 
twice as long as broad; 85 wu long, 38 w wide, triangular in front 
view, united by a narrow isthmus 35 w wide. Lach frustule with 
a hemispherical projection which is very conspicuous, especially on 
front view. Frond and projection uniformly verrucose. Both 
frond and projection fringed with colourless equidistant unbranched 
subulate spines. 

Among moss in stream flowing out of Loughrigg Tarn, and 
elsewhere, apparently frequent. In outline and the equidistance of 
the spines, and in the triangular front view, this beautiful species 
is distinctly a Stawrastrum, but it is double the diameter of S. 
teliferum, which it most nearly resembles. The hemispherical pro- 
jection on each frustule, which is remarkably conspicuous, seems to 
indicate an affinity with Xanthidiwm, some species of which it 
closely resembles in general appearance. 


Staurastrum dejectum Bréb. Forms a and 4. 
EB Dickiei Ralfs. 


bs muticum Bréb. 

a muricatum Bréb. 

5 hirsutum Ehrb. 

3 teliferum Ralfs @ convexum un. var. Figs. 
21-23. 


One of the commonest Stawrastra in moor pools. I am 
unable to distinguish it from Ralfs’s species except by the sides 
being slightly convex, and therefore regard it as a variety of 
that species, which both Ralfs and Wolle describe as having con- 
cave sides on front view. The spines are much stouter and less 
numerous than in S. hirsutum. The process of division of this 
species is extremely interesting, and presents one of the most rapid 


12 Transactions of the Society. 


instances of growth with which I am acquainted. In one example, 
when first observed (fig. 22) the new pieces were but slightly 
smaller than the old pieces, only partially filled with endochrome, 
and the cell-wall perfectly smooth. While under observation and 
drawing they grew to their full size, and became entirely filled 
with endochrome. The first appearance of spines was now seen; 
they rapidly increased in stoutness, and within an hour from the 
time of first observation the new individuals were perfectly formed. 
During the whole of this time the individual was in constant 
motion, but became quiescent as soon as the new formation was 
completed. ‘The pair remained in contact till the next morning. 


Staurastrum Pringsheimii Reinsch. 
A alternans Bréb. 
‘3 punctulatum Bréb. 
Rs dilatatum Ehrb. 
3 polymorphum Bréb. 
s eracile Ralfs. 
a levispinum Biss. (Journ. R. Mier. Soc., 1884, 
p. 195, t. v. fig. 5). 
- controversum Bréb. 
STAURASTRUM TUBERCULATUM n. sp. Fig. 24, 


Frond moderately large, 70 « long by 55 pw broad ; each frustule 
nearly hexagonal in shape, 37 « broad at the apex, 30 pw at the 
isthmus; the terminal and upper lateral edges nearly straight or 
slightly convex ; the lower lateral edges concave. The whole margin, 
except the lower lateral edges, rough with pearly granules, which 
are larger at the corners. Surface of frond tuberculated. 

Bog pool, Loughrigg. Belongs to the ‘section with concave 
sides; near to S. natidwm Arch. and S. Sebaldz Reinsch. 


Staurastrum ? enorme Ralfs. Fig. 25. 


This rare and remarkable desmid was gathered in a bog pool on 
Park Fell. Although, as described by Ralfs, it is by far the least 
symmetrical species of the genus, the bilateral symmetry is never- 
theless seen in certain positions. The frustules are tuberculated, 
and from each tubercle springs a cluster of hyaline spines with a 
common base. Some writers give this as a synonym of Polyedrium 
enorme dBy., but probably in error, as a figure in Cooke’s ‘ British 
Fresh-water Alge’ certainly does not represent this plant. 

Arthrodesmus conyvergens Ehrb, 
i Incus Bréb. 
Cylindrocystis diplospora Lund. (Desm. Suec., p. 83, t. v. 
fig. 7.) 


Frequent. Probably frequently overlooked from its resemblance 
to the bicellular condition of a Mesocarpus, but easily distinguished 


Fresh-water Algx, dc. By A. W. Bennett. 13 


by its smaller size, and the very light green endochrome, with a 
distinct vesicle in the centre of each semi-cell or frustule. 


Tetmemorus Brebissonii Menegh. 


Zygosperm large, orbicular, olive-brown, about 1°66 times 
diameter of frond, not inclosed in a membrane, resembling there- 
fore that of T. granulatus rather than of T. levis. 


Tetmemorus levis Ktz. 
i eranulatus Bréb. 
TETMEMORUS PENIOIDES 0. sp. Fig. 26. 


Frond about the size of T. granulatus, 190 w long, by 47°5 w 
broad, linear-elliptic, distinctly notched at each extremity, but 
without any lip-lke process. Margin continuous, with scarcely 
any constriction. Cell-wall not punctated or granulated. 

Among Sphagnum, Furness Fells, Lancashire, apparently 
frequent. ‘This species appears to form a connecting link between 
the genera Tetmemorus and Peniwm. The absence of a central 
constriction is characteristic of the latter genus, while the terminal 
notch seems to bring it under the former. 


Penium margaritaceum Ehrb., vars. a and y Ralfs. 
»  eylindrus Ehrb. 
»  polymorphum Perty. 
» lagenaroides Roy. (Journ. R. Micr. Soc., 1884, 
pe 127, t,¥. fie. 6); 
,», cucurbitinum Biss. (1. c. p. 197, t. v. fig. 7). 
»  digitus Ehrb. 
» interruptum Bréb. Park Fell. 
»  closterioides Ralfs. 
»  truncatum Bréb. 
5,  Brebissonii Ralfs. 
Docidium nodulosum Bréb, Ambleside. 


5 truncatum Bréb. 

6 clavatum Ktz. 

a baculum Bréb. 
Spirotzenia condensata Bréb. 

3 obscura Ralfs, Furness Fells. 
Clostertum Lunula Mill. 

‘ acerosum Schrank. , 


e turgidum Ehrb. Park Fell. 

% Ehrenbergii Menegh. 

be Dianz Ehrb. 

As didymotocum Corda var. 8 Ralfs. 
is costatum Corda. 

striolatum Ehrb. 


14 Transactions of the Society. 


Closterium intermedium Ralfs. 
»  juncidum Ralfs. 
3 cornu Ehrb. 
$5 acutum Bréb. 


ZYGNEMACER. 
Zygnema cruciatum Cleve. Fig. 27. 


This is much the commonest species of the order in the moun- 
tain streams. It was rarely seen in conjugation; and in lateral 
conjugation not at all. Measurements showed in some instances 
the female cells distinctly larger than the male cells; in others 
there was no appreciable difference. In several instances one male 
filament was seen in conjugation with two female filaments, never 
the reverse. In one instance a zygosperm was seen germinating 
while still inclosed in the parent filament ; and then, in harmony 
with observations previously made on Spirogyra,* the direction of 
the germinating filament was at right angles to the axis of the — 
parent-cell. This was the more remarkable, as the zygosperm is 
in this species quite spherical. 


Zyenema Hassallii mihi (Tyndaridea anomala Haass. ; 
Zygnema anomalum Cooke, not Ktz.). Figs. 28-80. 


Cells 52 w in length, 28 » in breadth; zygosperm perfectly 
spherical, 20°5 wu in diameter, olive-green to emerald-green. This 
species is common in roadside runnels, and presents several dis- 
tinctive characters from others of the genus. In the non-con- 
jugating and most frequent condition (fig. 28), the cells are almost 
entirely filled up by a dark-green endochrome; it is only when 
about to conjugate (fig. 29) that it becomes differentiated into two 
stars; and then not so distinctly as in Z. cruciatum. The mucous 
sheath by which the filaments are invested is distinctly visible at 
all stages. Conjugation seems to take place only when the fila- 
ments are nearly dried up, and has apparently only been observed 
in this country by Hassall, Ralfs, and Jenner. I can entirely 
confirm the statement of these observers that the zygosperms are 
formed in one of the conjugating filaments (fig. 30); Kitzing’s 
species, in which they are formed in a canal between the filaments, 
must, therefore, be a different one. I think, however, Hassall is 
in error in figuring the zygosperms as formed indifferently in either 
filament; this is quite contrary to numerous observations of my 
own. 

Spirogyra porticalis Vauch. 
longata Vauch. 
tenuissima Hass. 


br 


+b) 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) xx. (1884) p. 430. 


Fresh-water Algx, de. By A. W. Bennett. 15 


MESOCARPE. 


Mesocarpus scalaris dBy. 
Mesocarpus (?) NEAUMENSIS n. sp. Figs. 31, 32. 


Sterile cells 125 w long by 20 to 25 broad. Endochrome in 
a single axile plate, with one row of large starch-corpuscles, and 
numerous smaller ones. Conjugation lateral, between two adjacent 
cells. Fertile cells somewhat ventricose, 200 mw long by 50 pu 
broad at the widest part, connected with the adjoining empty cell 
by an elbow 50 yu broad, across which the dividing septum reaches 
only about half-way. Zygosperm oval, 90 uw by 40 yp, always 
nearer to the end of the cell where conjugation has taken place ; 
cell-wall of zygosperm quite smooth. 

Gathered in a duck-pond, Neaum Crag, Skelwith Bridge. I 
am doubtful about placing this interesting species under Mesocarpus. 
It agrees with that genus altogether in general appearance and in 
. the arrangement of the endochrome; but I am quite unable to 
detect the extra membrane to the zygosperm on which de Bary 
and Wittrock rely to establish the essential difference in the process 
of “ spore-formation” in the Mesocarpeze and Zygnemez; and 
wherever lateral conjugation has been observed in Mesocarpus (by 
de Bary), the zygosperm is formed not in one of the two cells, but 
in the connecting canal between them. In some respects, especially 
the ventricose appearance of the fertile cells, it approaches Wittrock’s 
genus Gonatonema. If placed in Mesocarpus, M. neaumensis 
differs from all the other species with smooth membrane to the 
zygosperm, in the form of the cells, and in the size and form of the 
zygosperm, as well as in the mode of conjugation. 


Staurospermum gracillimum Ktz. 


“ 


SIPHONES. 


Vaucheria sessilis Vauch. Ambleside. 
$s terrestris Lyngb. Pool in slate quarry, Yewdale 
Fells, Laneashire. 


CHDOGONIACER. 
CHdogonium vernale? Wittr. Furness Fells. 
ms macrandrum Wittr. Fig. 33. 


Oogonia pear-shaped, three together, 40 w in length. Dwarf 
male as long as length of oogonium, two-celled, attached to the 
centre oogonium. Furness Fells. 


CHdogonium acrosporum ? dBy. Furness Fells. 
Bulbocheete setigera Ag. 
+ pygmea Wittr. 


16 Transactions of the Society. 


I].—Explanatory Notes on a series of Slides presented to the 
Society, illustrating the action of a diamond in ruling lines 
upon glass. By Prof. Winx1am A. Rogers, F.R.MLS. 


(Read 10th June, 1885.) 
Furst Series. Ruled previous to 1882. 


This series of slides was ruled with a knife-edge diamond. 

No. 1. Before ruling the lines on this plate, the knife-edge was 
set as nearly parallel with the line of motion in ruling as was pos- 
sible by sighting along the edge with a magnifying glass. The 
lines were ruled in the direction of the >. A few lines of each 
group were ruled with a forward motion of the diamond and the 
remainder with a backward motion of the diamond. Between each 
group the angle of inclination was changed. It will be seen that 
the last four lines of the last group show a decided improvement in 

uality. 
: N E 2. In this plate successive trials failed to give any decided 
improvement until near the end. In the last three or four groups 
the forward motion gave a heavy line with a pretty sharply defined 
groove near the middle of the line, while the edges are well defined 
by finer lines. When lines of this character are obtained, the dia- 
mond may be considered to be nearly in the best adjustment. The 
backward motion with the same pressure gave fairly good fine lines. 

No. 3. This plate was ruled with the same setting as No. 2, but 
with heavier pressure. The lines when first ruled were very 
beautiful. After several days, the exact number being unknown, 
the first band eaploded and the remaining lines took on the form 
of a strand of rope. The pressure of the diamond upon the glass 
was evidently too great, producing lines which remained in a state 
of tension until the rupture took place. 

No. 4. Lighter pressure than in No. 3. Heavy lines retain 
their form and fine lines fairly good. 

No. 5. Backward motion of diamond with the same pressure as 
the heavy lines of No. 4. A very curious specimen. Cover 
broken. 

No 6. Windrows of fine particles of glass. A slightly different 
inclination of the diamond from that with which No. 5 was ruled. 

No. 7. Many trial plates intervene between No 6 and No. 7. 
Various settings of the diamond were tried for the purpose of obtain- 
ing tolerably heavy lines, which should present nearly the same 
appearance after the surface of the glass was sharply rubbed a the 
direction of the lines as when fresh from the diamond and undis- 
turbed. It must be understood that there is not one case in a thou- 
sand in which the line appears as well after the surface of the 


Explanatory Notes, de. By Prof. W. A. Rogers. 17 


glass is rubbed as before. In this case one edge of the undisturbed 
line is sharply defined and the same edge is fairly well defined after 
cleaning. The strand-like appearance of a few of the single lines 
first appeared several weeks after the lines were ruled. The dia- 
mond may now be said to be in a fairly good working condition. 

No. 8. In order to be sure that the diamond with the same set- 
ting as in No. 7 would continue to rule good lines, the lines of 
this plate were ruled with a varying pressure and with both back- 
ward and forward motion of the diamond. ‘The lines of this plate 
will bear careful study. 

No. 9. In this plate, which immediately followed No. 8, I 
have for the first time succeeded in preserving positive proof of a 
fact long suspected, that the best heavy lines are not grooves in the 
glass but windrows of particles of glass thrown up by the diamond, 
but so fine that the Microscope cannet separate them. When first 
ruled, the lines of this plate were of the most beautiful character. 
After a while the single lines began to show indications of breaking 
up, while the lines of the band remained nearly intact. As a test, 
I removed the cover from the cell and rubbed the surface of the 
glass sharply, at right angles to the lines, but leaving about one- 
half of the lines undisturbed. Now, we have in the upper part of 
the band the original lines, retaining, it is true, only a portion of 
their former beauty, but clearly unlike those in which the particles 
of glass have been, by rubbing, scattered over the entire surface of 
the groove. ‘The particles stick to the groove with great tenacity. 
It is impossible to remove them by rubbing crosswise. I shall 
show in the fourth series of slides that they can be removed by 
rubbing lengthwise. It will be seen that the undisturbed lines are 
to a certain extent broken up, appearing thus - - - - - - —. There 
was no evidence of this appearance for several weeks after the lines 
were ruled. It is my opinion that the appearance is due to the 
slight sweating which has taken place. At least I have seen 
several instances in which this particular appearance is shown in 
plates in which sweating has taken place. This plate will repay a 
careful study. 

No. 10. Position of diamond changed a trifle from that with 
which No. 9 was ruled. 

No. 11. Lines from forward motion of diamond very good. In 
this plate we have an illustration of what often occurs, namely the 
formation of minute specks several weeks after the ruling of the 
plate. I am inclined to believe that they are particles of glass. I 
am sure that the glass was perfectly clean when mounted. 

No. 12. A slight elevation of diamond after ruling No 11. 
This is another illustration of the fact stated under No. 9. It is 
one of the most remarkable specimens I have ever obtained. The 
- plate will repay a most careful study. 

Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. C 


18 Transactions of the Society. 


No. 13. This plate was ruled both with forward and backward 
motion of the diamond, and with varying pressure. Several plates 
intervened between this one and No. 12, in which the slightest 
possible adjustment of the diamond was made. 

No. 14. Up to the present time (1881) this is the most perfect 
plate I have ever produced. I do not at first expect to be believed 
when I say that what appears to be the edge of the groove at one 
edge of the line is a windrow of glass turned up from the groove. 
Careful inspection, however, will show a clear space between 
the real edge of the groove and the jet black line. That is, one 
sees two faint lines which are the edges of the groove and the 
black line on the right, which is really a windrow of particles of 
glass. Ina later plate I shall prove that this explanation is the 
true one. 

No. 15. A test-plate for the limit of vision. Bands of fine lines 
following a heavy line. The lines of the last two bands invisible, 
but brought out clearly in a duplicate plate mounted in Professor 
Hamilton Smith’s new medium. It should be said that the lines 
of this plate are far less sharply defined than when first ruled. 


Second Series. Ruled in 1882-3. 


No. 1. This plate preceded by several trial plates. 

No. 2. Varying pressure of diamond. Sweating has taken 
place in this plate and in the preceding one. Attention is called to 
the fact that the sweating does not usually take place near closely 
ruled bands of lines, especially if the lines are heavy. 

No. 3. A remarkable specimen of lines formed by furrows of 
glass. The lines are mounted lengthwise of the slide. Attention 
is called to the arrowheads at the end of each line and to the 
deposit of a particle of glass on every line a little distance from the 
end. It will be seen that the sweating upon the surface occurs at 
a considerable distance from the bands. 

No. 4. Another illustration of the fact that sweating does not 
usually take place near heavy ruled lines. The lines of this plate 
are filled with graphite. 

No. 5. Upon the whole this plate is the best illustration yet 
obtained of the action of a perfect ruling crystal. The curved lines, 
which are formed by the intersection of straight lines, take the 
graphite almost as well as the straight lines. This plate should be 
examined under a 1/4 or 1/5 in. objective. 

No 6. This plate of squares 100 to the inch is a good illustra- 
tion of a good groove well filled with graphite. 

No. 7. In this plate the graphite presents a granular appear- 
ance, which is often seen when ruled lines are repeatedly filled with 
graphite. When the lines of this plate were first filled, directly 


Explanatory Notes, de. By Prof. W. A. Rogers. 19 


after being ruled, the plate presented a most beautiful appearance 
under a low power. 

No. 8. The lines of this plate are filled with graphite. The 
peculiar mottled appearance of the glass will be at once noticed. 
With glass of this quality I have always obtained lines which fill 
perfectly with graphite. 

No. 9. The observer is requested to examine the lines at the 
end of the band nearest the star on the label and to determine 
approximately the number of lines to the inch before examining 
the other end of the band of which the fifth and tenth lines are 
longer than the others. 


Third Series. Ruled in 1883-4. 


No. 1. A very remarkable action of the diamond. 

No. 2, Varying pressure of diamond. Examine the very heavy 
chips thrown off at the end of each line. 

No. 3. The only specimen of this peculiar action of the dia- 
mond ever obtained. Attention is called to the form of mounting 
which was here employed for the first time. The small hole in the 
edge of the metal ring allows a free circulation of air and absolutely 
prevents sweating.* 

No. 4. This plate followed No. 3 with a slightly greater pres- 
sure of the diamond. There is a little dust between the plates. 
In fact, several of the plates are defective in this way, but upon the 
very rare occasions on which these and similar specimens were 
obtained, the sole and first object was to preserve the lines intact, 
as soon as possible and without regard to minor defects. 

No. 5. Varying pressure of diamond. ‘The fine lines superb, 
but in some places a little wavy. 

No. 6. Examine the chips at the end of the heavy lines, also 
the quality of the fine lines. 

No. 7. This plate will repay a careful examination as illustrat- 
ing the action of the diamond similar to that in plate 9 of the first 
series, 

No. 8. Upon the whole, the most remarkable specimen ever 
obtained. This plate, like No. 7, will bear a most careful study. 

No. 9. Illustration of a local explosion. In this case the 
explosion took place at least one month after the lines were ruled. 
It is not known exactly when it occurred. 

No. 10. Varying pressure of diamond. It will be seen that 
the slight rubbing of the surface has in some places disturbed 
the straightness of the fine lines. 

No. 11. Varying pressure of diamond. Fine lines good. 


* Tam not quite sure of this statement. Oct, 1885,—W. A. R. 
o 2 


20 Transactions of the Society. 


_ No. 12. With one exception the only ruling producing circular 

chips ever obtained. 

No. 13. Examine the line at the bottom of the groove of the 
fine lines. This line is a real groove in the glass. 

No. 14. Very delicate threads thrown off from heavy lines. 

No. 15. Both threads and chips from the same diamond. 

No. 16. A second instance of a local explosion. Examine the 
delicate threads beyond the ends of the lines. 


Fourth Series. Ruled in 1885. 


No. 1. Plates Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 of this series furnish positive 
proof of the fact that the lines which appear to be the most perfect 
in form are not produced by grooves cut in the glass, but by 
windrows of minute particles of glass thrown up by the ruling 
diamond. In this plate the real groove is about 2°2 » in width, 
the space between one edge of the groove and the furrow is about 
1:0 p, and the width of the windrow is between 0-1 p and 0-2 yu. 

No. 2. The windrow of glass is a little better defined on this 
plate than on No. 1, being if anything a shade narrower. ‘The 
lines on Nos. 1 and 2 were ruled on the under side of the cover. 

No. 8. This plate was ruled with exactly the same pressure of 
the diamond as Nos. 1 and 2, but the lines are upon the slide. 
Before the disturbance of the surface the lines presented precisely 
the same appearance, and had the same width as in those two 
plates. After rubbing the surface of the glass at right angles to 
the lines, the windrows were completely broken down and the 
particles of glass were scattered over the entire surface, clinging to 
the surface in the grooves only. Doubiless, the greater part of the 
windrow was entirely removed from the surface by rubbing. 
That the windrows are not entirely broken down, however, is 
evident from the fact that the extreme width of the lines is the 
same as before—viz. about 3°2 p. 

No. 4. In this plate the lines, after being ruled, were examined 
carefully, and were found to present the same appearance as in No. 3 
before cleaning. Their width was also found to be the same. 
The lines were then rubbed crosswise when their appearance was 
precisely the same as in No. 3. They were then scoured by 
rubbing with a cleaning powder in the direction of the lines. The 
first thorough cleaning removed only about two-thirds of the débris. 
After a subsequent and more thorough cleaning they were covered. 
The width of the lines is now the same as the width of the groove 
after ruling and before cleaning—viz. about 2°2 pw. 

No. 5. In order that it may not be said that the lines upon the 
cover-glass have a different width from that upon the slide, the 
lines of this plate were ruled upon the slide, and the surface was 


Explanatory Notes, éc. By Prof. W. A. Rogers. 21 


cleaned by rubbing én the direction of the lines only. It will be 
seen that the particles of glass are more completely removed in this 
plate than in No. 4. It should be noted here that the best lines 
are always obtained by rubbing in the direction of the lines and 
never by rubbing at right angles to the lines. That the width of 
the lines remains 2°2 w seems to be positive proof that the portion 
removed was a real windrow of minute particles, 

No. 6. This plate, after ruling, presented the same appearance 
as No. 2. It was then sent to Prof. Hamilton L. Smith to be 
mounted in his new medium, with the expectation that the bril- 
liancy of the spectrum would be sensibly increased. It will be 
seen that this expectation has not been realized. The only expla- 
nation which I can offer for this unexpected result, is that the 
apparent lines being elevations, appear as projections. By focus- 
ing upon the bottom of the real grooves, a very fine line is seen 
which was not noticed before. In a previous plate of heavy lines, 
kindly mounted for me by Prof. Smith, the sharpness of definition 
was increased to a very marked degree. 

No. 7. This plate is half of a slide ruled upon my old machine 
in 1881. One set of lines was ruled on the slide, and another set 
upon the cover. Mr. Tolles aided me in a thorough examination 
of these bands. We were never able to see the fine lines which 
form the continuation of the 1/24000 band. This plate was sent 
to Prof. Smith for experiment with his new medium. He re- 
moved the cover from the rulings upon the slide, remounted the 
bands in his medium, and after cutting the slide into two parts 
sent one half to me. ‘The lines are in every way improved, and 
the fine lines of the 1/24000 band are easily seen. 


Fifth Series. Ruled in 1885. 


No. 1. A convenient form of stage micrometer. Each succes- 
sive band ruled with a lighter pressure of the diamond. As there 
may have been a slight disturbance of the diamond produced by 
removing the weights, the bands may not be exactly equidistant. 
_ The measurements, therefore, should be from lines composing the 
the bands. 

No. 2. Metric stage micrometer similar to No. 1. 

Nos. 8, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. Eye-piece micrometers of various 
patterns. 


22 Transactions of the Society. 


Ill.—On the Preparation of Sections of Pumice-stone and 
other Vesicular Rocks. 


By H. J. Jonystoy-Lavis, M.D., F.G.S. 
(Read 11th November, 1885.) 


Tux art of making sections of rocks of a compact structure, or even 
slightly vesicular lavas, presents no other difficulties than those 
which have now been overcome; but when thin slices of pumice- 
stone or very bullate scoria are required, many difficulties arise. 

In the first place, when the section reaches a moderate degree 
of thinness, it becomes an open network of substance that is very 
fragile, and the strain put upon the delicate trabeculae by the 
friction of grinding breaks them down long before the requisite 
thinness is reached. In the case of pumice, unless the section is 
very thin, little can be learnt, on account of the darkness and 
clouding produced by the still unopened minute air-cavities. 
Another important difficulty is due to the different resistance of 
large crystals and the comparatively soft vitreous or microcrystal- 
line base in which they are imbedded. In consequence of this, the 
very feeble support of the setting (so to speak) is insufficient to 
resist the grinding action, so that the crystals are torn out and 
plough a line quite across the preparation. The third difficulty is 
that any pulverulent substance, such as emery, must be avoided, 
since new cavities are continually being opened, which get choked 
with the detritus and spoil the preparation for examination. 

In most books we are recommended to boil the pumice in 
Canada balsam, but a moment’s thought will prevent our spending 
any time over such an experimental failure. We know that the 
vesicular cavities in pumice or scoria are closed except at the 
surface, where they are fractured, and therefore a balsam bath can 
only enter these superficial cavities, and immediately one com- 
mences to grind, fresh ones will be opened, whose walls are left 
unsupported by balsam. The method I have adopted is the out- 
come of a long series of experiments, by which I have produced 
many dozens of excellent slides, even from the most fragile 
pumices. 

The pumice may be cut into a moderately thin slice by a 
saw (about 0:5 em. is convenient to work with), or if an abund- 
ance of material is at hand a level surface may be obtained with 
a knife; if scoriaceous pumice or scoria, a well-watered grindstone 
may be used. The sawdust or other dust must be brushed, 
blown, or washed out of the inequalities in the moderately level 
surface, and the slice placed on a hot plate to dry and warm. 
When thoroughly dry, and while still on the hot plate, a stick 


Sections of Pumice-stone, &c. By H. J. Johnston-Lavis. 23 


of hard balsam* is rubbed over its surface, so as to thoroughly 
fill in all the opened cavities and leave a superabundance on the 
surface. It should be left quiet on the hot plate for another minute 
or two, and more balsam added if the first should have much sunk 
in; it is then removed and allowed to cool whilst in a hori- 
zontal position. When cold it should be ground down on the side 
of a smooth grindstone, or, still better, upon a slab of sandstone 
slightly inclined, over which is flowing a constant stream of water.t 
The grinding should be continued till all the broken septa are 
brought flush with the surface. It should then be thoroughly 
washed with a camel’s-hair pencil and submitted to a powerful jet 
of water from a tap or syringe, so as to clean the newly opened 
cells, after which it is dried and replaced on the warm plate and 
rubbed with the balsam stick. When cooled the excess of balsam 
may be removed by grinding it on the sandstone, after which it is 
washed. 

The following solution, which is next required, should be kept 
ready in a bottle :—Yellow soap, 1 part ; methylated spirit, 2 parts. 
Dissolve. Water, 3 parts. Prepare a hone (I use a Washita stone, 
but probably any hard hone stone would answer) of about 8 in. x 
24 in. x 1} in. Fix it conveniently on a board slightly inclined, 
with the narrowest edge uppermost, and drop on a few drops of the 
soap solution. At its upper end a small quantity of water should 
be constantly dripping, which by preference should also be slightly 
soapy. Now grind and polish the specimen on the hone until the 
surface is brilliant. Whenever the balsam begins to “ rool” or cause 
hitching of the specimen add a few drops of the soap solution.t 

The polishing being complete, the specimen is thoroughly 
cleansed and put aside in a warm and dust-free place to dry, after 
which it is cemented by hard balsam to a clean slide. Since it 
must never be removed from its new position, as is done in the case 
of more durable rocks, more care is required in protecting the glass 
from injury. We now grind down the opposite side to almost 
transparency on a well-watered grindstone, and by practice in pre- 
senting different parts of the specimen to the grinding surface we 
may reduce the slice to a sufficient thinness for almost any micro- 
scopic work. The specimen is then washed and ground perfectly 
level and polished on the hone, with water and soap-solution. The 
application of the latter requires much practice to regulate, since 
if too much be used it softens and saponifies the balsam, making an 
opaque preparation; or if insufficient, the balsam catches to the 

* Prepared as usual for rock sections. 

+ Should the sandstone clog with balsam, it may be washed with a little 
strong soda lye. 

t I have tried alkalies, spirit and many other lubricants, and feeble solvents 


of balsam, but the above answers best, as we want to dissolve the balsam at the 
same rate as we grind down the specimen. 


24 Transactions of the Society. 


stone and “rools,” carrying the preparation with it. The slide is 
now washed with a camel’s-hair brush and by means of a jet of 
water. It is then stood up to drain and left to dry. When the 
drying is complete (an important matter) take a soft camel’s- 
hair brush and wash the surface of the specimen with equal parts 
of turpentine and benzol or chloroform, until the network begins 
to look raised; then drain but do not dry it. Drop on balsam 
dissolved in benzol or chloroform, and finish the slide in the usual 
way. : 
li is sometimes useful to employ the air-pump, but it should 
- be done slowly and no attempt made to produce a high vacuum. 
The specimens improve very much at the end of a week or a 
fortnight. 

The above process may appear long and tedious, but after a 
short apprenticeship the different processes become easy, and by 
preparing a number of sections simultaneously no large amount of 
time is consumed. The study of vesicular rocks is the key to the 
principal phenomena of volcanic eruptions, and by its means we 
can read the different phases in the history of any volcano we 
choose. In addition, the specimens so prepared form very beautiful 
slides (especially in the case of a moderately crystalline pumice). 
Tt need hardly be said that it has one great recommendation, and 
that is that no expensive apparatus is required, whilst the method 
may be extended to other structures. In this way Dr. Vosmaer, 
of the Naples Zoological Station, and myself have succeeded in 
applying the method to siliceous sponges, and we are now en- 
deayouring to modify the method so as to prepare sections of them 
with the sarcode intact. 


Edgar Crovkshamk tec. et pin. 


JOURN B.MICR. SOG. SER. YOL, Vi PL I. 


Fig.1. Gver-glass 


impresston -preparation trom a plate-cultivation. 
fuchsine) Zeiss’ AA. Oc. 2 


\ gee 
“Gy GLA 
I Ze 
, me 
} i Fy \ 

nt WZ N 
WAS 


Ly 
= ee 
Ss=227" 


BAS Linh SE es 
Fig.2. The same prep i 


URANS. 
aratoir. is8 18. 0.0. Oe. 


VincerdeBrouks, Day & Son, ful) j 
Zant 
Py We , ~# 


~ 


JOURN.R. MICR. SOC. SER.0 


Fig. /. From a section of a maxillary tumour ti a cow. 
Wezgerts method. (Orselle and gentian-violet) Zeiss’ 16. 0.t. Oc, 4. 


ACTINOMYCES. 
Fig.2 From « section cf the lung ofa cow. 
Weugerts method (Urseule and yenhan -violee) Xeiss t.01.002. 


Edgar Crotkthomk fee. peu 


JOURN. R. MICR..SOC. SER I VOL V1 PL V. 


a ; ! ; ; 
Fig. 1. From a section cha maxillary tumourin a cow. 
Plauts method / Magenta and peerce acid /, Less’ AA, Oc. 4, 


ACTINOMYCES. 


Fug. 2. Lhe same preparation. Reiss’ 7. 0.4, Oc. 2. 


Edgar Crockshomk tec.et pyc Pirrcerct Brooks, Day & Sar, olh 


( 25 ) 


IV.—On the Cultivation of Bacteria. 
By Enaar M. CrooxsHans, M.B. Lond., F.R.MS. 
(Read 9th December, 1885.) 
Puates III.-V. 


In the course of my remarks this evening upon the cultivation of 
bacteria, I shall touch upon several points which are well known 
to the Society. They will, however, lead me to bring forward 
many facts of extreme interest, and I trust of importance also, in 
that they disclose fresh fields for micro-biological research. 

As is well known, there has been given during the last few 
years, more especially on the Continent, a very wide-spread 
stimulus to the study of bacteria. This is due in great measure 
to the encouraging results which have been obtained by employ- 
ing the improved methods recently introduced for investigating 
micro-organisms. 

The methods of cultivation on solid media have in many 
laboratories taken the place, almost entirely, of the old methods in 
which nutrient liquids were employed. I shall draw attention 
to some of the advantages offered by solid media, which may 
explain the reason for this change. 

In the first place, the most essential thing in order to study 
the life-history of a particular micro-organism is to obtain and to 
maintain a “pure-cultivation.” In the case of the pathogenic 
bacteria, this is emphasized by Koch as follows. Koch maintains 
that to prove satisfactorily that a particular micro-organism 
is the cause of a disease— 

Firstly.—The micro-organism must be found in the blood, 
lymph, or diseased tissues, of man or animal suffering from, or 
dead of the disease. 

Secondly.—The micro-organism must be isolated from the 
blood, lymph, or tissues, and cultivated in suitable media. These 
pure cultivations must be carried on through successive genera- 
tions of the micro-organism. 

Thirdly—A pure cultivation thus obtained must, when 
introduced into the body of a healthy animal, produce the disease 
in question. 

Lastly.—In the inoculated animal the same micro-organism 
must again be found. 

Now, in the case of liquid nutrient media, it was no easy 
matter to obtain and maintain a pure cultivation. 

If a drop of liquid containing several kinds of bacteria be 
introduced into a nutrient liquid, we have a mixed cultivation from 


26 Transactions of the Society. 


the very first: if then we require to isolate one species from the 
rest, the expenditure of much time is involved. 

For example, to attain this object it was proposed, in the 
method of fractional dilution, to add sterilized nutrient fluid until 
there was an average of less than one germ to each drop of the 
fluid. If, then, fresh portions of sterilized nutrient fluid be 
inoculated with a single drop from the diluted mixture, some 
portions would in all probability receive no microbes, others would 
receive one or two, and others, again, one or more microbes of the 
same species. Then the growth of these microbes would give 
a pure cultivation of a particular species. It is obvious how com- 
plicated this process is, and how much the result would depend 
upon chance. 

Tf, on the other hand, the mixture was left as a mixture, then 
the door was open to all sorts of conclusions. Some bacteria being 
unable to develope in the presence of others, or a change of tem- 
perature, or a change effected by the micro-organisms in the 
nourishing soil, allowing one form to predominate over another, 
the idea could arise that the various kinds of bacteria were but 
developmental forms of one and the same micro-organism. 
Further, very probably contamination of such cultivations led to 
the belief in the transformation of a harmless into a pathogenic 
bacterium. 

In the case of solid cultivating media, on the other hand, the 
possible contamination of the nourishing ground by the gravita- 
tion of germs from the air is guarded against, not by elaborate 
apparatus or ingenious devices, but by the simple fact that test- 
tubes, flasks and other vessels can be inverted, and are inoculated 
from below. 

The great secret of success in Koch’s methods of cultivation 
consists in that we are able, from a mixture of micro-organisms, 
to isolate the individual species and establish a pure cultivation of 
each distinct form. By the same method, which is remarkable for 
its simplicity, if by any possibility contamination has occurred, we 
can separate the adventitious microbe and regain a pure cultivation. 

This is accomplished in the following manner. A test-tube 
containing sterilized nutrient gelatin is warmed, and the lique- 
fied jelly is then inoculated with a platinum needle from the 
mixture of bacteria, in such a way that the individual micro- 
organisms are distributed throughout the liquid medium. The 
liquid is then poured out upon a plate of glass, and allowed to 
solidify. The individual bacteria, instead of moving about freely 
as in a liquid medium, are fixed in one spot, where they develope 
individuals of their own species. In this way colonies are formed, 
each possessing its own characteristic biological and morphological 
appearances ; if an adventitious germ fall upon the cultivation 


On the Cultivation of Bacteria. By Edgar M. Crookshank. 27 


during the few moments it is exposed to the air, it grows exactly 
upon the spot upon which it fell, and can be easily recognized as a 
stranger. 

To maintain the colonies isolated from one another during their 
growth, and free from contamination, it is only necessary to thin 
out the micro-organisms sufficiently, and to limit the exposure of 
the plates to the air to as short a time as possible, both during 
their preparation and during their subsequent examination. 

The result will depend upon the way in which the thinning or 
fractional cultivation has been carried out, and the colonies will be 
found to develope in the course of a day or two, the time varying 
with the rapidity of growth of the micro-organism and the tem- 
perature of the room. 

If we have prepared three plates, we shall commonly find that 
the lower plate will contain a countless number of colonies which, 
if the micro-organism liquefies gelatin, speedily commingle and 
produce in a very short time a complete liquefaction of the whole 
of the nutrient medium. In the middle plate or “the first 
thinning,” the colonies will also be very numerous; while in the 
uppermost plate, “the second thinning,” the colonies are com- 
pletely isolated from one another, with an appreciable surface of 
gelatin intervening. The microscopical appearances of the colonies 
can perhaps best be observed by placing the plate upon a slab of 
blackened plate glass, or upon a porcelain slab if the colonies are 
coloured. 

The microscopical appearances are examined by placing a 
selected plate upon the stage of the Microscope, and it is better to 
have a larger stage than usual for this purpose. The smallest 
diaphragm is employed, and the appearances studied principally 
with a low power. 

The morphological characteristics of the micro-organisms of 
which the colony is formed can then be examined in the following 
way. A platinum needle bent at the extremity into a miniature 
hook is held like a pen, and the hand steadied by resting the little 
finger on the stage of the Microscope. The extremity*of the 
needle is steadily directed between the lens and the gelatin with 
out touching the latter, until on looking through the Microscope 
it can be seen in the field above, or by the side of the colony 
under examination. The needle is then dipped into the colony, 
steadily raised, and withdrawn. Without removing the eye from 
the Microscope, this small operation may be seen to be successful, 
by the colony being disorganized or completely removed from the 
gelatin. It is, however, not easy to be successful at first, but with 
practice this can be accomplished with rapidity and precision. A 
cover-glass preparation is then made in the usual manner, by 
rubbing the extremity of the platinum needle in a droplet of 


28 Transactions of the Society. 


sterilized water, previously placed on the perfectly clean cover-glass. 
This, when dry, is passed three times through the flame of ‘a 
Bunsen burner or a spirit-lamp, and stained with a drop of fuch- 
sin or methyl-violet solution. 

From the micro-organisms transferred to the cover-glass before 
it is dried and stained, from any remnants of the colony which was 
examined, and from other colonies bearing exactly similar appear- 
ances, inoculations should be made in test-tubes of nutrient gela- 
tin and agar-agar. In this way pure cultivations are established, 
and the microscopical appearances of the growth in test-tubes can 
be studied. . 

The slower growth of the micro-organisms in solid media, and 
the greater facility afforded thereby for examining them at various 
intervals and stages of development, is an additional point in 
favour of these methods; and the characteristic microscopical 
appearances so frequently assumed are, more especially in the case 
of morphological resemblance or identity, of the greatest im- 
portance. 

The colonies on plates of nutrient gelatin (examined with a 
low power) of Bacillus anthracis, or of Proteus mirabilis, the 
cultivations in test-tubes of nutrient gelatin of the bacillus of 
septicemia in mice, and the brilliant and curious growth of Micro- 
coccus indicus upon nutrient agar-agar may be quoted as examples 
in which the appearances in solid cultivations are absolutely 
pathognomonic. 

As an example of the importance of these microscopical 
appearances in the case of morphological resemblance or identity, 
I need only refer to the comma-bacillus of Koch. This bacillus 
closely resembles in form the comma-bacillus of cholera nostras, 
and the comma-bacillus of the mouth, as well as a curved bacillus 
described as occurring in old cheese. From all these bacilli the 
bacillus of Koch is distinguishable by its mode of growth in 
nutrient gelatin when cultivated in test-tubes and on glass plates. 

No one, so far as I am aware, has yet been able to demonstrate 
the existence of a curved bacillus, which is exactly similar both 
morphologically and biologically to the comma-bacillus of Koch. 
We owe, therefore, to the methods of cultivation on solid media 
that the presence of this bacillus serves as a reliable index to the 
existence of Asiatic cholera, although it may bear no causal relation 
whatever to the disease. 

There are other facts brought to light by studying bacteria 
by the method of cultivation on the surface of nutrient gelatin. 
Not only do the colonies differ in size and colour, but sometimes 
the shapes assumed by the groups of bacilli are very characteristic. 
These appearances can be very readily demonstrated by making 
what is called in German a “ Klatch-praparat” ; by this method, we 


On the Cultivation of Bacteria. By Edgar M. Crookshank. 29 


can study the relative position of the individual micro-organisms 
one to another, and in some cases very beautiful preparations 
result. A perfectly clean cover-glass is carefully deposited on a 
plate, or potato-cultivation, and gently and evenly pressed down. 
One edge is then levered up with a needle, and the cover-glass 
lifted off by means of forceps. ‘The preparation is then allowed to 
dry, passed three times through the flame, and stained as already 
described. In the case of plate-cultivations, especially where no 
liquefaction has taken place, the growth is bodily transferred to 
the cover-glass, and a vacant area mapped out on the jelly corre- 
sponding exactly with the form and size of the cover-glass which 
was employed. 

In ilustration of this method, I would call attention to a 
bacillus occasionally present in the air, of which I have been unable 
to find any written description, and for which I would suggest the 
name Bacillus figurans. (Plate III. figs. 1 and 2.) 

In plate-cultivations this bacillus produces a cloudiness which 
gradually creeps over the surface of the gelatin. If a preparation 
is made in the manner I have just described, this growth is found 
to consist of rods which vary considerably in length. These rods 
lie parallel to one another, and form rows or chains which become 
twisted at intervals into the most curious conyolutions, from which 
offshoots are continued in various directions. These long shoots 
or processes become in turn at intervals twisted into varying shapes 
and figures. If nutrient jelly in a test-tube be inoculated with a 
platinum needle charged with the bacilli, the growth appears in 
the form of windings on the free surface which are visible to the 
naked eye, from these fine filaments spread downwards into the 
substance of the jelly. Cultivated on a sloping surface of nutrient 
agar-agar the filaments spread transversely from the central streak, 
giving a feathery appearance. 

Cheshire and Cheyne have described a peculiar mode of growth 
of the Bacillus alvei in plate-cultivations, and Hauser has photo- 
graphed the peculiar grouping of certain bacteria connected with 
decomposition. 

An interesting phenomenon which Hauser has also observed 
in connection with the last-mentioned bacteria, is the peculiar 
individual movement which they possess on solid media. This can 
be most conveniently studied by cultivating the bacilli in a glass 
capsule. The bacilli often move singly, or meet and progress in 
pairs, or form chain-like processions; possibly the movements are 
accounted for by the existence of a film of liquid as they are 
observed only on solid media containing less than ten per cent. of 

elatin. 
5 We may also apply the method of plate-cultivation to the 
examination of water, and to studying the bacteria which exist in 


30 Transactions of the Society. 


the soil or in food-substances, which can be sprinkled over the 
surface of the gelatin, and the colonies which develope studied as 
already described. 

Lastly, if these biological appearances may be taken with 
other characteristics into consideration in the determination of 
species, we have a basis for a classification of bacteria into species, 
of which at present we stand in need. 

These methods of artificial cultivation assist us also in deter- 
mining the position in the scale of fungi of certain micro-organisms 
which is at present doubtful. In illustration of this, and im order 
to bring to your notice the specimens before you, I shall, in con- 
clusion, say a few words with regard to the fungus Actonomyces. 

Actinomycosis is a disease occurring not uncommonly in cattle, 
but very rarely in man. For the accounts of it, we are indebted 
chiefly to the writings of Bollinger, Israel, and Ponfick. The 
disease is caused by a parasite known as Actinomyces, or the “ ray- 
fungus.” The parasite appears in the form of a rosette, composed 
of club-shaped elements, and these rosettes are colourless or of a 
yellowish or yellowish-green tinge, and visible to the naked eye. 

The fungus is believed to gain an entrance to the animal by 
the mouth, being taken in with the food, possibly through the 
medium of a wound of the gum, or a carious tooth. In whatever 
manner it has gained access to the living organism, it sets up infla- 
mation, resulting in the formation of a new growth, composed 
chiefly of round cells, which resembles a tuberculous nodule. These 
nodules may break down and suppurate, or they may go on 
increasing in size; fibrous tissue developing between the nodules, 
large tumours eventually result, containing purulent cavities and 
excavations. In the slimy detritus, the little pale-yellow grains 
of fungus can be detected. In cattle, the lower jaw is usually 
affected, and then the upper jaw and neighbouring parts. The 
organism may also occur in nodular tumours of the pulmonary, 
subcutaneous, and intermuscular tissue ; it is the cause of “ wooden 
fongue,” and has also been variously described, before its true nature 
was understood, as bone-canker, bone-tubercle, osteo-sarcoma. 

In man the pulmonary formations tend to break down early, 
forming fistulz and sinuses, with the clinical characters of empyema. 
In one case, there were symptoms of chronic bronchitis’ with foetid 
expectoration. In other cases, the disease originating in the lung, 
spread to the prevertebral tissues. If the fungus attacks bones, 
it produces caries. This has been observed to occur in the bodies 
of the vertebra. In another group of cases, the disease has 
been described as commencing in the intestinal canal. The 
parasite has also been detected in the crypts of the tonsils of 
healthy pigs, and a similar, if not identical, fungus in a diseased 
condition of the spermatic duct of the horse. The disease has been 


a 


On the Cultivation of Bacteria. By Edgar M. Crookshank. 31 


transmitted from cattle to cattle by inoculation, and a rabbit 
infected by means of a piece of actinomycetic tumour from a human 
subject, introduced into the peritoneal cavity. 

Until quite recently, Actinomyces has been classed as a hypho- 
mycete, and the flask-shaped structures regarded as gonidia. From 
recent cultivation experiments, Bostrom regards the latter as a 
result of a degenerative stage in the life-history of the fungus. 
Inoculations of nutrient gelatin in the form of plate-cultivations 
and inoculations on blood serum and nutrient agar-agar, were made, 
it is claimed, with success. The cultures developed in five to six 
days, and best at a temperature of 33-37° C. Nutrient gelatin 
was not liquefied. The appearances of the cultivations were de- 
scribed as quite characteristic ; a whitish granular appearance first 
occurs, followed after a few days by little yellowish-red spots which 
coalesce in the centre ; in time the periphery also becomes dotted 
with little yellow-centred masses. The fungus thus cultivated has 
been described on examination as corresponding with the form 
found in man and animals, and further, at one stage to consist of 
thread-forms, short rods, and cocci. From these observations, 
Bostrom has come to the conclusion that Actinomyces should be 
classed with the bacteria, forming one of the Cladothrix group, 
and possibly closely allied to the Streptothriz Forster of Cohn. 

In conclusion, I would draw attention to the preparations of 
this fungus which are placed under the Microscopes on the table. 
These preparations have been stained by methods somewhat recently 
introduced. Very beautiful results can be obtained by either the 
methods of Weigert or Plaut. By the first-mentioned, sections are 
immersed in solution of orseille for one hour. They are then 
rinsed in alcohol, and placed in a solution of gentian-violet which 
is employed as a contrast stain. (Plate IV. figs. 1 and 2.) 

In Plaut’s method, the sections are placed in Gibbes’ solution of 
magenta warmed to 45° C. They are then rinsed in water, and 
after-stained in concentrated solution of picric acid, for from five 
to ten minutes. After this they are immersed in water five 
minutes, laid in 50 per cent. alcohol fifteen minutes, passed through 
absolute alcohol and clove oil, and preserved in Canada balsam. 
(Plate V. figs. 1 and 2.)* 


* Plates III.—V. have been taken from Dr. Crookshank’s book on ‘ Practical 
Bacteriology’ (see infra, Microscopy 8.), the original stones having been kindly 
placed by him at our disposal for that purpose.—Eb. J.R.M.S. 


32 . Transactions of the Society. 


V.—On the Appearances which some Micro-organisms present 
under different conditions, as exemplified in the Microbe of 
Chicken Cholera. 


By G. F. Dowprswet., M.A., F.RMS., F.LS., &e. 


(Read 18th January, 1886.) 
Puate VI. 


THE importance of understanding the conditions under which 
variations may appear in the morphological characters of a micro- 
organism is obvious, as without such a knowledge correct specific 
diagnosis is impossible. 

A conspicuous example of this is afforded by the microbe of 
chicken cholera, a disease chiefly known from the accounts given of 
it by Toussaint and Pasteur. ‘The organism has been described by 
the latter as a micrococcus of a figure-of-8 form, surrounded by a 
“petit halo”; and such is a correct description of its appearance 
under certain conditions, with moderate amplification, up to say 
800 diameters, and ordinary illumination. Ina preparation dried 
and stained in the usual method, e. g. with an aqueous solution of 
methyl-violet, these appearances are changed ; there is no “ halo,” 
outer envelope, or capsule; though with the same power (800) the 
“dumb-bell” or “figure-of-8” form remains (plate VI. figs. 1 and 5), 
but when we come to employ higher powers (2000 diameters and 
upwards), and especially more perfect methods of illumination, these 
appearances in the form of the cells in the same preparation are 
found to be deceptive. It is seen that they are mostly uniformly 
cylindrical ; the apparent constriction of the cell-wall which gives 
the dumb-bell form has in most cases no existence (fig. 4). It is 
the plasma of the cell, which is aggregated chiefly at the ends and 
which stains deeply, that gives this appearance, as I have already 
described * in the case of the microbe of Davaine’s septichzemia. 

If, however, a preparation of blood from a case of chicken 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. 


Figs. 1 and 4.From the same preparation x 800 and 2000 respectively, 
showing the microbe in the blood of the pigeon, dried, and stained with an aqueous 
solution of gentian-violet. 

Figs. 2 and 3—From another preparation x 800 and 2000 respectively, 
showing the microbe in the blood of the same case as figs. 1 and 4, but stained 
with an alcoholic solution of eosin, and then with a nuclear stain. 

Figs. 5 and 6.—The same microbe in the blood of a rabbit, stained with an 
aqueous solution of gentian-violet. 

References to all the figures :—A, red, and B, white blood-corpuscles. The 
smaller bodies are the microbes. The larger figures are drawn with the camera 
lucida. 


* See this Journal, ii. (1882) p. 310, and Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxii. (1882) 
p. 66. 


_— 4 
TRANS .R.MICR.SOC.SER.ILVOL Vi. PLANT. 


In blood of the Pigeor. 


A A 
: 
4 
tN 
m™ 


ye os 
Ms ss P B 7 
Ie) } Yrac 
ag 
Belen is Sa 
8 


GF.D.deladuat. Weet Newnan &Co.lith. 


The Microbe of Chicken Cholera 


On the Appearances, &c. By G. F. Dowdeswell. 33 


cholera is dried and stained with an alcoholic solution of eosin, and 
subsequently with a nuclear stain, the characters of the microbe 
again appear totally different. The eosin stains the plasma of the 
blood, as also the stroma of the red corpuscles, leaving the sub- 
stance of the “capsule” of the microbe unaltered; this appears 
white on a coloured ground, and of a considerable size. The 
nuclear stain colours the plasma of the cell of the microbe, but 
from some cause not yet evident it appears materially reduced in 
size, shrunk to a mere speck, totally unlike the body shown in 
preparations stained by the former method (figs. 2 and 3). 

This appearance of a “halo” or capsule has been regarded in 
very different ways by different observers; some have considered it 
as merely an optical appearance, due to refraction and having no 
objective existence ; others again as a specific character of particular 
microbes. From the preparations here shown it is evident that it 
has a substantial existence, but the fact that in the same organism 
it is visible under some conditions and in others not, proves that 
without further careful investigation it cannot be regarded as a 
specific character. It is probably mucoid or gelatinous; in un- 
stained preparations its visibility no doubt depends upon its being 
of higher refrangibility than the surrounding medium, as in the 
blood-plasma ; in dried preparations mounted in Canada balsam it 
is not apparent, either when unstained or stained by aqueous solu- 
tions of the usual anilin dyes ; but is conspicuous as above described 
when an alcoholic solution of eosin is employed. In this case the 
reagent seems to have altered the whole character of the cell, as is 
seen by comparing the first and second, and the third and fourth 
preparations. 

I lately obtained a cultivation of the virus of this disease, for 
which I have to thank Mr. W. Watson Cheyne, and have found on 
examination that morphologically the microbe is identical with that 
of the so-termed Davyaine’s septicheemia in rabbits above referred 
to, the slight modifications in form and size which it exhibits in 
different conditions being merely the variations which most, or 
probably all, species of the lower fungi are liable to under different 
conditions of nutrition, or sometimes, to all appearance, spon- 
taneously. In blood of the fowl or pigeon it is nearly of the same 
size in breadth (0°5 yw); it developes, however, to a somewhat 
greater length in the majority of the cells, to five or six times this 
size (fig. 4). 

I had previously described * the microbe of Davaine’s septi- 
chemia in rabbits as a Bactertwm, to the characters of which 
genus as defined by Cohn it seemed most nearly to correspond, 
as it occurred in the blood in these cases, but few cells being found 
in the organs and other tissues. Subsequently, however, I found 

* Loc. cit. 
Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. D 


34 Transactions of the Society. 


in the liver some few rods of far too great a length to be classed as 
Bacteria. These were perfectly cylindrical and unsegmented, so that 
I concluded it corresponded more nearly to the genus Bacillus of 
Cohn. Further examination of the blood showed some few “ rods” 
there too. It is probable that in blood of the living rabbit, and when 
examined shortly after death, the cells do not atta any consider- 
able length, as im a parallel manner the typical bacilli of anthrax, 
it is well established, do not form spores in the living animal. 

The microbe here in question, however, clearly does not, I 
think, form spores under any conditions yet observed, and artificial 
cultivations die out altogether after a comparatively short time, 
i.e. some weeks. In blood of the fowl, however, even when death 
has occurred within eighteen hours of inoculation, and is examined 
immediately afterwards, the long bacillar cells are numerous enough. 
The microbes here cluster round the margins of the red corpuscles 
(fig. 1), giving them a beaded appearance; the white corpuscles 
are enormously increased in number, amounting sometimes to one 
in ten of the red; the microbe is not usually found within either. 

The blood of a fowl in these cases is fatally infective to a 
rabbit, and in minimal quantities, though the symptoms are widely — 
different in the two animals. There is also some variation in the 
size and length though not in the form of the microbe, as might be 
expected from analogy. The virus here, i.e. from the blood of 
a fowl, seems to be fatal to rabbits in somewhat less time than 
usual in the typical form of Davaine’s septicheemia when originated 
by inoculation with putrid blood, and transmitted from animal to 
animal, but the post-mortem appearances and other symptoms are 
identically the same in both cases, and differ markedly from those 
in fowls, in which the large intestine is the principal seat of affec- 
tion, and in a general way justifies the term cholera, though 
dysentery would be more appropriate. 

Dr. Sternberg, U.S. Army, has described * a fatal form of 
septicheemia in the rabbit, caused by the subcutaneous injection — 
of human saliva, and has given photographs of the microbe which 
he found therein. His description corresponds pretty well with 
my own observations on the organism, and in the main with the 
symptoms of Davaine’s septicheemia in the same animal, but the 
figures in his photographs were to me unintelligible ; they represent 
a colourless circular body of about 2 m in diameter, on a dark 
ground, and having a dark nuclear-like centre; but their appear- 
ances are not described in the text. Recently on staining a 
preparation of the blood of a fowl in a case of chicken cholera, in 
the manner above described (viz. with an alcoholic solution of 
eosin, &c.), | obtained exactly the appearances here described, and 


* Studies Biol. Lab. Johns-Hopkins Univ., 1882, p. 183, and Nat. Bd. of 
Health Bull. U.S.A, ii. p. 781. 


On the Appearances, de. By G. F. Dowdeswell. 35 


which I have above explained. In blood of the rabbit infected 
from a fowl and similarly stained, we also obtain the same 
appearance. 

We have here an instance of the effect of different methods of 
preparation upon the apparent characters of one and the same Micro- 
organism, and an illustration of the necessity for studying and 
understanding their action in comparing these bodies with the 
descriptions and figures of others. Accurate as is the description 
in Dr. Sternberg’s text, and correct necessarily and admirable as 
are his photographs, it would have been impossible for any one 
however familiar with the microbe to have identified it therefrom, 
unless he had seen it under the conditions here described ; nor 
could any one without this experience ever conjecture that two 
preparations made by the different methods, seen under the Micro- 
scope, and the figures 3 and 4, were one and the same organism, 
made from the blood of the same animal. I must add that in the 
blood both of the fowl and the rabbit, I believe this microbe does 
not form true spores, neither does it grow to leptothrix filaments, 
and though in many cases the dumb-bell appearance is deceptive, 
yet that its regular method of multiplication is by transverse fission, 
which occurs in an early stage of development of the cells, 

Taking into consideration all the characters I have observed, 
and here very superficially described, as also the behaviour of the 
microbe in artificial cultivations, as far as I have yet been able to 
compare the two cases, with the fact that their development is 
exceedingly slow and uncertain in all the media that I have yet 
tried, and that both thrive better in liquid than in solid cultiva- 
tions, I am of opinion that the microbe of fowl cholera and that of 
Davaine’s septichzemia in rabbits are specifically the same; as also 
probably is the microparasite described by Dr. Sternberg.* The 
epizooty here in question, prevalent sometimes in other countries 
to a disastrous extent, being caused by the same contagium as is 
Davaine’s septicheemia ; a microbe, the usual habitat of which is 
septic matter (putrid blood or human saliva), shows that there is 
no sharp distinction between epizootic, or (most probably) epide- 
mic and septic diseases, and disposes of the assertion sometimes 
made, that Davaine’s septichemia is “merely” an experimental 
disease, originated in the laboratory, and having no occurrence in 
nature. 

Tn this examination, and in making the drawings of the larger 


* Since this was written I have been fortunate enough to meet Dr. Sternberg, 
one of our American Fellows. From a conversation with him he does not appear 
to consider the microbe of his form of septicheemia in rabbits identical with that 
of Davaine’s. His opinion on such subjects is entitled to the highest considera- 
tion; but he may possibly find cause to modify it on examining preparations 
stained by different methods. 

dD 2 


36 Transactions of the Soccety. 


figures with the camera lucida, I have employed an amplification 
of 2000 or 2400 diameters obtained with the 1/16 or 1/20 
immersion objective, and a 1 in. or 3/4 in. eye-piece. Though it is 
easy to obtain very much higher magnification by various methods, 
little is gained thereby in the examination of structure, and even 
with the powers here employed everything depends upon the 
methods of illumination. 

From this demonstration it will be seen how different are the 
appearances of one and the same microbe, not only under the action 
of different reagents and methods of preparation, but even under 
different magnifying powers; this shows the absolute necessity in 
investigating such organisms, of examining them under different con- 
ditions, and in the first instance, always in as natural and unaltered 
a state as possible, to learn their true characters, which are fre- 
quently materially altered by the mere process of drying on the 
cover-glass. It should also induce caution in pronouncing two 
microbes to be specifically distinct, from apparently slightly 
different characters; a tendency to do this with the result of 
obscuring the subject and retarding scientific progress has recently 
been conspicuous in at least one important micro-pathological 
investigation. 

Lastly, with respect to the systematic position of the microbe 
here in question, it scarcely answers completely to the characters 
of any one of Cohn’s genera; it certainly 1s not a Micrococcus, nor 
is it a Bacterium; it is rather a Bacillus as shown by the length 
of the cells, but it has not yet been observed to form spores as the 
typical species of this genus do; I should therefore prefer to term 
it simply, at present, the microbe of chicken cholera. 


Cee’) 


VI.—On “Central” Light in Resolution. 
By J. W. Srernenson, F.R.M.S., F.R.AS. 
(Read 13th January, 1886.) 


Ir may perhaps not be inopportune to refer to the question of 
resolution by “ central” light, as distinguished from oblique illumi- 
nation, as we have heard from time to time of certain feats having 
been performed with “central” light which require explanation. 

It has been said, for instance, that Amphiplewra pellucida has 
been so resolved, a statement which, I submit with great respect, 
being inconsistent with the Abbe (diffraction) theory of microscopic 
vision, must necessarily be incorrect, although doubtless made in 
the most perfect good faith. 

The reason why the supposed resolution of Amphiplewra by 
“central” light is considered to be remarkable, depends upon 
the fact, that according to the diffraction theory, the full aperture 
of an objective can only be utilized when the direct beam and 
the diffraction beam or beams are seen at the extreme margin 
of the back lens of the objective. The nearer these beams approach 
each other, the smaller is the aperture made use of, so that when 
the direct beam is confined to a small area round the centre of 
the back lens, the aperture is reduced to one half. If then ag 
many lines to the inch could be resolved in the latter case, as 
when the two beams are wide apart, the Abbe theory would fall to 
the ground. 

The suggestion I have referred to arises, however, from some 
misunderstanding of what is “ central” light. 

The most elementary definition of a centre, is that it is a point 
within a circle, from which all parts of the circumference are equi- 
distant. It might therefore be contended on this definition, that 
asa beam of light cannot be a podnt, strictly “central” light is 
impossible ; but, as my object is to discuss the question practi- 
cally, I should define “central” light as a beam whose axis 
coincides with that of the objective, and is as narrow as possible, 
consistently with sufficient illuminating power. 

However narrow this guasi central beam may be, the peripheral 
portions must be strictly speaking more or less oblique; but with 
small obliquities, it may for all practical purposes be treated as 
central. With every increase in its width, however, the obliquity 
must also increase, so that when it becomes wide enough to fill the 
whole of the back combination of the objective (the maximum 
obliquity being attained), we have a beam which combines not only 
strictly central light, but every other degree of obliquity from zero 
upwards. 

The term “central” light is obviously erroneously applied to 
such a beam as this, although its axis coincides with the axis of 


38 Transactions of the Society. 


the objective. If the particular object under examination requires 
light of extreme obliquity for its resolution, that light is present, 
and it is by that light that the resolution actually takes place, just as 
if we had shut out all the strictly “central” light by a diaphragm, 
and had used the oblique light alone undiluted (so to say) by the 
central rays. 

Applying these considerations to the case of an objective of 
1-50 N.A., illuminated by strictly ‘‘central” light, the aperture 
is reduced to 0°75, with which the resolution of A. pellucida having 
a striation of some 95,000 to 100,000 lines to the inch, is impossible. 

By increasing the width of the illuminating beam to one- 
third of the diameter of the back lens, we increase the available 
aperture of the objective from 0°75 to 1:00 N.A Still further 
increasing its width, by making it equal to one-half the diameter 
of the back lens (still keeping it concentric with the objective), we 
raise the available aperture to 1:125 N.A., which exceeds the 
theoretical limit for the resolution of A. pellucida. 

The resolution, however, instead of being effected by “ central ” 
light, is, under these conditions, effected by oblique light emanating 
from peripheral portions of the illuminating beam, not only un- 
assisted by the central rays, but in spite of the diluting action of 
the more central light with which the field is flooded. 

It may be useful to show diagrammatically the positions of the 
diffraction pencils of A. pellucida relatively to the effective portions 
of tle illuminating beam under the different conditions which I 
have assumed. 

Fig. 1, with a beam of quasi “central” light, A, shows the 
virtual positions of the two diffraction pencils a a, outside or 
beyond the back lens, which are therefore useless. 


Fic. 1. Fic. 2. 


Fig. 2 shows the wider illuminating beam (equal to one-third 
of the diameter of the back lens), the more effective portions of 
which are indicated by the two small circles A and B, and their 
respective diffraction pencils by a and 6, partly within the limits of 
the back combination; either pair Aa or Bb being sufficient to 
resolve if the more refrangible rays, which alone are assumed to be 
admitted, give sufficient intensity to the image. 


On “ Central” Light in Resolution. By J. W. Stephenson. 39 


In fig. 3 in like manner the small circles represent at A’ and B’ 
the still more effective (because more oblique) portions of the illu- 
minating beam, with their respective diffraction pencils a’ and 0’. 
In this case the diffraction images within the limits of the back 
lens are more complete, and either A’ a or B’b’ would resolve the 
striation on the valve, but a still more perfect image would be 
obtained if by a suitable stop, one pair, say A’ a’, and all the useless 
central light were shut out and the work done by B' alone, as in 
fig. 4. 


Fic. 4. 


With any given objective on one and the same grating or 
valve, the distance between the illuminating pencil and the dif- 
fraction pencil thence arising is a constant quantity, and hence 
it follows that to be effective, this distance must always be less than 
the diameter of the back lens. Thus Aa=Bb=A'a =Bb, 
and just as A and B, or A’ and B,, recede from the centre on one 
side, so are their respective diffraction pencils a and J, or @ and DU, 
drawn towards it on the other, being as it were linked together by 
this condition. Nor is this distance in any way affected by the 
medium in which the object is mounted. In the cases which we 
have discussed it is a matter of absolute indifference (if the object 
adhere to the cover) whether it be in air, balsam, or phosphorus as 
far as resolution is concerned, although its wisibility, depending 
as it does on the intensity of the lines, may be immensely 
influenced thereby. 

It follows from what I have said that no objective with an 
aperture less than 2°00 N.A. is capable of resolving an ordinary 
valve of Amphipleura pellucida with a beam of “central” light. 

Very few persons possess objectives of 1°50 N.A., but most of 
the Fellows can verify the truth of the theoretical considerations 
here put forth with an ordinary objective capable of resolving 
Pleurosigma angulatum with oblique light. It will be found 
that where a narrow central beam, from the smallest stop of a con- 
denser, fails, the object will be immediately resolved by using a 
beam of light of greater width, although from the flood of central 
light the definition will be inferior to that obtained by a purely 
oblique pencil. 


40 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


SUMMARY 


OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ZOOLOGY AND BOA 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 


MICROSCOPY, &c., 


INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.* 


ZOOLOGY. 
A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 


a. Embryology.+ 


The Archistome Theory.{—Mr. J. A. Ryder gives a brief sketch 
of a new theory of development. 

He expands Hackel’s gastreea theory in the light of more recent 
research, and agrees with Sedgwick’s theory on the “ origin of meta- . 
meric segmentation,” except as to the homology of the mouth and 
anus of the vertebrates with those structures of the invertebrates. 
He mainly concerns himself with the origin of the appendages. The ~ 
medullary plate has been formed by the concrescence of the lips of an 
elongated blastopore in all forms. The mouth and anus of vertebrates 
are new structures. 

The “archistome” is the elongated mouth of the larve of 
Bilateralia, or the whole area embraced by an unpaired median neural 
plate, or by a pair of neural plates. This archistome extends in 
vertebrates from the pineal gland along the whole length of the body, 
through the “secondary blastopore,” and through the primitive streak 
to the point cf closure of the “ yolk blastopore.” 

If an actinozoon is elongated along the long axis of the mouth, 
the tentacles will become arranged in pairs on each side of the archi- 
stome; each has a portion of a gut-pouch continued into them; the 
telson and labrum may be supposed to be derived from the opposite 
extremities of the series of tentacles. The biramose appendages of 
Crustacea are derived from an actinozoon with two rows of tentacles 
or “archipodia,” by the fusion of the bases of the tentacles of the 


* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they 
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers 
noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of 
this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actwally published, 
and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new 
or haye not been previously described in this country. 

+ This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so 
called, but also those dealing with processes of Evolution, Development, and 
Reproduction, and with allied subjects. 

{ Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 1110-21. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 41 


two rows. The parapodia of Polychexta are similarly derived, but the 
archipodia first became more lateral. The sete of the Chetopoda are 
analogous with the “actinotrichia” or embryonic fin-rays of fishes 
and Sagitta: muscles pass to the bases of both these structures. In 
Sagitia the lateral fin represents a fusion of parapodia. In fishes, 
groups of actinotrichia fuse at their bases, and thus give rise to the 
branched fin-rays of the adults. The original continuous lateral 
and median fin-folds were formed by a fusion of originally metameric 
finlets, just as the bases of the fin-rays of the skate fuse to form 
propterygium, mesopterygium, and metopterygium. 

The lateral fins are formed from notopodial elements, the median 
dorsal fin from fusion of two series of neuropodia, and the median 
ventral from a similar fusion of notopodia. The Chordata and 
Cheetopoda are two divergent series from an original stock. 


Development of Spermatozoa.*—Dr. G. von Wiedersperg con- 
cludes that the spermatozoa are solely developed from the so-called 
round testis-cells, the nuclei of which become the heads of the 
spermatozoa, while the tail is formed within the cell. He accepts the 
doctrine of Ebner that these round cells are the derivates of the con- 
- tinued division of the marginal cells, division in which commences 
with a differentiation of the substance in the nucleus itself, the 
chromatin becoming aggregated towards either pole., It is peculiar 
to this process of division that the two polar parts of the nucleus, as 
they separate, still remain connected by more or fewer filaments, 
which are ordinarily granular in appearance; in this way the nuclei 
of the new cells remain connected together by a bridge of fibres. A 
study of the developing spermatozoa of the rat shows that the seminal 
cells lie freely in the median cavity of the testicular canaliculi, sur- 
rounded by a varying number of layers of other cells; and these 
developing cells are so disposed that in transverse sections we see 
only one stage of development, and in a longitudinal section the 
gradual passage of one stage into another. 

The nuclei present different characters at different stages; thus 
in the young seminal cells they take colour just like the nuclei of- 
their mother-cells; in other forms the chromatin is completely 
differentiated from the ground-substance. Later on no colourless 
ground-substance is to be seen, and it appears, indeed, as if the 
chromatin had become dissolved in it. The older the cell becomes 
the less colouring matter does it take up. In some cases, as, for 
example, in the African elephant, paranuclei are to be seen. 

In mature ejaculated sperm there are to be seen round cells, in 
which the head of the spermatozoon lies by the wall of the cell, and 
the tail, which has the form of an extremely fine filament, is likewise 
applied to it; in a larger number of cells the form was more or less 
oval, the head projected far beyond the contours of the cell-membrane, 
and the tail lay coiled up within the cell. Spermatocysts were also 
found; and there were others which were finely granulated, and executed 
amoeboid movements, the processes being pale, club-shaped, spherical, 


* Arch, f. Mikr, Anat., xxv. (1885) pp. 113-36 (3 pls.). 


42 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


or knobbed in form. The author finds that it is not only the testicular 
cells that have the power of movement, but also the true seminal cells 
within which the spermatozoa are developed. In the spermatozoa 
the power of movement resides solely in the tail or flagellum; the 
power of free movement, of twisting and so on, is largely due to the 
absence of any investment. One of the most ordinary forms of 
spermatozoon is that with a nearly round head, in which the hemi- 
sphere that carries the flagellum is darker than the other half (this is 
in consequence of its being still covered by the nuclear membrane). 
Flagella with quite rudimentary heads are by no means rare. 


Spermatogenesis.*—Dr. D. Biondi claims to have effected a 
synthesis of the divergent observations which have been of late the 
subject of so much discussion. The nature of his solution may be 
best explained by his own summary. 

1. In all seminal canals, mature or immature, there is really only 
one kind of cell (“Samenzellen,” or round cells). 

2. The “epithelial cells” of Sertoli, the “‘ Stiitzzellen” of Merkel 
and Henle, the “spermatoblasts” of von Ebner are all secondary 
modifications, arising from the protoplasmic remains of the round 
cells after these have produced spermatozoa. 

8. All seminiferous cells (“Samenzellen ”) arise from primitive 
cells (‘‘Stammzellen”), and lie in a semi-fluid albuminoid substance. 

4, In functional testes each primitive cell produces a generation 
of cells which are arranged linearly in pillar-like fashion. 

5. In each pillar three zones are to be distinguished: (1) outer- 
most, one cell, the primitive cell (“Stammzelle”); (2) two or three 
mother-sperm-cells in a row (“ Mutterzellen”); (8) four to six cells 
in an innermost row (daughter-sperm-cells, “'Yochterzellen ”). 

6. When the generation is complete, differentiation into sperms 
begins from the centre outwards. 

7. The three portions of the spermatozoon are formed wholly from 
a’nucleus, the anterior half of which forms the head and the other 
half the middle portion and tail. 

8. The spermatozoa do not move towards the periphery. 

9. After the complete modification of all the cells, each pillar 
has the appearance of a bundle of spermatozoa. 

10. The expulsion of the sperms is effected by the expansion of 
the cells of adjacent pillars. 

11. In the formation of sperms from the nuclei, there are remains 
of the latter left unused, which with the protoplasm form the semi- 
fluid, albuminoid, intermediate or connective substance (“ Zwischen- 
substanz ’”’). 

12. A bundle of sperms arising from a single pillar, imbedded in 
the connective substance, and compacted by pressure, form a “ sperma- 
toblast ” of von Ebner. 

13. As the pillar becomes modified into spermatozoa and con- 
nective substance, and as the former are expelled, the foundation of 
a new generation is laid by the division (tangential) of the primitive 
cell (“Stammzelle”’) of an adjacent pillar. 


* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxv. (1885) pp. 594-620 ( pls.). See also this 
Journal, v. (1885) p. 979. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 43 


14. The nuclear division of this primitive cell does not occur in 
any constant direction, but in a direction conditioned by the adjacent 
vacant space. 


Mechanism of Fertilization.* — Pfeffer’s observations on the 
attraction of spermatozoa in cryptogams, suggested to Herr J. 
Dewitz the study of sperm movements with the view of determining 
how far their entrance into the ovum was effected by chance. His 
observations were made on spermatozoa of Periplaneta (Blatta) 
orientalis, and they led him to the following results:—(1) The 
spermatozoa are attracted to surfaces, e. g. were found moving on the 
cover-glass and on the slide, but not in the space left between them, 
or round the walls of a hollow glass ball, but not in the centre; 
(2) the spermatozoa move in a circle, and, for the observer, in 
the direction of the figures on a watch-dial. Therefore, in actual 
fertilization, Herr Dewitz maintains that the sperms are drawn to the 
surface of the ovum, move round it in slightly varying circles as 
above noted, and thus must reach a micropyle. Experiments on 
pieces of the egg-shells, the eggs themselves being too opaque, con- 
firmed this opinion. In regard to mammals, he maintains a chemical 
attraction. 


Blastodermic Vesicle of Mammals.t—Prof. A. C. Haddon sug- 
gests the view that in the blastodermic vesicle of mammals, at the 
close of segmentation, the inner mass, since it gives rise to the embryo 
proper, is perfectly comparable with the germinal disc of a fowl 
during the later stages of segmentation, which has sunk into the 
blastodermic vesicle owing to the absence of yolk. The outer layer 
corresponds to those epiblast cells which are gradually inclosing the 
yolk, the so-called blastopore of van Beneden indicating in an ex- 
aggerated manner the distinction between the embryonic and non- 
embryonic germinal layers. LEpiblast cells grow over this “ blasto- 
pore” and form the covering cells; eventually the invagination of 
the germinal area is rectified, and there is a diploblastic ovum, the 
covering cells forming the spurious third layer which misled van 
Beneden. 

The segmentation of the ovum is next discussed, and the conclu- 
sion is arrived at, that the first immigration of blastospheres into the 
interior of the ovum (van Beneden’s stage 3) indicates the gastrula 
stage. It would further appear that this immigration was asymmetrical, 
much as there is an asymmetrical invagination of the hypoblast in 
telolecithal ova. The extension of cells of the blastodermic vesicle 
over the embryonic area is probably to be accounted for in most 
cases by the sinking of the latter into the cavity of the former. 
These covering-cells are really a portion of the blastodermic vesicle, 
that is of the yolk-sac, and they form the first adhesion between the 
ovum and the parent. This is compared with the imperfect attach- 
ment of the embryos of marsupials to the uterine walls, which is 


* Arch. f. d. Gesammt. Physiol. (Pfliiger), xxxvii. (1885) pp. 219-23. 
+ Proc. R. Dublin Soc., iv. (1885) pp. 536-47 (7 figs.). 


44 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


effected solely by the yolk-sac, as has been recently demonstrated by 
H. F. Osborn and Caldwell. 


Hypertrophy and its value in Evolution.*—Mr. J. B. Sutton, 
after citing a number of more or less well-known cases of hypertrophy, 
comes to the conclusions that :—(1) In the lowest form of animal life 
hermaphroditism is the prevailing condition. (2) Cross-fertilization 
in hermaphrodites is the rule, and may, as with some Myzostomata, 
lead to division into sexes within the limits of a single group. 
(8) Sporadic cases of hermaphroditism are far more common in the 
lowest forms of life. (8) If in mammals both sets of organs grow 
concurrently, the individual is sterile. (5) Both sets of organs grow 
equally to a definite period in embryonic life. (6) Reproduction in 
vertebrates, so far as is known, is impossible unless hypertrophy of 
one set of organs occurs. The aim of the author in writing this 
essay is to try and substantiate the doctrine that pathological processes 
do not exist per se, but are in all cases to be regarded as physiolegical 
processes in excess. Pathology has so far played a part among the 
ordinary processes of evolution, that hypertrophied organs have been 
in some cases inherited. 


Availability of Embryological Characters in the Classification 
of the Chordata.t—Mr. J. A. Ryder shows how complication after 
complication has been added to the developing germ, starting with a 
simple blastula developed by simple cleavage in the lancelet; in the 
amphibian and marsipobranch embryo there is a distinct neurenteric 
canal, and the neurenteron is continued into the enteric cavity, which 
traverses longitudinally the upper half of the segmented vitelline 
mass. In the next grade (Ichthyes) the vitellus is for a long time 
unsegmented, and is practically excluded from forming any part of 
the enteric walls; but the embryo is generally sessile, and while only 
part of the blastoderm leads to the differentiation of the embryo, no 
part of the ectoblast is ever folded off to form such provisional organs 
as the amnion. In the higher (endocyemate) types, where this does 
obtain, there is ordinarily a blastoderm with a relatively very large 
area, and only a small part of the ectoblast takes a permanent share 
in the formation of the embryo. In the Paratherian series (reptiles, 
birds, ornithodelphs) there is a large yolk developed, which seems to 
have determined the development of the hollow yolkless blastosphere 
of the Eutheria; the greater part of the walls of this vesicle are, by a 
process of folding off and ingrowth of the embryo, converted into a 
respiratory apparatus and secondary system of deciduous envelopes. 

The form of the placenta seems to depend on several factors :— 
(1) The early or late attachment of the blastodermic vesicle to the 
uterine walls; (2) the early or late invagination of the embryo; 
(3) the extent of subzonal membrane covered by the allantois, and 
the mode in which the latter is extended ; (4) the form of the uterine 
cavity; (5) the position and disposition of the uterine mucosa; 
(6) the disposition of its crypts and folds; (7) the arrangement of 


* Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1885, pp. 432-45. 
t Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 815-9 and 903-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 45 


the uterine vessels. These influences are largely of a mechanical 
character. 

The facts known to us seem to show that the amnion is the result 
of the gradual invagination of the embryo into the blastodermic 
vesicle ; and it is probable that the cavity of the false amnion is the 
homologue of the cleavage cavity of certain of the lower forms. 


Sexual Dimorphism.*—Mr. J. Stolzmann, basing his views on a 
study of birds, comes to the result that sexual dimorphism is often to 
be explained as being due to natural selection ; where it is only feebly 
marked we may believe that it is to be explained by the law of the 
correlation of growth; a female, externally, may be regarded as an 
incompletely developed male; the réle of the female is more difficult 
than that of the male, and the ovaries require a larger blood supply 
than the testes; this view is supported by the fact that old or sickly 
females take on the male characters. 


Spermatogenesis of Bombinator.t — In continuation of his re- 
searches on spermatogenesis, Prof. v. la Valette St. George describes 
the structure and development of the spermatozoa of Bombinator, 
with a critical review of the relative literature. 

Structure.—The spermatozoon is a spindle-shaped body, ending 
anteriorly in a clear blunt tip, and drawn out at the other end into a 
fine process. Close to the anterior tip a filament is attached, which 
runs alongside of the body, more or less separated from it, and con- 
tinued beyond it. On this is borne the vibratile fringe, which does 
not, however, extend the whole length of the filament. The vibratory 
movements occur from the anterior end backwards to the fine point. 
The whole spermatozoon is probably surrounded by an envelope of 
protoplasm, the contractility of which is specially differentiated in 
the fringe region. The forward movement of the sperm is rotatory, 
produced partly by the spiral twistings of the vibratile membrane, 
and partly by the worm-like bendings of the body itself. The 
author maintains that the structure described is that of the perfectly 
mature sperm. 

Development.—The development of the spermatozoa of Bombinator 
is in accordance with the author’s previous results; (1) spermato- 
gonia surrounded by a follicular envelope (“ Follikelhaut”) with nuclei, 
divide with nuclear karyomitosis ; (2) the resulting spermatocytes 
multiply in a similar manner and form masses termed spermatocysts, 
surrounded by a cyst-envelope (“ Cystenhaut”’) with nuclei, perhaps the 
same as the follicular membrane; (3) from the repeated division of 
the spermatocytes, spermatides or undifferentiated sperms result, from 
which by elongation of nucleus to form the body, formation of filament, 
diminution of protoplasm, &c., the (4) mature spermatozoa arise. 


Influence of Saline Water on the development of Tadpoles.{— 
M. E. Yung finds that a tadpole placed in sea-water of the Mediter- 
ranean, which contains about 4 per cent. of salts, dies, shrivelled up, in 


* Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1885, pp. 421-32. 
+ Arch. f. Mikr, Anat., xxv. (1885) pp. 581-93 (2 pls.). 
t Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 713-4. 


46 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


three to twenty minutes, according to its age, and ova do not develope. 
In 1 per cent. solution of marine salts a tadpole dies at the end of 
some hours, unless it has been previously prepared by a series of 
solutions of 2, 4, 6, 8 per 1000. Experiments were made with young, 
placed some in fresh water and others in solutions of 2, 4, 6, 8 per 
1000, and it was seen that the tadpoles developed the more slowly the 
more concentrated the solution. When the water was kept undulating, 
tadpoles developed even when the solution contained 12 parts per 
1000 of marine salts. 


Influence of the Number of Individuals in One Vase, and of 
the Form of the Vase on the development of Tadpoles.*—M. HE. 
Yung concludes from his experiments that the time taken in the 
development of tadpoles is proportionately as long as their number is 
greater in the same quantity of water, when there is an ample supply 
of food. This influence of the water supply has already been demon- 
strated by Prof. Semper to be true of Lymnzus, but M. Yung does 
not accept the explanation that there is some as yet unknown matter 
in the water which is the cause of this; it rather appears to him to 
be a question of aeration. For he found that the tadpoles develope 
the more rapidly the greater the diameter of the vessel which contains 
them, and consequently, the greater the surface of aeration. How far 
pressure has anything to do with the matter must be reserved for, 
further experiments. 


Relations of Yolk to Gastrula in Teleosteans.j — Mr. J. T. 
Cunningham describes the ova of Gadus eglifinus, G. morrhua, 
G. merlangus, and Trigla gurnardus. He was able to observe in the 
eggs of cod and haddock that the cells of the blastoderm are, at an 
early stage, continuous with those of the periblast ; but the invaginated 
layer of the germinal ring is not so continuous; the whole edge of 
the blastoderm represents the ancestral blastopore, and the formation 
of the embryo by concrescence is merely the closing of the blastopore 
from before backwards. The edge of the blastoderm in Amphibia, 
Petromyzon, and Ganoids is homologous with that of Teleostei. But 
the edge of the Elasmobranch blastoderm is not so homologous, the 
inflected part representing the whole of the Teleostean edge. The 
anterior part of the primitive streak in Sauropsida is regarded as 
representing the ancestral blastopore, while the posterior part re- 
presents the coalesced uninflated part of the blastodermic rim in 
Elasmobranchs; the edge of the Sauroid blastoderm seems to corre- 
spond to a hernia in the blastoderm of Elasmobranchs. Part of the 
periblast probably forms the floor of the intestine, and the rest forms 
part of the splanchnopleural mesoblast. 


Ova of Callionymus lyra.t—Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh finds that the 
ova of this fish are pellucid and pelagic; they are very small, and are 
invested, when mature, in a very fine hyaline zona radiata; they may 
be distinguished by their external hexagonal reticulations. 

* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 1018-20. 


+ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxvi. (1885) pp. 1-38 (4 pls.). 
¢ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1885) pp. 480-2, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 47 


Structures resembling Ovya.*—Prof. McIntosh has taken near the 
Forth certain peculiar dull yellowish structures resembling ova; they 
adhered to each other, and were nearly circular; their capsule was 
yielding, and the contents consist of a structureless gelatinous 
substance. 

8, Histology.t 


Morphology of the Cell-nucleus.{—Dr. W. Pfitzner comes to the 
conclusion that the nucleus is always a completely independent 
structure inclosed in the cell; and that karyokinesis is the expres- 
sion of a process going on within the cell-nucleus, in which no 
morphological constituents of the cell-body take any active part. 
The first of these dicta leads to certain consequences, for it is clear 
that a new nucleus can never arise. The extraordinary constancy 
which is seen from the Protozoa to man leads us to believe that the 
existence of the cell as a biological unit is connected with the 
presence of a central body of complicated internal structure, and 
that, therefore, the chromatin structures are not secondarily acquired, 
but are the prime conditions of the vital existence of the cell. 
Further, karyokinesis is not a special mode of nuclear division, but 
is the mode xar éfoynv. The author recognizes that these views are 
not those of the authorities on the subject, and he offers some 
criticisms on the recent results of Flemming and Laydowsky. 


Contraction of Striped Muscle.§S—With the aid of an apparatus 
which he terms the myoscope M. F. Laulanié has studied the con- 
traction phenomena of muscles retained in their normal environment 
and connections. He follows up his previous (1875) observations on 
the muscles of the aquatic larva of Corethra plumicornis, and sup- 
plements them by a study of the phenomena exhibited by the 
unisolated hyoid muscles of the frog. While the circulation con- 
tinued normal in the Corethra larva or in the frog, undoubtedly 
simultaneous contractions were observed; but as the circulation 
became irregular, waves of contraction set in, progressing from either 
extremity of the fibre, or sometimes from both ends at once, annihi- 
lating one another as they met. While the contraction wave was 
being observed ‘along the fibre, simultaneous contractions also occurred 
without apparently affecting the former. In the frog the muscular 
waye was but rarely observed, except in some apparently highly 
functional fibres, and was characterized by the extreme slowness of its 
progress, sometimes effecting contraction only over a very limited 
area. 

M. Laulanié distinguishes three modes of activity: (1) total and 
simultaneous contraction (secousse) ; (2) partial contraction ; (3) mus- 
cular wave, or partial and progressive contractions. He regards the 
first as characteristic of normal activity in conditions where the 
muscles retain their full excitability, and the muscular wave as 


* Tom. cit., p. 485. 

+ This section is limited to papers relating to Cells and Fibres. 
t Morphol. Jahrb., xi. (1885) pp. 54-77 (1 pl.). 

§ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp, 669-71. 


48 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


indicative of the collapse of the organism or arrest of the circulation, 
and as occurring in cases where the muscular elements act in isola- 
tion from the collective life. His theory of the phenomena is reserved 
for a future paper. 

y. General.* 


Markings of Animals.t—Eimer has advanced the view that the 
markings on animals are primitively longitudinal stripes, which may 
subsequently be broken up to form dots, and these fuse to form 
transverse rings. This view is supported by the ontogeny of many 
animals. Dr. W. Haacke controverts this view from the study of an 
Australian fish, Helotes scotus. The adult fish is marked by eight 
longitudinal black bands; young specimens have in addition a row 
of clear transverse bands, which disappear when the fish attains to 
maturity. 


B. INVERTEBRATA. 


Chromatology of Blood of Invertebrates.{—Dr. C. A. MacMunn 
describes the spectroscopic or chemical characters of the blood of 
various worms and molluscs; one of the most interesting pigments 
which he has detected is that which he calls echinochrome, and which 
he has obtained from the perivisceral cavity of Strongylocentrotus 
lividus; the corpuscles present all degrees of coloration from a 
brilliant lake red, through a pale orange, to colourless, and they 
vary in having one or more nuclei. Hchinochrome deepens on ex- 
posure to air, and this seems to be at least partly due to oxidation ; 
it is certainly capable of existing in two states of oxidation, and is 
therefore respiratory; the author gives a detailed account of its 
spectra and solubility, and states that he has not met with any 
animal colouring matter which resembles it. 


Radial Disposition of Medusze and Echinodermata.s—Dr. W. 
Haacke attempts to decide what ought to be regarded as the primitive 
number of “segments” in radiate animals. Hiickel regards the 
Asterids as nearer to the primitive ancestors of the Hchinodermata 
than other groups, because in them there are species with varying 
number of arms as well as species with a constant number, and that 
a high one. On the other hand, the Echinoidea and Holothuroidea 
exhibit no such variations. Dr. Haacke records the fact that in 
Amblypneustes he has seen individuals with four and with six para- 
meres; Hickel’s views, therefore, cannot be considered as at all 
trustworthy. According to the latter, the primitive number of 
parameres in Meduse is four, and Dr. Haacke from his own re- 
searches is inclined to agree. It is possible that four parameres and 
not five are typical for the Echinodermata, but the question is as yet 
an open one. 


* This section is limited to papers which, while relating to Vertebrata, 
have a direct or indirect bearing on Invertebrata also. 

+ Zool. Anzeig., vili. (1885) pp. 507-8. 

+ Quart, Journ. Mier. Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 469-90 (2 spectroscopic charts), 

§ Zool, Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 505-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 49 


Pennington’s ‘British Zoophytes.’*—Mr. A. 8. Pennington has 
prepared an introduction to the Hydroida, Actinozoa, and Polyzoa 
found in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Isles, which should 
be useful to English naturalists; the microscopic structure of the 
various forms described is not neglected. 

After a short historical account of the study of “ zoophytes,” the 
general classification of the groups and an account of their bathy- 
metrical distribution is given. For the Hydrozoa Mr. Hincks’s classi- 
fication of the Hydroida into Athecata, Thecaphora, and Gymnochroa 
is adopted, reference being made to that of Professor Allman, where 
differences obtain. Gosse’s classification of the Zoantharia is brought 
into conformity with the systems of Hertwig and Andres. For the 
Polyzoa, Hincks and Busk are chiefly followed. The book concludes 
with some hints on the collection and preservation of the organisms 
which have been described ; and there are a bibliography, a glossary, 
and an index of popular names. 


Mollusca. 


Nerve-centres of Cephalopoda.j—M. Vialleton “ assimilates” the 
dotted substance found in the nerve-centres of Cephalopods with the 
fibres of the neuroglia in vertebrates, denying that it is a new form of 
tissue, but that it is only transitory in vertebrates. All the ganglia 
of Cephalopoda are at first formed of embryonic cells, in the midst of 
which the dotted substance soon appears as an inextricable plexus 
of fibrils arising from these cells, which early loses its reticular 
character and takes on the appearance of a uniformly granular sub- 
stance; some ganglia, such as the optic, retain this structure in the 
adult. In the subcesophageal portion the cells become larger, and 
tend to have the form of ganglionic cells. In the visceral ganglion 
small cells, identical with those of the optico-cerebral centre, are seen 
in contact with the dotted substance, and at the periphery of the 
cortex there are true ganglionic cells with a prolongation, resembling 
the filament of Deiters, which can be easily followed through the 
dotted substance to a nerve; in other words, there is the same con- 
tinuity of cells and cylinder-axes as in vertebrates. The mode of 
development of the nervous tissue is the same in both groups, but in 
the cephalic centre of Cephalopods it does not proceed as far as in 
vertebrates. 


Size and External Sexual Characters of the New Zealand 
Octopus.t—Professor T. J. Parker refers to a species of Octopus 
found near Vancouver’s Island, which measured 5 ft. along one arm, 
and was hitherto supposed to be the largest known specimen. The 
measurements of Octopus maorum, however, show it to exceed the 
former in size. The whole length of body is 1 ft. 1 in.; the longest 
arm, 5 ft. 5 in., is the first on the left side; the others all exceed 


* Pennington, A. S., ‘ British Zoophytes, 363 pp. (24 pls.), 8vo, London 
(L. Reeve and Co.) 1885. 

+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 1016-8. ¢ Nature, xxxi, (1885) p. 586. 

Ser. 2.—Vo1. VI. E 


50 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


4 ft., except the third one on the right, which is 2 ft. 11 in., and is 
hectocotylized. 

As a sexual character he calls attention to the gradual decrease 
in size of the suckers in passing from the proximal to the distal end 
of the arm in the male; whilst in the female the suckers soon become 
indistinct, and are replaced by closely-set tubercles. In a male there 
were 300 suckers on one arm, and only 100 in a corresponding arm 
of a female of the same size. 


Post-oral Band of Cilia in Gasteropod Veligers.*—Dr. J. P. 
McMurrich draws attention to a post-oral band of cilia, in addition to 
the pre-oral band, in larve of Crepidula fornicata, Fulgur carica, 
Neptunea, Montaguia, and others. Between these two bands are 
numerous cilia, continuous with those lining the mouth, as in 
Polygordius. 

The following phylogenetic history is suggested for the Gastropods; 
the ancestor of these and of other annelids was a “ Trochophore,” which 
in the former developed the (larval) shell: the presence of this ren- 
dered the pre-oral cilia insufficient, and hence the formation of the 
velum ; the presence of the shell may be connected with the absence 
of metameric segmentation. 


Development of Fissurella.;—M. L. Bontan comes to the con- 
clusion that Fissurella by its development, shows itself to be a true ° 
Gastropod, and not to be allied to the worms; it has a persistent 
larval shell, its larve are emarginuliform, and rimuliform, before 
reaching the adult condition; the apparent symmetry of the adult is 
really an asymmetry which gradually becomes marked. 


Limacide of Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue.{—M. 8. Jourdain contends 
that malacologists have divided too finely the species of Limacide. 
Instead of basing their diagnoses on the general form, coloration, 
structure of the shell, and conformation of the jaws, characters which 
vary with age and habitat, they ought to have recourse to the internal 
organs, and especially to the arrangement of the generative apparatus. 
The pedal gland is also of service ; it contains a cylindrical excretory 
canal which extends more or less along the median line, and receives 
the mucoso-glandular secretions of the lobules of a racemose gland 
on either side of it; the internal face of the canal is vibratile. In 
the Limacide it arises as an invagination of the ectoderm, and 
subsequently becomes branched; the extremities of the branches 
are invested by mesodermic cells which rapidly become secretory. 
M. Jourdain limits the number of species found in the environs of 
Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue to five—Arion rufus, Lima agrestis, L. 
maximus, L. variegatus, and Milax gagates ; and he gives diagnoses 
of these, limiting himself, however, here to the characters which have 
been especially neglected by malacologists. 

Spermatogenesis in Pulmonata.s—Herr G. Platner describes the 
spermatogenesis in Arion and Helix, and reviews the relative researches 

* Johns-Hopkins Univ. Cire., v. (1885) pp. 5-6. 


¢ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 710-2. t Ibid., pp. 963-6. 
§ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxy. (1885) pp. 564-581. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 51 


of other investigators. After describing the hermaphrodite glands 
of Arion and Helix and their relation to the enveloping liver-mass, 
he gives a detailed account of the different stages in the development 
and differentiation of the sperms. 

(a) The spermatogonia are at an early stage the only cells in the 
gland besides the ova. They possess little protoplasm, a large 
slightly granular nucleus, a distinct nucleolus, but no enveloping 
membrane. Each contains a peculiar body independent of the nucleus ; 
in Arion, apparently consisting of a number of small rods forming 
a more or less regular figure, in Helix in the form of a coiled filament. 
The spermatogonia exhibit indirect division, and the peculiar rods or 
coils are also doubled during the process, but when the spermatogonia 
in ceasing to divide, have formed a mass of spermatocytes, the peculiar 
bodies have finally disappeared. 

(b) The spermatocytes are smaller than the spermatogonia, have 
not, as has been mentioned, that peculiar body, and their nuclei never 
exhibit the quiescent condition, nor consequently a nucleolus. The 
spermatocytes group themselves round basal cells, which appear at 
an early stage from the cells adjacent to the alveolar wall, and 
resemble spermatogonia in form, though not in history. Their large 
oval, granular nucleus, which does not divide, is surrounded by a 
finely granular protoplasm. With these centres the spermatocytes 
are directly associated. All spermatogonia, however, do not form 
spermatocytes, a large proportion of them persist, arranged in pillars, 
between the spermatocyte groups, and form subsequently, not only a 
new generation of spermatocytes, but also new basal cells, after the 
others have disappeared. 

(c) The spermatocytes divide indirectly to form spermatides or 
undifferentiated spermatozoa. In both this division and that of the 
spermatogonia the protoplasmic separation is not very complete. 
The spermatides have a large granular nucleus and a narrow rim of 
protoplasm, and sometimes exhibit slow amceboid movements. From 
the protoplasm a primary sperm filament or tail grows out as 
a process. The granular substance of the nucleus retires to the 
periphery and becomes crescentic, while in the protoplasm an 
“ accessory corpuscle” (‘‘ Nebenkern”) is formed, whether from the 
nucleus or not, Herr Platner was unable definitely to determine. In 
Arion the accessory body has the appearance of a polyhedron formed 
of 4-6 rods, in Helix it forms an irregular circular, subsequently 
coiled figure. The nucleus of the spermatide forms itself anew, and 
exhibits a peculiar invagination, becoming sack-like ; the uncoloured 
internal portion of the sack forms the axial portion of the future head, 
and is continued backwards into the above-mentioned extra-cellular 
primary tail. The intra-cellular portion grows in length and becomes 
bent, or sometimes even spirally twisted, the head also stretches 
and pushes out of the cell, the protoplasm and the accessory body come 
to lie ever further and further back along the primary tail, the final 
result being that the accessory body degenerates and the protoplasmic 
sheath acquires the definite structure of two (in Helix three) 
threads coiled round the axial filament or primary tail. The 

E 2 


52 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


fate of the accessory body is the same in both Arion and Helia, and the 
observations which have repeatedly credited it as the origin of 
different portions of the spermatozoon, are due to its losing at a 
certain stage its strongly refracting character and becoming invisible, 
except under very high powers. Platner ascribes no function whatever 
to the accessory body. The second half of the paper consists of a 
critical review. 


Movement of the Foot in Lamellibranchs.*—Dr. A. Fleischmann 
comes to the conclusion that the “pori aquiferi” in the feet of 
Lamellibranchs are either the orifices of glands or artefacts; this 
being so, they cannot serve as a means of communication between the 
blood-vascular system and the surrounding water; such streams of 
water as are seen on contraction are not normal vital phenomena, 
but are pathological. Even if there were pores, they could not, for 
mechanical reasons, have the functions that have been ascribed to 
them. The swelling of the foot is due to the entrance of a certain 
quantity of blood, which, during repose, is stored up in the pallial 
reservoirs; the blood is aided by the closure of a strong valve 
and by the simultaneous relaxation of the musculature of the foot, 
the lacunez of which become filled by blood. When the foot under- 
goes erection there is no change of volume of the whole animal, but 
only a change in the volume of separate parts due to the dislocation © 
of the blood. It has not been proved that water is taken up by the 
kidneys or intercellular ducts. The Lamellibranchs do not need to 
take in water. What is true of them is true also of other groups 
of molluscs. 


Resting-position of Oysters.j—Dr. K. Mobius refers to a letter 
by Mr. J. T. Cunningham, wherein the opinion was expressed that 
oysters rested on the clean right, and not on the left, valve. Out of 
140 shells examined by Dr. Mobius, only a very few had any foreign 
organism on the right valve, whilst the rest had sponges, hydroids, 
&c., on the left valve. Forty-three of these bore on their left valve 
the body to which the spawn fixed itself. The bottom of an oyster- 
bed formed by old oyster-shells is not smooth: the young ones 
being fixed obliquely, the right valve may sometimes be protected 
so that embryos of other organisms, e.g. sponges, cirripedes, &c., 
may attach themselves and grow. 


Green Oysters.t—Prof. E. Ray Lankester discusses the cause of 
the green colour of the gills and labial tentacles of “‘ green oysters,” 
or “huitres de Marennes,” which, as Gaillon observed sixty-five years 
ago, have associated with them in the same waters Navicula ostrearia, 
and that where there is no such diatom there is no greening. The 
belief that the green colour is due to copper is discussed, and an 
account is given of cases where purveyors of oysters have so coloured 
them. 

Navicula ostrearia contains a light-blue pigment, which it is 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. (1885) pp. 367-431. 
+ Nature, xxxiii. (1885) p. 52. 
+ Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci,, xxvi. (1885) pp. 71-94 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. * Be 


proposed to call “marennin,” which is diffused through the proto- 
plasm ; when this blue marennin is deposited in the yellowish-brown 
gill-filaments of the oysters, if has a greenish hue; there can be no 
doubt that marennin derived from N. ostrearia, taken as food, is 
present either unchanged or slightly modified in the gills of the green 
oyster, and is the cause of the colour. The pigment is localized in 
certain peculiar cells of the superficial epithelium of the gills and 
tentacles, viz. in the large subspherical “ secretion cells,’ which are 
placed at intervals among the more numerous smaller columnar cells ; 
this is possibly the only known instance of a pigment introduced 
through the alimentary canal being eliminated by gland-cells in an 
unaltered condition. 


Cephalic Appendages of Gymnosomatous Pteropoda.*—Dr. P. 
Pelseneer has investigated the cephalic appendages of Clione, Clionopsis, 
and Pneumodermon, the homologies of which are very obscure. There 
are always two pairs of tentacles, and the author does not think it rash 
to identify them with the two pairs of the euthyneurous Gastropods; 
in the Thecosomata there is a pair of rudimentary tentacles, and if 
they do not possess eyes when adult they have them in some stage of 
their development; these correspond to the posterior or nuchal 
oculiferous pair of tentacles in the Gymnosomata, while the dis- 
appearance of the anterior is to be explained by the swimming lobes 
encircling the head. Most of the Gymnosomata have a pair of buccal 
appendages between the two pairs of tentacles, and these, though 
varied in aspect, are probably similar in origin; it is explained, how 
in Clione they are really inserted on the external wall of the buccal 
cavity just as in Cirrifer and Pneumodermon ; but at the same time 
it is to be remembered that this part of the buccal cavity is an 
“introvert,” and not a true part of the oral cavity. 


Molluscoida. 
a. Tunicata. 


Cynthiide of the Coasts of France.t—MM. H. de Lacaze- 
Duthiers and Y. Delage have examined the simple Ascidians which 
belong to the group of the Cynthiidw chiefly by the aid of Cynthia 
morus, which is very abundant at various places on the coasts of 
France. They describe its external appearance and the differences 
in expanded and contracted forms; the spines appear to be poly- 
morphic, but there is one character which is very useful in diagnosis, 
the microscopic bodies which are found on the internal surface of 
its orifices. If a small piece of the epidermis be cut out and ex- 
amined under the Microscope, one can in all cases detect a rounded 
projecting scale, which is similar in the most dissimilar-looking 
individuals. 

After describing in detail the anatomy of the type, the authors 
point out the affinities which exist between the Cynthiidx and the 
Molgulide ; these are to be found in the characters of the mouth and 


* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 491-509 (1 pl.). 
+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 784-90. 


54 - SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


gills, the infundibula of the latter being alone simpler in the Cyn- 
thiide; the intestine of Cynthia describes a wide curve, that of 
Molgula is looped, and the heart is longer and more anteriorly placed ; 
notwithstanding these and other slight differences we can easily pass 
from the Molgulid to Cynthia morus; the more aberrant Cynthiide 
of course present greater difficulties. 


B. Polyzoa. 


Morphology of Polyzoa.*—Dr. A. A. Ostrooumoff notes the 
most important discoveries in a forthcoming work on the Polyzoa of 
the bay of Sebastopol. 

The calcareous skeleton is formed in the ectoderm which exists 
throughout life, either as a subskeletal layer (Membranipora), or as 
two layers between which is the skeleton (Lepralia). The body- 
cavity contains “mesenchymatous” (Hertwig) elements, and is not 
lined by an endothelial layer. The internal sac of the larva forms 
in the Chilostomata the basal face, in the Vesiculariz the stolo 
prolifer ; from these regions alone are formed by budding the new 
members of the colony, with the exception of certain pallial avicu- 
larie. What is termed the polypide is formed from the ectodermal 
rudiments, plus the brown body. The paper concludes with some 
observations upon the metamorphosis of the Bryozoa, illustrated by a - 
diagram of a “ Probryozoon.” 


New or little known Polyzoa.t—Dr. P. H. MacGillivray, in two 
papers, describes two new genera and several new species of Polyzoa. 

Maplestonia (n. gen.) consists of a series of single or geminate 
cells, which are membranous in front and imperforate behind ; there are 
no aviculariz nor vibracule ; it belongs to the Celleporide. M. cirrata 
has the cells in a linear series; the posterior surface is transversely 
striated. IM. simplex branches dichotomously, at the angle of a cell; 
posterior surface smooth. 

Favosipora (n. gen.) consists of an adherent zoarium, raised at 
intervals into rounded ridges. It belongs to the Discoporellide. 
F. rugosa is allied to Denstpora corrugata. 

The new species belong to the following genera :—Cellaria, Tubu- 
lipora (6), Diastepora (3), Catenicella, Cauda, Tubucellaria, Beania, 
Urceolipora, Cabasea, Membranipora (2), Microporella (2), Schizoporella, 
Lekythopora, and Cellepora (6). 


L 


Y- Brachiopoda. 


Recent Brachiopoda.{—TIn the first part of an exhaustive mono- 
graph on recent Brachiopoda, by the late Dr. T. Davidson, the author 
reviews the labours of his predecessors with regard to the shell, the 
anatomy of the adult, and the embryology. As regards the per- 
plexing question of affinities, he remarks :—“ Now, although I do not 
admit the Brachiopoda to be worms, they, as well as the Mollusca and 


* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 577-9. 
+ Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, xxi. (1885) pp. 92-9, 106-19 (8 pls.). 
$ Trans. Linn. Soc, Lond.—Zool., iv. (1886), not yet published. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 5S 


some other groups of invertebrates, may have originally diverged 
from an ancestral vermiform stem, such as the remarkable worm-like 
mollusc, Neomenia would denote.” He lays stress on the brachio- 
podous individual being the product of a single ovum, and not giving 
rise to others by gemmation. He considers that the shell, the pallial 
lobes, the intestine, the nerves, and the atrial system afford characters 
amply sufficient to define the class. The greatest depth at which a 
living species has been found alive has been 2990 fathoms. 

As to classification, he groups the recent species in two great 
divisions, viz.:—I. Anthropomata (Owen) = Clistenterata (King) ; 
II. Lypomata (Owen) = Tretenterata (King). The Anthropomata 
he divides into three families:—(1) Terebratulaceze, with seven sub- 
families, thirteen genera and subgenera, seventy species, and twenty- 
one uncertain species; (2) Thecideidw, with one genus and two 
species ; (3) Rhynchonellide, one genus, one subgenus, and eight 
species. The Lypomata he also divides into three families, five 
genera and subgenera, twenty-three species, and seven uncertain 
species :—(1) Craniide, with one genus and four species; (2) Dis- 
cinide, with one genus, one subgenus, and eight species; (3) Lingulida, 
with one genus, one subgenus, and eleven species. He does not 
accept M. Delongchamp’s scheme (1884) of classifying the Terebra- 
tulina, bringing forward Mr. Dall’s observations on Waldheimia 
floridana of delicate spicule in the floor of the great sinuses as telling 
evidence against the arrangement. The various genera and species 
are then dealt with, followed by remarks on the Terebratulacez, with 
copious descriptions and observations. 


Arthropoda. 


a. Insecta. 


Development of Reproductive Organs in Insects.*—The pre- 
cocious appearance of the reproductive organs of insects has been 
repeatedly noted since Suckow first remarked it in the Lepidopteran 
embryo. The fact acquired greater interest when, in 1865, Leuckart 
and Metschnikoff observed in the viviparous larve of Cecidomyiz that 
the polar globules formed the pseudovarium, a discovery afterwards 
confirmed (1870) by von Grimm in the case of a parthenogenetic 
Chironomus. Prof. E. G. Balbiani further corroborates this origin of 
the reproductive organs in a sexually-produced and producing species 
of Chironomus. 

He describes at length the laying of the band of eggs and the 
elastic attachment by which they are kept below water, the appear- 
ance of the newly laid ova with clear peripheral layer and granular 
central mass, the gradual retraction of the vitellus from the enclosing 
membrane, the consequent formation of a space filled by the liquor 
vitelli, the successive or rarely simultaneous expulsion of the polar 
globules, the characteristics of these globules with their refracting 
granules and clear nucleus, their immediate division into eight, and 


* Recueil Zool. Suisse, ii. (1885) pp. 527-88 (2 pls.). 


56 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the probable origin of their nuclei from part of the lower half of the 
germinal vesicle. He distinguishes these polar globules, of course, 
from vesicules directrices or “‘ Richtungskérper,” not yet certainly 
seen in insects, and notes the importance of not confounding them 
with small drops of protoplasm of varying number, which appear 
without nucleus, division, or morphological constancy, at the anterior as 
wellas at the posterior pole, and which are probably in part squeezed 
out by the contraction of the vitellus. 

Soon after the formation of the polar globules, the blastoderm- 
cells appear, preceded by wavy protrusions of the clear outer plasma. 
Balbiani is unable to decide as to the origin of the blastoderm nuclei, 
though inclining to believe that they result from the division of the 
germinal vesicle, move outwards to the periphery, there gather proto- 
plasm round them and form cells. 

As the blastoderm becomes more distinct the polar globules begin 
to sink into the vitellus, but the exact way in which this is ac- 
complished Balbiani is unable to determine. As the insinking con- 
tinues, the blastoderm cells become further differentiated at the 
expense of an internal plasmic layer (blastéme germinatif interne, or 
couche plasmique secondaire), which appears between the young blasto- 
derm and the granular central vitellus. The mode of this further 
growth is fully described. 

He follows in detail the invagination of the polar globules and of 
the two folds of the blastoderm, the ventral—thickening to form the 
caudal portion of the embryo, the dorsal—thinning to become the 
delicate caudal fold of the amnion; and further, the various stages 
by which the reproductive cells, as the polar globules prove themselves 
to be, find their final position in the hatched larva. After invagina- 
tion the eight cells are reduced, probably by fusion, to four, bilaterally 
arranged in pairs. Each of the four naked cells contains four or 
more nuclei, while the protoplasm shows as yet at most only hints of 
division. In a larva five days old a delicate membrane round the rudi- 
mentary sex-gland can be detected, and this is prolonged at each end 
to form anteriorly the dorsal attaching filament, and posteriorly, 
probably the rudimentary excretory duct. 

In some larve the gland thus formed is narrow and fusiform, in 
others, bluntly pointed and oval. This slight difference is the first 
hint of sexual differentiation. Each gland exhibits a transverse 
partition, and nuclei surrounded by zones of protoplasm, but these 
daughter-nuclei and cells in what turns out to be the male gland are 
smaller and more numerous than in the rudimentary ovary. At a 
later stage Balbiani observes in both glands, not simple cells, but 
groups of pear-shaped cells, radiately arranged round a central mass 
from which they have probably been budded off. This arrangement 
in the female he compares to the well-known disposition of elements 
in the terminal ovarian chamber of the adult insect; each radiately 
arranged group of cells would be homologous with the contents of a 
terminal chamber. In the similar rosettes in the male, the radiately 
arranged cells are, like their predecessors, smaller and more numerous 
than those of the young ovary. He compares the male rosettes and 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 57 


their mother-cells respectively, to the “spermatogemmem” and 
“ spermatogonia” of La Valette St. George. 

' Prof. Balbiani recognizes the cellular nature of the epithelial coat, 
and inclines to believe that it results from a condensation of peripheral 
cells of the sexual mass, rather than from a transformation of 
surrounding embryonic cells. 

The chief results of this important and suggestive research may 
be summed up in a sentence. The polar globules or cells, as yet 
peculiar to Diptera, are the primitive sex cells; they appear before 
the blastoderm formation, at the posterior pole and at the expense of 
the homogeneous plasmic layer; after sinking into the vitellus, 
reaching their ultimate position, and decreasing in number, they 
multiply endogenously, and almost the only noteworthy difference 
between the male and female glands consists in the greater number and 
smaller size of the nuclei and daughter-cells of the former. 

Prof. Balbiani indicates the relation of his researches to the 
much debated subject of the origin of the generative organs. 
Reviewing the various epochs of differentiation of reproductive cells 
in the different groups, he shows how they might be thus chrono- 
logically arranged. (a) Diptera and perhaps Aphides—sex-cells 
formed first. (b) Daphnids—differentiated during segmentation. 
(c) Cheetognatha—appearing in gastrula stage, and so on to vertebrates, 
where they appear in an embryo already furnished with all its organs ; 
while the climax of postponement is illustrated by those Hydroids 
where they appear only in the completely developed, i. e. in the 
Medusoid individual. Referring to Weismann’s theory that the repro- 
ductive cells are generally differentiated when the organism is otherwise 
fit for reproduction, which is beautifully corroborated by the coin- 
cidence of precocious appearance of generative cells and precocious 
reproductive activity in Diptera, Daphnids, and Aphides, Balbiani notes 
that Chironomus, though most strikingly illustrative of the former 
characteristic, is divergent as regards the latter, since it remains 
larval and without reproductive activity for several months. He also 
notes the interesting relation of his researches to the theories of 
heredity advanced by Nussbaum and Weismann, though refusing to 
commit himself to any definite support of either. 


Histology and Embryology of Insects.*—M. H.Viallanesdemon- 
strates the existence of a subcutaneous nerve-plexus in many insects. 
The hollow sensory hairs are each secreted by a modified hypodermic 
cell, in whose protoplasm the prolongation of the nerve-cell ends. 
The “dorsal vessel” is formed of a single layer of cells, but “ each cell 
is contractile through the presence in it of striated muscular fibrils,” 
each of which begins and ends in a small disc; this condition verifies 
the ordinary theory. The motor muscles of the wing differ from those 
of the legs; in the former there is no sarcolemma, and only a few 
fibrils, but in the latter a sarcolemma encloses a single fibre. In 
muscles consisting of one fibre, the nerve separates at once into its 
constituent fibrils, whilst where the muscle consists of several fibres, 


* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) p. 1001, from ‘ Rev. Scientifique.’ 


58 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the nerve branches like a tree, as in Vertebrates. He describes the 
destruction of the muscular tissue, &c., during the metamorphosis, 
and its solution in the body-cavity. The integuments of the adult 
are not derived from those of the larva, but from “imaginal discs,” 
produced during the metamorphosis. Each muscular fibre is pro- 
duced from cells, which become the nuclei, imbedded in a homogeneous 
matrix, which becomes contractile. 

M. Viallanes has traced the nerve from the facet of the eye into 
the brain: he shows that all the parts of the adult eye are enclosed 
in the larva within the brain. 


Origin of the Elements in the Insect Ovary.*—Dr. EH. Korschelt 
contributes a somewhat lengthy paper upon this subject, which is 
partly a criticism of the work of other observers, and partly a state- 
ment of the author’s own results; his investigations deal with a 
number of types which are severally described; the general con- 
clusion arrived at is contrary to that of Will, and may be stated as 
follows: in certain insects the cell-elements of the egg-tubes, that is, 
the epithelium and the nutritive cells, arise by direct metamorphosis 
of the elements of the terminal chamber, and may be followed into 
the indifferent tissue of the terminal thread. 


Metamorphosis and Anatomy of the Male Aspidiotus Nerii.t;— 
Herr O. Schmidt distinguishes five periods in the metamorphosis of 
this insect, defining two larval and two chrysalis stages. He 
describes the anatomy of the alimentary, respiratory, nervous, 
muscular, and reproductive systems, noting both in regard to anatomy 
and metamorphosis the differences between male and female. His 
anatomical results, which are essentially corroboratory of those of 
Tozzetti, do not. contain any new facts of general interest. The 
spermatogenesis is described as consisting of the division of the 
hexagonal testicular cells into five or six “ spermatoblasts,” from each 
of which a bundle of spermatozoa is formed. 


Vision of Insects.;— M. F. Plateau communicates a preliminary 
note of experiments made in order to prove whether or not insects 
can really distinguish by vision the form of external objects. The old 
mosaic theory of J. Miller having been shown by Exner to be, 
on anatomical and physical grounds, untenable, M. Plateau has 
endeavoured to settle the question experimentally. 

In a darkened room, with two differently shaped, but approximately 
equal, light openings, one square and open, the other subdivided into 
a number of small holes, aud therefore of more difficult egress, he 
observed the choices of opening made by insects flying from the 
other end of the room. Careful practical provisions were made to 
eliminate error ; the light intensity of the two openings was as far as 
possible equalized or else noted ; no external objects such as trees, &., 
were within view, &c. The room must not be darkened beyond the 
limit at which ordinary type ceases to be readable, else the insects 


* Zool. Anzeig., viil. (1885) pp. 581-6 and 599-605. 


+ Arch. f. Naturgesch., li. (1885) pp. 169-200 (2 pls.). 
t{ Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belg., x. (1885) pp. 231-50. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 59 


refuse to fly, an observation in accordance with the familiar fact that 
during the passage of a thick cloud, or similar darkening, insects 
usually cease to fly. M. Plateau’s observations were made on insects 
provided with or without ocelli in addition to the compound eyes, and 
with the same results. 

From numerous experiments on Diptera, Hymenoptera, Lepido- 
ptera, Odonati, and Coleoptera, of which tabular summaries are given, 
M. Plateau concludes that insects with compound eyes, with or 
without ocelli, pay no heed to differences of form in the light- 
openings of a half-darkened room, but fly with equal readiness to 
the apparently easy and apparently difficult way of escape, that they 
are attracted to the more intensely lightened opening, or to one with 
apparently greater surface, and that in short they cannot by vision 
distinguish form, or only to a very slight extent. 


Sense of Smell in Insects, &c.*—In continuation of his well- 
known researches on light-perception, in which the general sensitive- 
ness of the body-surface was demonstrated in many animals, Prof. 
Veit Graber has made an extensive series of experiments on the 
degree and localization of the sense of smell. Among his interesting 
results the following are the most important :— 

(1) Odours are perceived by many invertebrates (Molluscs, Dis- 
cophora, Cnzetopods, Insects, &c.) with extreme rapidity—sometimes 
in one-third of a second, and even through an intervening layer of 
1-2 mm. of water; (2) that the sensitiveness is enormously quicker 
than was exhibited by the vertebrates experimented on (amphibians, 
lizards, birds); (3) that insects deprived of their feelers are still able 
to smell, in various degrees in different insects and with different 
odours, some fine odours being apparently perceptible only through 
the feelers; (4) that the perception of smell by way of the respira- 
tory organs, which has been often maintained, is not at any rate 
rapid or important; (5) that in some cases the palps are more sensitive 
than the feelers, and that therefore the latter cannot, any more than 
the eyes in his previous researches, be described as in any way 
possessing a monopoly of sensitiveness. 


Foot-glands of Insects.j—In reference to Herr J. Dahl’s re- 
searches on the foot-glands of insects,t Herr H. Dewitz asserts that 
these are for the most part only a corroboration of his work on the 
same subject. Apart from the question of priority, he affirms, with 
an appeal to Dr. K. Brandt and Dr. Joh. Frenzel, that the structures 
on the soles of Locustide are not mere rods, but are hollow, and that 
similarly the tarsal attaching hairs of other insects have a terminal 
opening, situated either at the very end or somewhat laterally. 


* Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) pp. 385-98. 

+ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxvi. (1885) pp. 125-8. 

t See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 989. 

§ SB. Gesellsch. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1882, Jan. and July; Zool. Anzeig., 
vii. (1884) pp. 400-5 ; Arch. f. Naturg., 1. (1884) pp. 146-93 ; Pfliiger’s Arch. f. d. 
Gesammt. Physicl., xxxiii. (1884) pp. 440-81. See this Journal, iv. (1884) 
p. 716. 


60 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Bees and other hoarding Insects.*— Mr. E. A. Curley suggests 
a manner in which colonies of bees, &c., have become differentiated 
into males, females, and workers. 

After referring to the offspring of a cross between a black Spanish 
and a buff Cochin fowl, as an example of the law of hereditary 
variation of offspring, he proceeds to show that insufficiency of food 
is a great factor in this variability, and “ filial love” is another. 
He then traces the history of a family of primitive bees up to the 
present complicated social habits of these insects. This primitive bee is 
thrifty and “ affectionate,’ but it lays more eggs than can be properly 
nourished, and some of the young will be imperfect: insufficiency of 
food affects the genital organs of some of these young, which will, how- 
ever, live, and while the other perfect ones will mate and leave the 
family, these imperfect ones develope great “filial love” and help the 
mother. He instances the affection of the young mule for its mother. 
These ‘“ helpers” then provide food for the mother, who now is well 
fed, and produces young which will be properly nourished and hence 
perfect, so that in the new generation none will be workers, but all 
will leave the family: the mother-bee then will be poorer, and 
some of the new brood of young will be again imperfect, and so on. 
But at the same time, some of the imperfect ones of the first brood 
will mate and produce similar imperfect ones, who will become 
“ workers,” who will in each succeeding generation help more and 
more in getting food, till ultimately only one female is allowed to 
produce: while the workers, at first both male and females in equal 
number, have the number of males much reduced: and it is in this 
sort of way that the existing conditions of bee and ant life have been 
brought about. 


Antenne of Honey-bee.|—Mr. T. J. Briant describes the anatomy, 
musculature, and sense-organs of the antennew of the working 
honey-bee. 

The scape or unjointed half of the antenna, moving on a fulcrum 
point within the hemispherical cranial cup, is furnished with three 
muscles, the insertion of which is described. The larger 12-jointed 
flagellum or shaft bends on the scape with a simple motion of flexion 
and extension effected by two muscles. The individual segments 
though moveably connected, do not exhibit any muscles or voluntary 
movement. Besides the hairs of the cup, which he regards as 
mechanical, Mr. Briant describes on the flagellum—(a) openings 
with a convex-rimmed membrane; (b) smaller openings, not closed 
but drawn out into a pointed hair; (c) hairs springing from still 
smaller pits; (d) on the last segment delicate hooked hairs, bent at 
right angles at about half their length ; (e) tubular, slightly conical 
structures imbedded in granular nervous matter within the flagellum 
segments, and in immediate contact with the walls of the antenne, 
through which they communicate with the exterior by fine grouped 

ores. 
‘ He regards the hooked hairs as actively sensory, and the other © 


* Nature, xxxiii. (1885) pp. 64-7. 
¢ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.—Zool., xix. (1885) pp. 84-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 61 


structures as passive, some of them probably olfactory. They are 
described as touch and smell organs by Dr. Paul Schiemenz,* in a 
contemporaneous paper, which Mr. Briant has since seen. 


Sense of Hearing in Ants.t—That ants have a more than 
rudimentary sense of hearing is forcibly suggested by the Rev. E. C. 
Spicer’s observations on an unnamed Australian ant, which produces 
‘a series of rapid, jerky, hissing and chirping sounds quite easily heard 
three inches from the human ear.” It remains, however, to demon- 
strate in this species auditory organs better developed and less 
problematical than those as yet known. 


Origin of Endoderm in Lepidoptera.t—Mr. A. T. Bruce, working 
on Thyridopteryx, confirms Kowalevsky’s opinion on this point. 

After describing the formation of the amnion and embryo, he 
describes the appearance of the shallow longitudinal groove (blasto- 
pore) along the ventral surface: the cells at each side of this proli- 
ferate and divide into an outer and an inner layer; the latter will 
enclose the yolk and is the endoderm: the yolk takes no share in the 
formation of the intestinal epithelium. 


Generative Apparatus of Nematois metallicus.s—M. N. Cholod- 
kovsky has investigated the generative organs of this small lepido- 
pterous insect; the abdomen is remarkably large, owing to the 
presence of a number (not less than twelve) of ovarian tubes in each 
ovary ; all known Lepidoptera, with the exception of Psyche helix, 
which has six, have four tubes in each ovary; in N. metallicus the 
majority have twenty tubes. The bursa copulatrix is very feebly 
developed, and the ordinary spiral efferent canal connecting it with 
the vagina is wanting; this arrangement corresponds exactly with 
some of the phases in chrysalid development. Seven segments can 
be made out externally in the abdomen of the female, but if the 
abdomen is slightly compressed, a whitish cone is protruded, which 
consists of a compact chitinous membrane, and has the generative 
orifice at its tip; the vagina likewise consists of a whitish chitinous 
tubule, which is imbedded in the cone, and fused with its walls. 
On the ventral surface of the cone there are two pairs of chitinous 
sete which are directed backwards; to these, muscles are attached, 
and by their contraction, the membranous cone and its sete are 
protruded, so as to apparently form an ovipositor; the set, as it 
seems, bore into various substances, in which the eggs are deposited. 
The inner lip of each seta has a small transparent finely dotted 
chitinous disc; the outer end is pointed, and just behind it, each of 
the two lateral set has a flattened lateral enlargement, which is partly 
fused with the chitinous plate of the vagina. 

The accessory internal organs of the male are excessively short; 
each half of the apparently azygous testis consists of about twenty 
tubes, or, in other words, corresponds with the number of the female 


* See this Journal, iii. (1883) p. 364. 

+ Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, i. (1884) pp. 79-81. 

$ Johns-Hopkins Univ. Cire., v. (1885) p. 9 (2 figs.). 

§ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. (1885) pp. 559-68 (1 pl.). 


62 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


tubes; each follicle has the form of an elongated saccule, formed by 
a structureless membrana propria and the seminal elements. The 
similarity in number confirms the view that the testicular and ovarian 
tubes are homologous; their general arrangement indicates their 
affinity with the Phryganide. 

As to the external male organs, for which the author laments the 
absence of a suitable terminology, he states that the eighth abdominal 
segment is conical, and has its tip directed backwards; dissection 
is necessary to reveal the ninth segment, which is circular in form, 
and has the dorsal much smaller than the ventral half; the penis 
appears to be the chitinized end of the vas ejaculatorium, and forms 
a fine tube, which is invested by a thin preeputium, and has a soft 
enlargement at its end—this may be called the balanus; at the hinder 
end of the ninth segment there are two valvular appendages, and with 
these a small chitinous ring is connected dorsally ; the anal orifice is 
within this ring. 

The study of this small lepidopterous insect leads to points which 
seem to be important in the morphology of the Insecta; in their 
organization the Lepidoptera exhibit some very primitive characters 
—for example, they sometimes have ten abdominal segments; in - 
N. metallicus there are a Jarge number of seminal follicles, and this 
must be reckoned a primitive arrangement. The author thinks that 
the possession of only two Malpighian vessels in some butterflies is 
very remarkable, and says that it suggests to him a theory of periodic 
atavism which he will develope more fully in a future work. 

He suggests that the embryology of the “‘Microlepidoptera” should 
be investigated, as the system of this group (as its name alone is 
sufficient to show) requires to be thoroughly revised. 


Development of the Flea’s Egg.*—Mr. M. H. Robson describes 
some stages in the development after completion of segmentation. 
The egg being transparent, its development is easily followed: from 
three to twenty-four eggs are laid separately by a female. Thirty-six 
hours after laying, the blastoderm occupies one-third the circumference 
of the egg, by the fourth day the embryo has absorbed the yolk and 
nearly fills the egg. It hatches on the sixth day. When hatched, 
the larva is destitute of appendages, except a pair of small antenna 
and a pair of mandibles, and resembling many other insect larve. 
After eight days the larva spins a fluffy cocoon, from which the 
young flea emerges in nine days. 


Development of Epicauta verticalis.;—M. H.. Beauregard has 
examined the life-history of this vesicating insect with the object of 
seeing whether, like the American species described by Riley, it is 
parasitic in the nests of Acridide; placed with a nest of Avdipoda 
(44. ceruleus, and AG. germanica), on August the 28th, it increased in 
size, and on October the 15th was in pseudochrysalis stage, which is 
the hibernating form of all the vesicating insects. On the other 
hand, efforts to rear the larve on honey were fruitless, and it became 


* Sci.-Gossip, 1885, pp. 252-4 (7 figs.). 
+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 754-6, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 63 


clear that they were not parasitic in the cells of subterrestrial 
Hymenoptera. The particular species of Orthopteron is of slight 
importance so long as the eggs are in sufficient quantity and can be 
easily attacked by the mandibles; the Acridide best conform to these 
conditions. 


Proboscis of Hemiptera.*—Herr H. Wedde adds to the numerous 
recent researches on the oral organs of insects a careful investigation of 
those of the Rhynchota, or Hemiptera in the wider sense. He analyses 
the jointed rostrum of those insects and the piercing and suctorial 
organs which it ensheaths, and gives besides a detailed account of 
the associated musculature, chitinous framework, glands, &e. 

(a) The labium is shown to be really double by its frequent terminal 
splitting and slight ventral furrow. Herr Wedde maintains further, 
that in this united organ, cardo, stipes, and palpi are really present. 
The terminal joint is furnished not only with tasting rods, but with 
a delicate umbrella-shaped organ which serves to surround the wound, 
and to prevent the escape of the desired juice. The furrow of the labium 
is, as is well known, roofed over by the labrum, the borders of which 
are bent down, so that between the upper and lower lip a distinct tube 
is formed. 

(b) The piercing and suctorial organs lie between the two, and 
consist of a pair of clear, hollow, terminally toothed mandibles, and 
within these two, very closely united, but anatomically and physio- 
logically distinct, dark brown, hollow, terminally toothed maxille, of 
which the upper is in continuous connection with the pharynx, and 
serves exclusively for the entrance of the nutritive juice, while the lower 
is the exit canal of the salivary glands, from which there issues a 
strongly alkaline fluid, stimulating the flow of food from the wound. 

(c) The musculature consists mainly (1) of the levatores and depres- 
sores labii, which also affect the dependent movement of the labrum; 
(2) of longitudinal muscles running along the joints of the labium 
and effecting horizontal and vertical movements; (3) of muscles 
running across from the inner side of the labial joints to the chitinous 
lining of the furrow, and probably narrowing the latter; (4) of the 
important retractors and protractors of the maxille and mandibles; 
(5) of four dilators of the pharynx, which widen the cavity and produce 
that alteration of pressure which in great part causes the upward flow 
of the food-fluid; (6) the complex muscles of a force-pump arrange- 
ment to be afterwards noted. He describes in detail the structure and 
functions of the chitinous framework associated with the pharynx. 

(d) The force-pump, first discovered by Landois, is a chitinous 
structure lying below the widest portion of the pharynx. Provided 
with valves, piston, and powerful muscles, it has, however, no con- 
nection with the pharynx nor the suctorial act, but effects exclusively 
the flow of the salivary fluid through the lower maxillary tube to 
the exterior. It is characteristic of all the orders of Rhynchota with 
piercing organs and suctorial tube, which Herr Wedde would dis- 
tinguish as R. setifera, from the lower Pediculide and Mallophaga, 
which have neither piercing organs nor force-pump, and which he 


* Arch, f. Naturgesch., li, (1885) pp. 113-43 (2 pls.). 


64 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


would designate R. asetifera. He notes the interesting fact that in 
those Hemiptera which live on the more readily flowing juices of 
animals, the pump is less developed; and this reduction of salivary 
functions may go so far that in Cimex hydrometra, for instance, the 
lower maxillary tube, usually of exclusively salivary function, may 
fuse with the upper suctorial one. 

(e) Glands. After describing the salivary glands, Herr Wedde 
notes the position and nature of other, hitherto unobserved, glandular 
masses, one situated where the narrowed anterior end of the pharynx 
passes into the upper maxillary tube, and two smaller ones lying 
between the exit canal of the pump and the chitinous band which 
fixes it. As to their function, he suggests that they secrete an oily 
fluid, diminishing the friction of maxillz, mandibles, &c. 

(f) The ascent of the nutritive fluid, after the wound has been made 
and the flow stimulated by the salivary secretion, is effected by the 
above-mentioned dilatation of the pharynx, a return flow being pre- 
vented by the successive slackening of the dilator’muscles and con- 
sequent re-narrowing of the pharynx from beforefbackwards. The 
ascent is also essentially aided by capillary action within the long 
maxillary tube. 


Anatomy of the Mallophaga.*—Dr. F. Grosse deals principally 
with an account of a new species of Tetrophthalmus (T. chilensis), — 
taken from a pelican in Chili. The anatomy is systematically discussed. 

The head and the mouth-organs are first described ; the statement 
of Melnikow that the labium is a provisional structure which falls 
away at the ecdysis, is explained by the supposition that he examined 
forms just after ecdysis, in which the parts being thin and mem- 
branous might be overlooked; a labium is certainly always present. 
The thorax and the legs are next described; the male is provided 
with tarsal lobes and spinous sete at the end of the tibia, by means 
of which it is able to hold the female. As in the other Mallophaga, 
the abdomen varies in form with the sex; while the female has ten, 
the male has only nine segments externally. Kramer’s results on the 
histology of the enteric tract are summarized, and the author makes 
some additions based on his own observations; from the structure of 
the pharyngeal skeleton the author concludes that it is not adapted 
for sucking, but for seizing and taking up the particles of feathers 
among which it lives; the buccal cavity has the same histological 
character as the integument ; the roof is thick-walled and folded longi- 
tudinally ; in some genera a group of long flat backwardly diverted 
teeth are to be found in its lumen. These prevent the particles of 
feathers from passing into the stomach before they have been properly 
softened and broken up. Dr. Grosse denies to the chyle-stomach the 
lining of chitin which was ascribed to it by Kramer. With regard 
to the food of the Mallophaga, he states that, though he has examined 
a large number of forms, he has found blood in the intestines of but 
few ; but in such cases, as in one he was able to observe, the skin of 
the bird had been injured, and there was coagulated blood among the 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. (1885) pp. 530-58 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 65 


feathers. The Malpighian tubes are filamentar, four in number, 
never branched ; the salivary organs are arranged in two pairs, and 
consist of gland and reservoir; they are ordinarily elongated and 
oval, but in a species of Lzemobothrium each gland was found to consist 
of twenty small tubes. 

The copulatory organ is excessively complicated ; the apparently 
missing segment of the male is invaginated, and is continued forwards 
as a tube; around its wall there are five to six layers of circularly 
arranged muscles, and at the upper end there is a well-developed 
bundle of longitudinal muscles, which no doubt serve to withdraw the 
organ into the body; within one tube there lies another which has 
thin walls ; this is continuous anteriorly with a flagellum, which is beset 
with a number of spines or sete. Posteriorly it is grooved and there 
receives the ductus ejaculatorius ; in copulation it is completely everted. 
The oviduct is of considerable length, has a homogeneous investing 
membrane and a circular layer of muscles, which increases in thick- 
ness towards the orifice. There are seven pairs of stigmata, of which 
six are abdominal and one prothoracic. In addition to a cylindrical 
fat-body there are separate cells arranged in groups; these are 
continued into a thin and rather long stalk. The author was unable 
to dissect out the dorsal vessel. 

The eyes are, as in other Mallophaga, simple stemmata, each of 
which is directly innervated from the cesophageal ganglion. The 
nervous system has been figured and described by Nitzsch. 


Nervous System of Phylloxera.*—M. V. Lemoine has made his 
observations on Phylloera punctata, and apterous agamic forms de- 
veloped from agamic and from “ dicecious”’ ova, the nymph, the winged 
agamic form, and the male and female, have been examined. In the 
adult agamic form the brain is reduced, the subcesophageal ganglion 
contains three pairs of distinct centres, the thoracic ganglion forms 
an elongated mass, terminating in a large elongated nerve-trunk 
which is divided into a number of branches ; these nerves for the viscera 
contain small masses of nerve-cells. In the young forms the sub- 
cesophageal mass is more elongated and the commissural peduncles 
are shorter; this last character is very remarkable in the embryo; in 
the nymph the ganglionic chain is more and more concentrated in 
the anterior regions of the body. As a result of the modifications 
which go on, the optic lobes increase in size, and the compound eyes, 
which are new formations, become intercalated in front of the three 
primitive ocelli, which have persisted. In a female which had recently 
been set free, and was consequently very favourable for study with 
transmitted light, the antennary nerve was seen to present two 
successive dilatations, the second of which was above the olfactory 
fossa. The sympathetic system appears to be well developed. 


Classification of Insects.t —Prof. Brauer points out several facts 
in the phyllogeny of insects, such as the early appearance of highly 


* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 961-3. 
+ SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xci. (1885), Cf. Amer, Natural., xix. (1885) 
pp. 999-1001. 
Ser. 2.—Votn. VI. F 


66 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


organized (neuroptera) forms in paleozoic strata; the absence of any 
primitive forms tending to unite the existing orders, &c. He proposes 
to divide the hexapoda into two classes:—1l. Apiteryogenea, and 
2. Pierygogenea; the latter he divides into sixteen orders, based on 
the structure of the gnathites, instead of the existing six orders. 


6, Arachnida. 


Duration of Life in Spiders.*—Herr F. Dahl in reply to the 
criticisms of Dr. Bertkau and Dr. Karsch,f states that he proved to be 
a certainty the seasonal dimorphism of Meta segmentata, which was 
only rendered probable by the investigations of other naturalists. 
The main aim of his paper was, however, to direct the attention of 
naturalists to other species, such as Micrommata viriscens, of which 
Dahl himself could not obtain specimens. With regard to the 
duration of life of spiders, it was pointed out that in the majority of 
spiders, particularly the males, the season of sexual maturity was 
always definitely fixed; and this fact appears to point to a very short 
span of life in these species ; moreover, in certain seasons no in- 
dividuals whatever of some species can be found—which further 
supports the same conclusion. 


Embryology of Limulus.{—Dr. J. §. Kingsley was unfortunately. 
unable to study the earlier stages in the development of Limulus, but 
he comes to the conclusion that the yolk is wholly hypoblast, and 
that the primitive groove is the homologue of the blastopore. The 
history of the development of the mouth seems to show that the 
functional mouth is not a strictly homologous structure throughout 
the animal kingdom, but that in those forms with a mouth it has been 
considerably modified in position. The history of the “ brick-red 

lands ” with the corresponding ones in the scorpion, and the so- 
called shell-glands of Crustacea, leads the author to regard them as 
segmental organs. The abdominal appendages are from the first 
broad and leaf-like, and so differ from the corresponding limbs of 
Arachnids. 

The nervous system first appears as two longitudinal epiblastic 
thickenings, one on either side of the middle line ; there is no external 
neural groove, but one on the inner surface of the cord ; this is doubt- 
less due to the egg filling its envelope so completely that an inward 
bending is impossible. The commissural portions are separated from 
the epiblast before the ganglionic areas. The brain is at first separate 
from the rest of the nervous system; it arises as two halves, each of 
which has a marked similarity to those of spiders. 

The study of the development of Limulus has convinced Dr. 
Kingsley of the Arachnidan affinities of this animal, but its relation- 
ship to the Phyllopoda is also marked ; it is a “synthetic type.” He 
regards the eyes of all Arthropods as really specialized portions of 
the epiblast of the head, and as having a common phylogenetic origin 


* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 629-31. 
+ See this Journal, yv. (1885) pp. 993 and 994. 
t Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxy. (1885) pp. 521-76 (3 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 67 


from an annelid ancestor. There is a full discussion of the arguments 
pro and con. the arachnidan affinities of Limulus. 

In conclusion, the systematic position of the Arachnida is treated 
of, and it is thought likely that the ancestral Hexapod left the main 
Arthropod stem some time before the separation of the Crustacea and 
“ Acerata”; the characters of the common ancestors of the three, and 
of the two latter groups are enumerated, and some of the arguments 
in their favour briefly stated. 


Embryology of Limulus polyphemus.*—Messrs. W. K. Brooks 
and A. T. Bruce describe the unfertilized ovum as consisting of a 
homogeneous mass of yolk-globules, covered at one pole by a proto- 
plasmic cap without a nucleus. From this, after fertilization, proto- 
plasmic processes grow downwards, so as to divide the yolk into a 
number of ‘ yolk-balls,’ in which at present no nuclei are visible. 
As the cap gradually decreases nuclei appear in it, and the yolk-balls 
increase in number, whilst a nucleus appears in each of them. The 
cap ultimately disappears. The cells at the surface of the ege now 
become smaller and lose their yolks, becoming at the same time 
columnar, so as to form a complete epithelial layer round the large 
central yolk-containing cells. The former becomes ectoderm and 
mesoderm, whilst the latter becomes endoderm, and perhaps also 
mesoderm. The blastodermic cells give rise to a “protoderm,” or 
embryonic chitinous cuticle. A “ primitive annulus” is formed from 
the blastoderm, very like that which Balfour figures for the spider’s egg. 
The mesoderm grows in from between two ventral bands (nerve-cord) 
and spreads internally; this soon splits to form the ccelom. The 
yolk becomes segmented by mesodermic partitions. The entosternite 
is formed by a thickening of the splanchnic mesoderm. The stomo- 
dceum is placed in front of the first limb-buds, and for some time 
ends blindly against the yolk. When the embryo hatches there are 
no endodermal structures. This layer is formed by the peripheral 
cells of the yolk-mass becoming columnar and transparent. The 
liver is marked off from the axial intestine by mesodermic upgrowths 
from the entosternite. The proctodceum does not appear till after 
the formation of intestine. The commissure between the ganglia of 
the first pair of appendages is in front of the mouth. The lateral 
eyes are formed by a specialization of the ectoderm cells, but the 
retinal portion of the median eyes is formed by ectodermal ingrowths 
from the ventral mid-line; this development corresponds to the 
difference in structure as described by Lankester for the eyes. 

The authors conclude by remarking that “the embryonic history 
of Limulus finds its closest parallel in the embryology of the 
Arachnida.” They refer to Balfour’s summary of the differences 
in the development of the mesoderm in Arachnida and in the 
Crustacea, in the difference in the mode and time of formation of 
the mid-gut, &c., as tending to unite Limulus with the Arachnida. 


Metamorphosis of Limulus polyphemus.t—Soon after fertiliza- 
tion the yolk of the egg becomes irregularly divided up, but Prof, 


* Johns-Hopkins Univ. Cire., v. (1885) pp. 2-4 (1 fig.). ¢ Ibid., p. 2. 
F 2 


68 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


H. L. Osborn regards this as probably a pathological condition, which, 
however, does not prevent normal development. About two days after 
fertilization a protoplasmic cap appears at one pole ; though it stained 
deeply, it was structureless ; in a surface view this has the appearance 
of adark pit. Its relation to future changes is unknown. It, however, 
disappears, and a white mound makes its appearance on the surface— 
the “ primitive cumulus ”’—but its relation to past and future changes 
is unknown. The next thing observed was a semicircular depression, 
between the limbs, of which three pairs of buds appear in succession ; 
these are the three anterior pairs of appendages. The mouth is an 
elongated antero-posterior slit, in front of the first pair of limbs. All 
these structures are situated on an oval area, marked off from the rest 
of the egg. The anus is not yet formed. The remaining pairs of 
appendages appear in succession, as well as the ventral nervous 
system, which appears as a thickening along the ventral mid-line. 
He contradicts Packard and agrees with Dohrn as to the position of 
the compound eyes; they appear on the fourth somite. 


Chemical Composition and the Coagulation of the Blood of 
Limulus, Callinectes, and Cucumaria.*—Dr. W. H. Howell describes 
the bluish coloration of the blood of Limulus after exposure to the 
air. The blood clots immediately, but never forms a solid mass. 
Coagulation could not be prevented by the usual methods. It shows — 
the presence of four albumens, the highest of which is exceedingly 
difficult to precipitate. He describes the actions of various reagents, 
and concludes that the albumens are related to paraglobulin. The 
blue colour of the serum is due to a compound of copper with 
albumen. The fibrin of the clot is formed by the corpuscles. 

In Callinectes, the serum contains two albumens, and is similar 
to that of Limulus. 

The red corpuscles in the perivisceral fluid of Cucwmaria contains 
hemoglobin: coagulation results from the fusion of the white cor- 
puscles which entrap the red ones. Thus the coagulation of the 
blood of these forms is similar to that in the Mammalia, as is also 
the fibrin. 


Coxal Gland of Limulus and other Arachnida.j—Mr. G. L. 
Gulland brings forward evidence in favour of the view that the coxal 
gland of Limulus and other Arachnida is a modified nephridium. In 
a note, Prof. H. Ray Lankester thinks that the facts of the young 
Limulus having the gland in the form of a tube opening to the ex- 
terior by one extremity, and to the primitive ccelom by the other, and 
of its being a paired organ belonging to a single segment, make clear 
that it has the essential anatomical features of a “nephridium” ; its 
conversion into a ductless gland of the adult is paralleled by the 
history of the suprarenal body of vertebrates, to which it is, apparently, 
similar, both morphologically and physiologically. Prof. Lankester 
reminds us of the correspondence seen in the case of the “shell- 
gland” of Entomostraca, and puts forward the hypothesis that the 


* Johns-Hopkins Univ. Circ., v. (1885) pp. 4, 5. 
+ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 511-20 (1 pl.), 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 69 


genital ducts of Arthropods are also modified nephridia. He states 
that he has recently ascertained that the blood-system in the larger 
Arthropoda is altogether distinct from the general system of lacunze 
of the connective tissue. 


e. Crustacea. 


Blind Brachyurous Crustacean.*— Mr. J. Wood-Mason states that 
four species of Brachyura were dredged in the Bay of Bengal from 
depths exceeding 100 fathoms during the past season by H.M.’s Indian 
Marine Survey steamer ‘Investigator. They belong to the genera 
Amathia, Ethusa, Encephaloides (n. gen. allied to Collodes Stimpson), 
and Lyreidus, of which the last-named (L. Channeri) is especially 
interesting on account of the rudimentary condition of the eyes. 

These organs are unequally reduced, the cornea of the left being 
of the normal form and extent, but opaque and devoid of all traces of 
facets, as in Munidopsis, Orophorhynchus, Nephropsis, and other blind 
forms of the deep sea, while that of the right is entirely aborted, its 
place being only indicated by a small smooth spot marked out by the 
transparence of a lead-coloured pigment similar to that which is seen 
through the integument around the base of the left eye. This 
interesting brachyuran—which is at once distinguished from the 
Japanese and American species by haying the anterolateral margin 
of the carapace armed with two pairs of long and slender spines—were 
trawled up from a depth of 285-405 fathoms. 


Notes on the Stomatopoda.;—Dr. W. K. Brooks traced the 
development of the larve of Squilla empusa, and Lysiosquilla sp., by 
means of the general appearance of various stages, not being able to 
obtain the eggs nor to keep the younger larve alive in confinement. 

The youngest Lysiosquilla was in the stage of “ Claus’ larva”; 
this is followed by the Erichthus stage, which he traced into a 
young Lysiosquilla. Several facts in the natural history of these forms 
are given. Squilla produces a striduating noise by rubbing the 
serrated spine of the swimmeret across the serrated ridge of the telson. 


Structure of the Brain of Sessile-eyed Crustacea.{—Dr. A. S. 
Packard describes the brain and other nerve-centres in the head of 
Asellus communis and the eyeless Cecidotexa stygia. The ganglion-cells 
have not, as in the brain of the lobster, a simple nucleus, but ten to 
twenty nuclei; they appear to be entirely unipolar; the “ Punktsub- 
stanz” of Leydig, which Dr. Packard proposes to call the myeloid 
substance, is not, as in many, differentiated into distinct spherical 
masses, and in this respect there is a wide difference between the 
brains of Decapoda and Hedriophthalmata. All the ganglion-cells 
appear to give rise to fibres, some of which pass directly through or 
above or around the myeloid substance of the cerebral lobes and 
form the commissures. : 

Though far less complicated than that of the Decapoda, the brain 


* Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, viii. (1885) p. 104. 
+ Johns-Hopkins Univ. Cire., v. (1885) p. 10. 
t~ Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., iii. (1885) 14 pp. (5 pls.). 


70 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of Isopods and Amphipods is a syncerebrum, the components being the 
brain proper or procerebral lobes, the optic ganglia, and the first and 
second antennal lobes; as compared with the Decapoda, these lobes 
are quite separate from each other. The author prefers to use the 
term procerebrum, as the lobes are not the homologues of the cerebral 
lobes of vertebrates; they are more than twice the size of any of the 
other ganglia; the eyes of Asellus being small, the optic lobes and 
nerves are small also. The mouth-parts in the Asellide, if not all 
the Isopoda, are not innervated from a single subcesophageal ganglion, 
but each appendage is supplied by a nerve arising from a separate 
ganglion. 

In Cecidotxa the optic ganglia and nerves are lost, while the eyes 
have lost their retinal cells; very rudimentary lens-cells are still 
inclosed in the black pigment-mass. 

“ The steps taken in the degeneration or degradation of the eye, 
the result of the life in darkness, seem to be these :—(1) The total 
and nearly or quite simultaneous loss by disuse of the optic ganglia 
and nerves. (2) The breaking-down of the retinal cells. (3) The 
last step being, as seen in the totally eyeless form, the loss of the 
lens and pigment.” Dr. Packard thinks that a modified modern 
form of Lamarckianism will account for the origination of these forms. 


Processes formed by Cerapus on Tubularia indivisa.*—Prof. 
W. C. McIntosh finds that the domicolous Amphipod Cerapus sp. 
constructs groups of flexible tubes on stems of Tubularia indivisa ; 
unlike those made by C. rubricornis they are partly composed of 
grains of sand, spines and bristles of annelids, hairs of sea-mice, and 
fine horny fibres. On the same stems are processes which project 
from the ccencecium like branches, three to four inches long, smoothly 
rounded ; they are usually at some distance from the nests or tubes 
of the crustaceans which climb actively on them; it is unknown 
whether their function is to afford a larger area for the capture of 
prey or a more extensive surface for the resting of the minute forms 
which serve as the crustacean’s food; but it is probable that they sub- 
serve some useful purpose. Unlike the equally peculiar spinous 
processes which are not uncommon on the tubes of annelids, they are 
not to be credited with a protective function. 


Vermes. 


Development of the Trochophore of Eupomatus uncinatus.}— 
Dr. B. Hatschek has investigated the history of the larva of this 
Serpulid, the study of which has suggested to him that the auditory 
vesicles had appeared in the “ 'Trochozoon” and had been -thence 
inherited both by molluscs and annelids. The larva in question has 
a peculiar ectodermal vesicle at its hinder end. 

It is found that most of Stossich’s observations on this worm are 
incorrect, and that author appears to have had to do with abnormally 
developed embryos. 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1885) pp. 484-5. 
+ Arbeit. Zool.-Zoot. Inst. Wien, vi. (1885) pp. 121-48 (5 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 71 


The ovum is spherical and its contents fairly transparent; the 
stages preceding division are typical ; cleavage is much as in Pomato- 
ceros, and is described in detail. After the sixteen-cell-stage the 
ectodermal cells are those which increase most rapidly. The gastrula 
is formed by invagination, and the blastopore shortly afterwards 
becomes partly closed, and forms a small orifice which is pushed 
towards the oral side; this excentric position is to be explained by 
the closure of the cleft taking place from behind forwards, The 
primitive mesoderm-cells begin to be differentiated immediately after 
the invagination of the ectoderm, and the process is typical in 
character. 

The formation of the larval organs from the germinal layers is 
next described, and it is stated that at the end of the embryonic 
period the cell-nuclei and the cell-boundaries are not always to be 
detected ; in the protoplasm of the cells the distribution of the yolk- 
granules and the consequent change in colour, as well as the appear- 
ance of new pigment-granules are to be observed. The red colour 
which was at first general is gradually concentrated around the 
equatorial cells which carry the circlet of cilia. The large pigment- 
granules of the eye are new formations which appear at the end of 
the embryonic period. 

The mode by which the body acquired its form is next discussed. 
Some attention is directed to the nervous system; this, it may be 
supposed, resembles that of the larva of Polygordius, but it was not 
possible to observe any other than the circular nerves. Close behind 
the post-oral circlet of cilia two ectodermal vesicles appear on the 
third day after fertilization, and after all the typical organs of the 
trochophore-larva have been already developed. They each arise 
from an ectodermal cell which grows inwards, and becomes hollowed 
out by a vacuole; it was not possible to determine whether this 
“ vacuole” makes its way in from the exterior. Later on mesodermal 
cells become connected with each cell; these structures are regarded 
by Dr. Hatschek as being auditory organs. 

The canal of the head-kidney is formed by a single mesodermal 
cell, which at first elongates in a spindle-shaped fashion, and then 
forms a short rounded filament; a lumen later on becomes apparent, 
and cilia are developed which work backwards; the hinder end of 
the kidney extends to the close neighbourhood of the anus; the 
author directs especial attention to the fact that, at first, the hinder 
protoplasmic swelling of the longitudinal muscle has exactly the 
same relations as the other terminal cells of the head-kidney. 

The paper concludes with some notes on an allied larva from 
Faroe, which is especially remarkable for having persistent auditory 
vesicles in the hinder part of the cephalic region; they are placed at 
the anterior end of the ventral medulla, and externally to the 
cesophageal commissure. 


Lumbrici with bifid ends.*—Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell gives an account 
and figure of a Lumbricus terrestris with a bifid hinder end, and states 


* Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1885) pp. 475-7. 


72 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


that he has seen also a similar specimen of L. fetidus ; he points out 
that it is not a case of budding, and, remarking that the clitellum 
only became apparent just before the hinder ends were lost, says that, 
if the two facts are correlated, it only shows that asexual reproduction 
(to which reproduction of parts is pro tanto comparable), is not com- 
patible or contemporaneous with sexual reproduction. It is possible 
that the phenomenon of a bifid tail is not rare among earthworms, but 
only one such case has before been put on record. 


Development of Branchiobdella.*—Prof. W. Salensky commences 
with a note on the species of Branchiobdella ; of these he has used 
that which is parasitic on Astacus leptodactylus, the eggs of which are 
of a size which lends itself to the preparation of sections ; these eggs 
are attached to the gills of the crayfish-by a very delicate pedicle, and 
are invested by two membranes, the outer of which forms a thick 
chitinous capsule, is very hard and very elastic, and cannot be 
detached from the living egg. It is necessary to make use of chromic 
acid, which causes the membrane to swell, and after some time, to 
soften. The inner or vitelline membrane is so delicate, and so closely 
applied to the yolk that it cannot be removed without injuring the 
egg itself. 

The yolk consists, as in various Annelids, of a large number of 
highly refractive granules; the nucleus is spherical and small, and 
contains several nucleoli; the first changes that occur in a freshly 
deposited egg affect the form and situation of the nucleus; the author 
was unable to observe the copulation of the two pronuclei and 
the formation of the first segmental nucleus. Segmentation, while 
recalling in some particulars that of Nephelis, differs in some essential — 
points ; the blastomeres are from the first formation of two macro- 
meres asymmetrical, and this asymmetry becomes more and more 
marked ; there is, further, great individual variability in the form and 
distribution of the blastomeres, and this even in the earliest stages of 
segmentation. ‘The micromeres divide much more rapidly than the 
macromeres, and we meet therefore with epiboly. The variations 
cause, as may be supposed, considerable difficulty in the orientation 
of the eggs. 

Regarding the process of segmentation as a whole we find essential 
differences between Branchiobdella and Clepsine or Nephelis; the 
position of the poles and of the ovular axes as compared with the poles 
and axes of the embryo is different ; there are differences also in the 
history of the macromeres, for, in Branchiobdella, they multiply 
during the whole period, and they give rise to the endodermal cells, 
to those which appear to correspond to the neuroblast of Clepsine, 
and to the ectodermal cells. The author regards the differences as 
due to differences in biological conditions, and suggests that such, and 
the absence or presence of the gastrula-stage ought to be explained as 
being cenogenetic. 

The external modifications of the embryo are next considered ; 
when segmentation is ended, the embryo becomes pyriform, and the 


* Arch, de Biol., vi. (1885) pp. 1-64 (5 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 73 


cells on the surface are arranged in a special or characteristic manner, 
which is described in detail. 

Even in the latest stages of segmentation one can only distinguish 
two layers, an ectoderm formed by the micromeres and some of the 
macromeres ; and a meso-endoderm represented by cells varying in size 
and form, but all derived from the macromeres; after the appearance 
of the medullary groove the meso- and endoderm become differentiated ; 
by a reference to his figures, the author demonstrates that the large 
cells at the hinder end of the body undergo a retrograde development ; 
the ectoderm thickens, and gives rise to the ventral pads or medullary 
plates; at the top of the cephalic tubercle it thickens, and becomes 
composed of several layers, so as to give rise to the “sincipital 
plate”; the endoderm begins to form the cesophagus. 

The nervous system is developed from the ventral pads or plates, 
which are homologous to the similar organs described in other 
Annelids, and which give rise to the ventral ganglionic chain, and 
from the sincipital plate which forms the cephalic ganglia. The 
history of these is given in detail. The cerebral commissure appears 
later than in the Chetopoda, and is not complete till the time when 
the embryos are just about to escape, and it consists of nerve-cells; 
the cephalic ganglion after its separation from the ectoderm is com- 
posed of a continuous cellular mass; in the adult there are two pairs 
of ganglia, but this structure is a secondary and nota primitive one, 
for it is produced in a relatively late stage, and only just precedes 
the formation of the mouth. 

On the whole, the formation of the ccelom is as in other Annelids; 
the differences in the mode of formation of the dissepiments and their 
relation to the external membranes is discussed; as to the sucker, 
Prof. Salensky can only confirm the results of other observers as to its 
being a modification of the posterior metameres of the embryo. The 
endoderm is at first a compact mass of cells, and the enteron is, com- 
pared with that of other Hirudinea, formed late; the stomo- and 
proctodcea are short, and the former only gives rise to the lips; the 
constrictions of the cca correspond to the dissepiments. 


Priapulus caudatus and Halicryptus spinulosus.*—Dr. W. hook 
after some remarks on methods of preservation, and observations on 
the living animal, proceeds to describe in detail the structure of these 
two Gephyrean worms. 

As in P. bicaudatus, the cuticle consists of two sharply dis- 
tinguished layers, the outer of which is homogeneous and structure- 
less, while the lower consists of fine lamella marked off by two 
systems of lines. The papillee of Priapulus and those on the proboscis 
of Halicryptus have the same essential structure as, and are doubtless 
homologous with those of the trunk of the latter ; ae only difference 
is that the former have an orifice at their tip. The musculature of 
P. caudatus and Halicryptus is similarly arranged as in P. bicaudatus, 
as described by Horst. The wall of the caudal appendage of 
Priapulus has the same structure as the body-wall, save that the circular 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. (1885) pp. 459-529 (3 pls.). 


74 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


muscles here form a continuous layer, and the longitudinal are arranged 
in fifteen bundles; the whole is to be regarded as an appendage of 
the body. 

The ccelom contains a thick whitish fluid containing a considerable 
number of large spherical cells; nearly all of these have a large 
vacuole ; they do not, as in Sipunculus, coagulate. 

In the full description of the digestive tract mention is made of the 
characteristic dental structures which are developed from the lining 
cuticle; they are to be regarded as the homologues of the various 
elevations which are found on the surface of the body; they are filled 
internally by a process of the subcuticular layer, the cells of which are 
considerably elongated. ‘The proctodceum appears to be very short. 

The nervous system, for a knowledge of the central portion of 
which we are indebted to Ehlers, is next described ; there is consider- 
able difficulty in investigating the arrangement of the peripheral 
nervous system, and specimens preserved in alcohol are of no use; 
chromic or picric acids are better. A nerve is given off from the 
centre of every swelling, and therefore corresponds to the middle of 
every circular muscular area; these nerves pass off on either side and 
extend between the cells of the hypodermis; in an animal 43 mm. 
long the peripheral nerves are -002 mm. wide ; in Priapulus the fibres 
of the hinder end of the body are a little thicker. The nerves given 
off from the cesophageal ring pass to the body-wall and to the pharynx ; 
of the latter there are only four; they pass between the cells of the 
subcuticular layer, and extend straight forwards and backwards ; 
these fibres are connected with one another by circular nerves which 
are set at right angles to them, and in the same superficial plane; 
the circles are so disposed as to correspond with the rows of teeth. 
Dr. Apel was able to trace the peripheral nerve-fibres between 
the cells of the hypodermis, to the limiting membrane between the 
musculature and the subcuticular layer. 

The generative apparatus of the Priapulaces is as yet incompletely 
known; the female organs are found to consist of an efferent duct 
and a ventral lamellar glandular body; the minute structure of these 
as of the homologous male organs is described in great detail; the 
male organ, like the female, is attached to the body-wall by a mesentery, 
Ehlers’ observations to the contrary being probably due to the poor 
condition of his specimen. 

Throughout the essay constant reference is made to the work of 
Ehlers and of Horst, who have both contributed very largely to our 
knowledge of these worms. 


Pelagic Fauna of the Coast of the Guinea Islands.*—Prof. R. 
Greef, after a brief general account of the pelagic fauna observed 
round the Guinea Islands, especially describes the pelagic Annelids. 
Two new species of Tomopteris were observed—T. rolasi and T. 
mariana; the rosette-shaped organ in the parapodia appears to be 
glandular and not optic in nature, and the gland is luminous and 
under the direct influence of the nervous system; the cephalic seg- 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xli. (1885) pp. 482-58 (5 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 75 


ment and its appendages are described; though the author was ablo 
to examine the genital organs, he was not successful in finding fer- 
tilized ova. Of the Alciopide five species are enumerated, four of 
which— Vanadis melanophthalmus, V. setosa, Rhynchonerella fulgens, 
and Alciopa longirhyncha—are new. The male of R. fulgens is re- 
markable for the arrangement of its generative organs; from the tenth 
to the thirteenth segments there are a pair of coiled tubes filled with 
spermatozoa; the orifices at either end are very fine; the tubes com- 
municate with very peculiar conical organs lying under the parapodia 
of their proper segment, at the end of which they open to the exterior. 
Unfortunately with the Alciopide also Dr. Greef was unable to make 
any observations on development or on the larve. 


Development of Nematoids.*—M. P. Hallez has made some 
further | observations on the development of round worms, which 
justify him in doubting the correctness of two of the conclusions 
reached by Davaine. ‘That author stated (1) that the embryo only 
escaped from the egg after it had been brought into the intestine with 
food or drink, and (2) that the softening of the egg-shell by the in- 
testinal juices and a temperature of about 40° C. were necessary for 
the escape of the eggs; but Hallez found that, having placed on the 
18th of June a number of eggs of Ascaris megalocephala on the surface 
of the earth of flower-pots, a number of embryos escaped on the 
succeeding 17th and 18th of August. This and other experiments 
appear to be conclusive as against the accuracy of Davaine’s laws. 
The young never escape if the eggs are put into water, or are allowed 
to dry; the young, both before and after their escape, require a 
supply of oxygen, and this may be the reason why they do not 
develope under water. 


Nervous System of Teniade.{—The nervous system of Cestodes, 
first recognized about fifty years ago, but till within the last decen- 
nium generally ignored or denied, has recently been the subject of 
frequent research. The current description, according to which the 
nervous system consists of spongy lateral cords, has been proved 
inadequate, but the observations have been hitherto too conflicting 
and fragmentary to admit of any definite conception of the real state 
of the case. Through the work of Dr. J. Niemiec, however, the pre- 
ceding researches have been corrected, completed, and unified, and 
the Tzniadz have been shown to possess a nervous system of great 
complexity. 

The research is based on sections of the scolices of T. cenurus, 
T. elliptica, T. serrata, and T. mediocanellata., After giving an account 
of the arrangement and histology of the musculature, he unravels the 
intricate maze of cords and commissures in the four above-named 
species. Only a brief account of his summarized results can be given. 

(a) The nerve-ring.—A nerve-ring situated under the hooks, pre- 
viously observed by Moniez in one species, has been demonstrated in 


* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 831-4, 
+ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 809. 
t Recueil Zool. Suisse, ii, (1885) pp. 589-648. See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 244, 


76 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


several. From this ring filaments run to the hook musculature, while 
from ganglionic swellings eight branches descend, four going to the 
two principal lateral ganglia, and four prolonging their course even 
within the proglottides. The ring ganglia in T. conurus also give 
origin to nerves going directly to the suckers. 

(b) The central ganglion.—In the middle of the “ principal” com- 
missure joining the two lateral ganglia, there is a large central 
ganglion, from which a “transverse” commissure passes at right 
angles to the “ principal.” 

(c) Polygonal commissures——In the plane of these two chief com- 
missures there lie nerves, which unite the two lateral ganglia with the 
branches descending from the nerve-ring and with the “ transverse 
commissure,” thus forming a polygonal figure, parallel to which, a 
little below, there lies an “inferior polygonal commissure” of the 
same nature. Where the different branches join, “secondary ganglia” 
are situated, and from these, as well as from the principal lateral 
ganglia, the suckers are supplied with nerves, four to each, 

(d) The “spongy cords.”—Nitzsche had previously observed ten 
“spongy cords,” which Niemiec now enables us definitely to localize. 
Six of them, three on each side, start from the principal lateral 
ganglia; the remaining four have been already noted as descending 
from the nerve-ring and passing through the “ secondary ganglia.” 

Dr. Niemiec indicates the interest of his research as a contribution 
towards the solution of the problem of the phylogeny of the Cestodes. 
(1) He enumerates the resemblances between the nervous system of 
Teeniz and that of Tetrarhynchi, recently elucidated by Lang. (2) 
While acknowledging the difficulties of the comparison he regards 
the nerve-ring of Tzeniz#e—not the commissure—as homologous with 

the cesophageal ring of Annelids, from which it differs only in its less 
pronounced development or reversion to a more rudimentary form. 
(8) Referring to the recent researches of Lang and Gaffron on Tre- 
matodes, he indicates how they lessen the difference between the 
Cestode and Trematode nervous systems, which his own discoveries 
seem to increase. 


Natural History of Rotifers.*—In the first portion of his essay 
Dr. L. Plate gives « full account of the fresh-water Rotifers examined 
by him; they are thus arranged :— 


Fam. Tubicolarina: Lacinularia socialis, Conochilus volvo. 

Philodinia: there are here some general notes. 

Polyarthria: Polyarthra platyptera, Triarthra longiseta, T. 
terminalis n. sp., and T. cornuta. 

Hydatinia: Notommata aurita, N. vermicularis, N. lacinulata, 
N. tripus, N. hyptopus, Lindia torulosa, Hertwigia volwocicola 
n. sp., Hosphora elongata, Hydatina senta, Synchzeta pectinata, 
S. tremula, and Rhinops vitrea. 

Macrodactylea: Scaridium longicaudatum, Monocerca raitus, and 
Diurella tigris. 


99 
99 


93 


iP) 


* Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xix. (1885) pp. 1-120 (3 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 77 


Fam. Loricata: Dinocharis pocillum, Salpina spp., Euchlanis dilatata, 
E. luna, Metopidia lepadella, Stephanops lamellaris, Pom- 
pholyx complanata, Pterodina (it is doubtful whether P. patina 
and P. elliptica are really distinct from one another), Anurea 
spp., Noteus quadricornis, Brachionus amphiceros, B. urceolaris, 
B. bakeri, B. brevispinus, B. bidens n. sp., B. decipiens un. sp., 
and B. plicatilis. 

»  Asplanchniia: Asplanchna myrmeleo. 

In the second division of his essay the author deals in order with 
the various organs of the body, &c. :—(i.) External integument and 
form. Apodoides stygius appears to be the only exception to the rule 
that there is no ecdysis during growth; a “carapace” is not really 
confined to the members of the division of the Loricata, for it is found 
also in Notommata lacinulata, and in some species of Diurella; the 
males of the Euchlanide are, exceptionally, provided with a cara- 
pace. (ii.) Wheel-organ. Such rotifers as have a double circlet of cilia 
afford other proofs of a primitive organization, and the “ Archirotator” 
must be supposed to have had a sausage-shaped body, with the hinder 
end narrower and provided with a circlet of cilia. (iii.) Musculature. 
Our knowledge of the muscular system is as yet confined to too small 
a number of forms to enable us to make a comparison; the muscles 
do not appear to Dr. Plate, as they did to Leydig and Eckstein, to be 
completely homogeneous, but rather to have a finely granular central 
protoplasm, while the granules are often somewhat larger and so 
regularly arranged as to give an appearance of transverse striation. 
(iv.) Nervoussystem. The large dorsal central organ cannot be clearly 
seen to be composed of two lateral halves; a tuft of sensory hairs on 
the dorsal surface (“dorsal tentacle”) is very commonly formed, and 
in its neighbourhood the hypodermis is thickened and elevated ; this 
is found in many females and in all the males that have been ex- 
amined; it is sometimes paired, but otherwise is not altered in 
character, although placed further back on the body; other sensory 
tufts and the eyes are next described. It is possible that the granular 
calcareous mass which is found in the brain of some species of 
Notommata represents an otolithic mass ; it is not known to be present 
in the male. After a few observations on (v.) the digestive apparatus, 
the author passes to (vi.) the excretory organ. It is recognized that 
Leydig was justified in saying that the excretory tubes were of two 
forms, for in some they are cylindrical and of about the same width 
throughout, while in others they are trumpet-shaped. The contractile 
vesicle appears to have gradually arisen by the fusion of the two 
vessels, and in the more primitive forms we find that they are not 
fused into a basal enlargement; in others (e.g. Conochilus) the con- 
tractile vesicle is formed by the direct conversion of a part of the 
cloaca. (vii.) The cement-glands are usually paired, but when reduced 
they may form a single organ. (viii.) The connective tissue is present 
in the form of filaments and represents the first indications of a 
mesenchym ; in the larger species (Asplanchna), the cells from which 
the filaments arise exhibit amceboid movements, and the tissue has 
thus a contractile as well as a supporting function; the longer bands, 


78 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


which are often of great delicacy, are frequently arranged with re- 
markable symmetry; by some authors they seem to have been 
mistaken for nerves. (ix.) The female organs exhibit little matter 
for histological inquiry ; the whole yolk-mass is limited externally by 
a thin structureless membrane, and contains but a small number of 
large nuclei. They are unpaired except in the Ptilodinee and in 
Seison, but it is not yet possible to say whether the duplicity is a 
primitive or an acquired condition; future inquiries will have to 
settle whether the mass which produces the summer eggs is morpho- 
logically different from that which gives rise to the winter ova; the 
author is inclined to believe that it is not so. (x.) Males; of the 
seventy-four genera as yet included in the system of the Rotatoria, 
there are but twenty-four—Floscularia, Seison, Lacinularia, Conochilus, 
Triarthra, Polyarthra, Notommata, Syncheta, LHosphora, Diglena, 
Hydatina, Monocerca, Monostyla, Colurus, Salpinz, Euchlanis, 
Metopidia, Brachionus, Apodoides, Anurzea, Apsilus, Ascomorpha, 
Asplanchna, and Hertwigia—in which the males are as yet known. 
As is well known, the males are of simpler organization than the 
females. With regard to the method of copulation, the author finds 
that in Rotifers, as in some Planarians, the penis bores through the 
body-wall of the female at any point, and is not inserted into the 
cloaca; under suitable conditions one female may be fertilized by 
several males. The females of Hydatina were observed to live for 
about fourteen days, but the male could not be kept alive for more 
than three at the most; the former reach their definite size in about 
three days, and they then begin to lay their eggs. The common 
view that males are especially common in spring and autumn is 
erroneous, for they are just as common in the middle of August as in 
April or October ; the source of error is to be found in the comparative 
rarity of males. 

In conclusion, Dr. Plate has some observations on the stem-form 
of the Rotatoria; it is clear that sexual dimorphism is an acquired 
character. The “ Archirotator” had a cylindrical body, narrower 
behind, a ventral mouth and dorsal anus, and an aboral tuft of cilia; 
the wheel apparatus consisted of two ciliated circlets; the fore-gut 
had a chitinous masticatory apparatus, and the whole tract was lined 
by ciliated epithelium ; into its hinder portion opened two unbranched 
excretory canals, and the genital ducts. The nervous system con- 
sisted of a dorsal central ganglion, which gave off several anterior 
and two postero-lateral nerves. As to their systematic position, the 
Rotifers appear to be of the same stock as the Annelids, but they 
differ from the Trochophore in wanting a ciliated groove, the hinder 
circlet of cilia opens into the fore-gut, the aboral tuft does not cor- 
respond to the “ perianal” circlet, and the brains are not homologous. 


Desiccation of Rotifers.—Mr. H. Davis at a recent meeting of 
the Quekett Microscopical Club, exhibited some strips of note paper 
on which were several groups of dried Philodines (P. roseola), looking 
like clear red spots. These had been sent to Mr. Davis by the 
' Rey. E. T. Holloway, of Clehanger, who had thus succeeded in ob- 
taining specimens of these dried rotifers quite free from sand or dirt 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 79 


of any kind, which has been considered by some to be the only 
protective. 

Dr. C. T. Hudson writes us that ‘‘ Nothing could be more instructive 
than these curious clusters. In the great majority of cases, each 
rotifer was seen imbedded in a patch of glutinous secretion, which 
was divided from the similar patches of the surrounding rotifers by 
sharp straight lines, so as to give the whole group the appearance of 
a tesselated pavement. Here and there the Philodines were glued 
together by long tongues of the same secretion; especially where the 
fibres of the paper projected above the general surface, and by spoiling 
the level, prevented the formation of a sharp bounding line. In 
one case a rotifer had bored its way into the fibres of the paper, 
and, unable to withdraw or contract itself, had formed the centre of 
a whole group of others attached to it by radiating bands of glue. 
In fact these beautifully clean groups gave ocular demonstration of 
the truth of Mr. Davis’s theory that the Philodines resist drought by 
encasing themselves in a glutinous case of their own secreting: and 
the efficiency of the protective was at once shown by putting the 
strips in water, when the buried rotifers soon struggled into life.” 

Hudson’s ‘ Rotifera. *—The one thing wanting in a microscopist’s 
library has hitherto been a fairly complete book on Rotifers with 
a sufficiency of illustrations. The first part of Dr. Hudson’s book 
just published was received at the January meeting with acclamation, 
not only on account of the publication, so long expected, having been 
actually commenced, but even more on account of the reality having 
so much exceeded the expectation. All known British species will 
be illustrated with original drawings from life, while of those which 
are not British, descriptions and figures of the most important will 
be given. Of the drawings (reproduced on coloured folio plates) it is 
impossible to speak too highly, though they will probably not surprise 
those who are already familiar with Dr. Hudson’s remarkable facility 
for representing from life the organisms of which he has made him- 
self the leading authority. The instalment of the text, which includes 
the introduction, history of literature, classification, and haunts and 
habits, shows that it will not be behind the plates in practical utility 
to microscopists; while the fact that Messrs. Longman are the 
publishers is a guarantee that the issue of the remaining five parts, 
with 25 plates, will not show any falling off from Part I. No 
microscopist who takes any interest in pond-life can afford to be 
without this book, which will also fill a gap in zoological literature 
which has long required filling. 

Mr. P. H. Gosse is assisting Dr. Hudson in the production of the 
book. 


Echinodermata. 
Hemoglobin in Echinoderms.t—Dr. W. H. Howell has discovered 
a Holothurian whose cclomic fluid contains red, oval, nucleated 
corpuscles, in addition to the white amceboid ones. The red colour 
* Hudson, C. T. (assisted by P. H. Gosse), ‘The Rotifera or Wheel Animal- 


cules.” Part I., 40 pp. and 5 pls., large 8vo, London (Longmans) 1886. 
+ Johns-Hopkins Univ. Circ., v. (1885) p. 5. 


80 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


is due to hemoglobin; differing slightly in the “ albuminous portion 
of the molecule ” from that of vertebrates. 


Structure and Function of the Spheridia of Echinoids.*—Mr. H. 
Ayers gives a careful description of these sensory organs, the dis- 
covery of which we owe to Prof. Lovén; they may be spheroidal or 
oviform in shape, but there is a typical form for each species; in each 
spherid we may distinguish externally a base, which is composed of a 
mamelon of the test, a joint, which forms the connection between the 
base and the globule, and chiefly composed of muscle-cells and 
fibrous tissue, and, lastly, a globule, or body of the sphzrid, which 
consists of head and necks The calcareous matter of the globule 
is a hard, very brittle, vitreous carbonate of lime, deposited in more 
or less concentric layers; it is deposited or inclosed between organic 
layers. The canal system is best studied after the slow removal of the 
calcareous matter by dilute acid, and treatment with hard Canada 
balsam, or by staining; the reticulated tissue of Lovén is then seen 
to be a system of canals, which is but a modified form of the canali- 
cular spaces of the spines; within the canals are found nerve-cells, 
and in some cases (e.g. Hchinus melo) a chlorophyll-green fluid. 
There is an epithelial covering, the cells of which are known to 
have cilia only by the currents caused by their motion; when 
dead they may be seen to be not scattered over the entire surface of 
the spherid, but confined to patches of various size on the sides of 
the neck and globule. The nerve-supply comes from the tentacular 
nerve-trunk, and the cells form a network of filaments with here’ and 
there irregular knots—the nucleated portions of the cells. The 
ends of the filaments are club-shaped or pyramidal, with the larger 
part directed outwards. 

Mr. Ayers points out that these organs are more highly specialized 
than Lovén’s description would lead us to’ think, and they are much 
more so than similar organs among the Meduse. As to their fune- 
tion it was observed that on the addition of a drop of dilute acetic 
acid to the sea-water in which the urchin is living, there is a sudden 
stimulation and increased activity of all the external organs, the 
spheridia being the first to recognize the presence of the acid, and 
giving one or two quick short jerks, followed by a swaying or rotat- 
ing movement. They seem to have the function of perceiving 
chemical changes in the surrounding water and reporting the same to 
the nervous centres of the animal; they do not seem to be affected in 
the least’*by sounds. dari 

Ambulacra of Diadematide.t—Prof. P. M. Duncan describes the 
anatomy of the ambulacra of recent Diadematide, in the genera 
Diadema, Echinothrix, Centrostephanus, Astropyga, Micropyga, and 
Aspidodiadema, 'The research is of classificatory importance. 


Star-fishes of the ‘ Talisman.’{—Prof. E. Perrier states that fifty- 
four species, represented by nearly two hundred examples, of star- 
* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxvi. (1885) pp. 39-52 (1 pl.). 


+ Journ, Linn. Soc. Lond., xix. (1885) pp. 95-114 (1 pl.). 
t+ Comptes Rendus, ci. pp. 884-7. 


tromatrhotoby J Mayall, une 


PMARTIN DUNCAN, 


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ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 81 


fishes were collected during the scientific voyage of the ‘Talisman’ ; 
thirty-five of these are new, and are instructive from the combination of 
characters which they present. A new genus—Odinia—is established 
for such Brisingidew as have tentacular tubes. Zoroaster longicauda is 
@ new species in which the ambulacral tubes are quadriserial at the 
base of the arms only. The family Stichasteride is formed for 
Zoroaster and Stichaster. Four families—Linckiide, Pentacerotide, 
Asterinide, and Astropectinide—are completely absent below 
200 metres. Stephanaster bourgeti n. sp. has its analogues in the 
Australian seas. There are nine new Porcellanasteride, belonging 
to various genera; Styracaster spinosus has a dorsal peduncle. ‘The 
most remarkable Pterasterid is Myxaster sol, which has a large flattened 
disc, around which radiate nine or ten delicate, elongated, and 
flexible arms; there is the usual marsupial pouch; the two specimens 
were dredged at depths of 1405 and 1550 metres respectively. 


Ceelenterata. 


Development of Aurelia aurita and Cotylorhiza borbonica.*— 
Dr. A. Goette states as a result of his studies on these types: (a) 
that the celogastrula is a secondary embryonic form in which the 
gastrulation is completed by an inwandering of the endoderm into the 
cavity of the cceloblastula; (6) Scyphistoma is a perfect Anthozoon ; 
the invagination of the ectodermal cesophagus and the gastral 
pouches and septa which surround it sufficiently prove the correctness 
of this view ; (c) since the Strobila is produced by simple division, 
and the Ephyra may arise without division directly from the Scy- 
phistoma, there is no reason for asserting an alternation of generations 
in Aurelia and Cotylorhiza. The Ephyra and consequently the Sey- 
phomedusa, is a metamorphosed Scyphistoma or Anthozoon, just as the 
Hydromedusa is a metamorphosed Hydroid polyp. 

New Japanese Pennatulid.j—Prof. A. A.W. Hubrecht describes 
a new Pennatulid (Hchinoptilum macintoshit) from Japan, which 
belongs to the section Spicate and subsection Junciformes in Kélli- 
ker’s classification ; it forms the type of a new family—LHchinoptilidz 
—characterized by the total absence of anything like an axis, which 
is present in all Pennatulids except some of the primitive Veretillee 
and the divergent Renillez. 

The colony is dense and rigid from the presence of calcareous 
needles, which, on the rachis, unite to form projecting polyp-cells ; 
the structure of the polyparium is alone described, as the polyps 
have undergone desiccation ; the polyps could be seen to be bilaterally 
arranged, the general form is short and club-like, the needles are 
formed in the internal framework, as well as in the investment; the 
polyp-cells are arranged in less distinct rows than, and the ventral 
is not wholly devoid of polyps, as in Stachyptilum. On‘the whole, 
the new form is intermediate in character between groups already 
known; and this must be recognized in assigning it a systematic 
position. 


* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 554-6. 
t Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1885, pp. 512-8 (2 pls.). 
Ser. 2.—Vow. VI. G 


82 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Porifera. 


Australian Homocela and the Homodermide.*—Dr. R. v. Len- 
denfeld, recognizing that the sponge-nature of the Physemarina is 
not sufficiently proved, regards the Asconide as the simplest of all 
sponges. They form the first family of Poléjaeff’s suborder Homoccela, 
in which there is no differentiation of the endodermal epithelium.t 
The second family is a new one, and is called Homodermide, the 
new genus Homoderma combining the characters of the Syconide with 
those of the Asconide ; the inner surface is complicated, so as to form 
radial sack-shaped excrescences similar to the radial tubes of the 
Syconide. The two sponges Ascaltis canariensis and A. lamarckiti, 
described by Prof. Hackel, have a similar structure of the body-wall. 
The author gives a detailed description of H. sycandra, together with 
some notes on its postembryonal development or metamorphosis; at 
first its inner surface is perfectly simple, and chambers appear as the 
sponge grows; when adult, it is 2 mm. high, and has been found at 
Port Phillip, Victoria. 


Spongilla fragilis.j;—Herr Frant Petr describes the anatomy of 
a Spongilla fragilis (Leidy) found in Bohemia, and compares it with 
that of other forms. He maintains the identity of the characteristic 
air-chamber envelope of the gemmule with the parenchyma sheath of 
Euspongilla and Ephydatia species, and regards its occurrence as " 
probably constant in all fresh-water sponges. 


Fresh-water Sponges from Mexico.§—Mr. H. Potts describes a 
new variety (Palmeri) of Carter’s sponge Meyenia plumosa. It has 
the same general characters and the various spicules seen in the 
type: it was found on the banks of the Colorado river: the only other 
locality is Bombay, where Carter’s specimen was found. 'The lower 
reaches of the Colorado are exceedingly hot and dry, and the chief 
vegetation consists in cacti, &c., and Strombocarpus pubescens ; on the 
branches of the latter the sponge is found, and since the floods are 
only out about six weeks in the year, the sponge must be dry for the 
rest of the year. Reproduction can only take place during the wet 
season. ‘This variety differs from Carter’s in the presence of com- 
plicated subdermal spicules. 


Vosmaer’s Sponges.||—Parts 8-11 of Dr. G. C. J. Vosmaer’s 
‘ Porifera’ have been published, with plates 19-25. 

The account of earlier classifications is continued, that of Dr. 
Gray being first taken up. The Porifera are defined as: “ Very 
variable in form, different between the limits of one single species. 
The body consists principally of a connective-tissue-like substance, 


* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix. (1885) pp. 896-907. 

+ The awkward wording of a sentence on p. 1014 of vol. v. of this Journal 
causes the non-differentiated character of the endoderm to be ascribed to the 
Heteroccela instead of the Homoccela. 

¢ SB. K. Bohm. Gesellsch. Wiss., 1885, pp. 99-111. 

§ Proc. U.S. Nation. Mus., viii. (1885) pp. 587-9 (1 fig.). 

|| Bronn’s ‘ Klassen u. Ordnungen d. Thierreiches,’ 8vo, Leipzig and Heidel- 
berg, 1885. ; 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 83 


and is invested by an epithelium or cuticle. It is traversed by a 
system of canals or lacune which are lined with epithelium; this 
“ canal-system” usually begins by numerous fine pores and terminates 
in one or more so-called “oscula.” Almost without exception the 
body is supported by a skeleton of calcareous or siliceous spicules, or 
by horny fibres, or by a combination of the two latter, Reproduction 
is sexual or by budding. The majority are marine; a few live in 
fresh water. Fossil and recent.” 

The Porifera are divided into P. non-calcarea and P. calcarea, 
The first order of the former is that of the Hyalospongie (Hexacti- 
nellide), the suborders of which are Dictyonina (with the families 
Euretide, Coscinoporide, Mellitionide, Ventriculitide, Stauroder- 
mide, Meondrospongide, Callodictyonide, and Cceloptychide); the 
second suborder is that of the Lyssakina (with the families Recep- 
taculitide, Monakide, Pleionakide, and Pollakide). The second 
order is that of the Spiculispongie; its first suborder the Lithistina 
(families, Rhizomorinide, Megamorinide, Anomocladinide, and Te- 
traclidinide) ; the second suborder, Tetractina, contains the families 
Geodidx, Ancorinide, Piakinidw, and Corticide ; the third suborder, 
or that of tle Oligosilicina, has in it the Chondroside and Halisar- 
cide; the fourth, or Pseudotetraonina, contains only the Tethyade ; 
the fifth, Clavulina, the Polymastide and Suberitide. The third 
order is that of the Cornacuspongie, with the Halichondrina (families, 
Halichondride, Spongillide, Desmacidonide, and Ectyonidz), and as 
a second suborder the Ceratina, in which are found the Spongelide, 
Spongide, Aplysinide, and Darwinellida. 


Protozoa. 


Glycogen in the Protozoa.*—Prof. O. Biitschli has undertaken 
experiments as a confirmation of previous investigations in regard to 
the composition of the granules of the endoplasm of Gregarinz, which 
have been recently criticized by Frenzel.{ From a number of 
qualitative results (of somewhat indefinite character), the author con- 
cludes that the substance composing these granules is glycogen, or a 
compound of similar nature (“ paraglycogen”’), and he has identified 
such a substance also in the Infusoria Nyctotherus ovalis, and 
Strombidium, confirming therefore the observations of Certes.f 


Reproduction of Infusoria.s—Miss 8. G. Foulke describes the 
interesting phenomena of germ-formation in Chilomonas paramzcium, 
one of the Flagellata Kustomata of Kent. 

The long oval infusor with its two flagella assumes a spherical or 
amceboid form, the refractive corpuscles round its cell-wall move 
actively about in the now more fluid endoplasm, and finally the mass 
liberates the spores by bursting like a bubble, or by gradually dis- 
integrating, or by extruding a small vesicle enclosing the spores and 
then disintegrating. The meaning of the breaking-up recorded by 


* Zeitschr. f. Biol., xxi. (1885) pp. 603-12. 

+ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxiv. (1885) p. 545. See this Journal, vy. (1885) p. 471. 
+ See this Journal, iii. (1880) p. 285. 

§ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1885) pp. 260-1 (1 pl.). 


G 


84 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Biitschli is thus recognized, as also the nature of the belt of cor- 
puscles which appears in the mature forms. This observation is of 
general interest, as illustrating a change from a more to a less active 
cell-phase at the period of reproduction, and also as indicating the 
exhaustion of the mother protoplasm in the production of the spores. 


The Tintinnodea.*—Prof. G. Entz commences with an account 
of Tintinnidium fluviatile, in which especial attention is given to the 
peristomial dise and to the characters of the ciliation; the ecto- and 
endoplasm are not sharply distinguished, and the cuticle is nothing 
more than a limiting layer, somewhat more resistant than the rest of 
the protoplasm, and is not to be demonstrated by reagents; the 
nucleus is frequently elongated in form, and has a cleft-like cavity 
which divides it into two, often unequal, halves; the addition of 
acetic acid reveals the presence of clearly defined internal corpuscles. 
The process of division is effected in much the same way as in Stentor, 
commencing with the formation of a fresh peristome and contractile 
vacuole. Attention is directed to the great similarity which obtains 
between free-swimming Tintinnods and the larva of the sponge 
Reniera filigrana described by W. Marshall in 1882, and the various 
attempts (the last of which was that of Mr. 8. Kent) to derive the 
various phyla of the Metazoa from the Ciliata; Prof. Entz thinks 
that till the gulf between the Protozoa and the Metazoa has been 
bridged over we must be content to look upon such resemblances as — 
being merely interesting phenomena of convergence. 

The second form described is a new species of Codonella—C. 
lacustris—the test of which is like that of the Difflugiz in that it is 
beset with angular pieces of silex. The third chapter deals with the 
tests of some pelagic Tintinnodea; these, which are rare in the 
intestine of Antedon rosaceus, are always found in Salpz; the 
commonest are those of Codonella beroidea and C. lagenula, hundreds 
of which may be found in the intestine of one Salpa ; the new species 
described are Tintinnus lusus unde, T. claparedit, Dictyocysta poly- 
morpha (which the author had previously called Codonella perforata), 
D. millepora, and Cyttarocylis ewpleciella ; the last is perhaps identical 
with Fol’s C. cystellula, from which it is distinguished by the greater 
diameter of its alveoli, by the absence of larger cilia below the 
equatorial zone, and by the absence of the inwardly directed mem- 
brane which characterizes the mouth of Fol’s species; the author 
allows that all these differences may be due to individual variation. 


New Symbiotic Infusorian.t—Dr. A. C. Stokes describes Leu- 
cophrys emarginata n. sp., in which the chlorophyll corpuscles lie so 
close as almost to form a continuous subcuticular layer; the author 
doubts whether these are, as Brandt thinks, symbiotic alge, for though 
they are sufficiently multiplied, the infusorian is voracious. Similarly 
he hesitates to accept the doctrine that the green colouring matter is 
in all low animal forms symbiotic; in several Infusoria the coloration 
is diffused, and not collected into granules, discs, or spherules. 


* MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vi. (1885) pp. 185-216 (2 pls.). 
+ Journ. New York Micy. Soc., i. (1885) pp. 152-4. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 85 


New Fresh-water Infusoria.*—Dr. A. C. Stokes describes the 
following new species :-— 

Phacus acuminatus differs from its nearest ally, P. triquetra, in 
having a concave lower surface and a short caudal prolongation: the 
protoplasm contains chlorophyll-grains and two “amylaceous cor- 
puscles.” 

Ophryoglena ovata has a somewhat changeable body, whose anterior 
extremity is slightly broader than the posterior; the oral aperture is 
placed obliquely ; no nucleus was observed; the contractile vacuoles 
are stellate on diastole. 

Dexiotricha centralis is readily distinguished from D. plagia 
(Stokes) by the much greater length of the “caudal sete”; by the 
nearly equatorial position of the ring of cilia, and by the posterior 
position of the contractile vacuole. 

Stentor globator is chiefly characterized by the ability to protrude 
a soft, attenuate, tail-like prolongation of the body, by means of which 
it can fix itself. There are several stiff sete posteriorly. 

Strombidinopsis setigera differs from the only other species, S. gyrans, 
in the shortness of the peristomial cilia, and in the presence of long 
fine setz on the anterior surface. 

Scyphidia constricta is distinguished from S. inclinans by a slight 
anterior constriction; when contracted, a projection appears from 
the frontal border. 

Uroleptus limnetis differs from U. longicaudatus in being shorter, in 
the absence of a caudal prolongation, and in the undulating peristomial 
membrane. | 

Stylonychia putrina differs from all other species of this genus in 
its elongate ellipticalform. SS. vorax is the smallest species described ; 
all the anal styles project beyond the posterior margin of the body ; 
the caudal sete spring from the margin; the left marginal sete are 
remote from the edge of the body. 

Acineta fluviatilis has a subtriangular lorica, quadrangular in 
section ; lives in a tide-water creek; has short pedicel; single con- 
tractile vacuole. A. lappacea: subspherical lorica; non-adherent 
body; lorica produced into points where the tentacles protrude; 
multiple contractile vacuole ; tentacles very fine, with thickenings 
upon them. A. alata: lorica irregularly ovate, with six or eight 
longitudinal “ wings,” each of which is pierced longitudinally by four 
pores for the tentacles; pedicel long; body apparently not attached 
to lorica. 


Critical Observations on Leidy’s ‘Fresh-water Rhizopods of 
North America,’ and Classification of the Rhizopods in general.t— 
Dr. G. C. Wallich closely criticizes Prof. Leidy’s work, directing 
especial attention to Difiugia, and taking the opportunity of referring 
to observations of his own published a long time since which do not 
appear to have been sufficiently noticed by the American naturalist. 


* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 183-90 (14 figs.). 
+ Ann. and Mag, Nat. Hist., xvi. (1885) pp. 317-34, 453-73. 


86 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Abnormal Ameba.*—Mr. E. B. Brayley describes an Ameba of 
extraordinary dimensions. In length it was within a very small 
fraction of 1/5 in., breadth about 1/15 in. This is ten times larger 
than any mentioned in Leidy’s monograph. It is suggested to be a 
very abnormal form of A. proteus. 


Endoparasite of Noteus.;—Miss Sara G. Foulke describes certain 
ciliated bodies found in a crushed rotifer, a species of Noteus. These 
were very transparent, and showed no “ endoplast” : some were ovate, 
some globular, completely surrounded by long cilia; some contained 
refractive bodies—“ germs ”’—which escaped from the parent’s body. 
The name Anoplophrya notei is given to them; they appear allied to 
A. socialis, but are only 1/6 the size of this, being 1/600 in. in diameter ; 
their cilia are longer, and the cuticle is unstriated. 


Bitschli’s ‘Protozoa.’ t—Parts 29, 30, and 31 of Prof. O. Biitschli’s 
‘Protozoa’ were published in November 1885, with plates 51 to 54. 

Forty-eight papers on the literature of the Dinoflagellata are 
enumerated. 'The Dinoflagellata are divided into the Prorocentrina 
or Adinida, the Dinifera, and the Polydinida. The structure of the 
test is discussed, and its morphology elucidated by the aid of wood- 
cuts; the motor phenomena are said to be very like those of the 
Flagellata, being almost always connected with locomotion around the 
longitudinal axis; within the protoplasm are chromatophores, which . 
appear to be endogenous; starch is found in some, even if not in all, 
of the uncoloured forms; fat, red pigment, and eye-spots are also 
found; the last have as yet been seen only in the Dinifera, where 
they occupy a definite position in the body, being placed at about the 
middle of the longitudinal groove; they are oval, elongated, or 
(Glenodinium cinctum) horse-shoe shaped in form, and are coloured a 
bright red. Among the organisms here figured are Glenodinium, 
Peridinium, and Ceratiwn. 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a, Anatomy.§ 


New Organ in Protoplasm.|—-M. H. de Vries has examined a 
‘ number of plants, in order to determine the question whether the 
yacuoles which always appear after a time in the protoplasm of the 
living cell (and ultimately either coalesce into one, or give place to one 


* Sci.-Gossip, 1886, p. 19. + Amer. Journ. Sci., xxx. (1885) pp. 377-8. 

+ Bronn’s ‘ Klassen u. Ordnungen d. Thierreiches,’ 8vo, Leipzig and Heidel- 
berg, 1885. 

§ This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm (including the 
Nucleus and Cell-division; (2) Other Cell-contents (including the Cell-sap and 
Chlorophyll); (3) Secretions; (4) Structure of Tissues; and (5) Structure of 
Organs. 

a Maandblad voor Natuurwetenschappen, 1884. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. 
(1885) p. 182. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 87 


only), are or are not inclosed by a distinct membrane. He claims to 
be able to answer this question definitely in the affirmative, the best 
results having been obtained from Spirogyra nitida. 

The method employed was by the action of a 10 per cent. solution 
of potassium nitrate, which absorbs water very rapidly from the cell- 
sap, or plasmolyses the cell. When the parts begin to become dis- 
organized in this solution, the vacuole-membrane remains the longest, 
the vacuole lying like a ball in the cell, the membrane retaining its 
tension, and being especially well seen if the potassium nitrate is first 
coloured by eosin. The author regards the vacuole-membrane as a 
special organ present in all cells, at least during a certain period of 
their existence, which has for its function the production of turgidity 
in the cell; and for this organ he proposes the term Tonoplast. 


Distribution of Protoplasm in the Curved Parts of Plants.*— 
Herr F. G. Kohl has observed that in curved parts of plants the 
protoplasm behaves differently in different organs, with respect to its 
sensitiveness to light. In the root-hairs of Trianea bogotensis, which 
are very transparent, and the protoplasm of which is in active motion, 
this substance always accumulates at those spots only which are 
exposed to the most intense light. On the other hand, in the hairs 
on the tigellum of seedlings of Sinapis alba, the protoplasm moves 
from the walls which are directly illuminated to those in the dark. 
In curved organs like climbing stems, tendrils, &c., the protoplasm 
accumulates most on the concave side. 

Structure of the Cell-nucleus. t—M. C. van Bambeke gives a 
useful résumé of the present state of our knowledge of the structure 
of the cell-nucleus when in a state of rest, as derived from the 
observations of the most recent investigators, 


Division of the Cell-nucleus in Tradescantia.t—In the epidermal 
cells and those of the hairs on the stamens of Tradescantia virginica, 
and in the mother-cells of the pollen, M. E. Bernimoulin finds the 
nucleus at first granular, and inclosing a large number of chromatic 
rods, which then coalesce so as to form one or more knotted threads. 
The contour of the nucleus then disappears, the chromatic thread 
unrolls, spreads through the protoplasm of the cell, assumes the form 
of a nuclear plate, and divides into a certain number of. segments, 
which curve and separate into two groups to form the new nuclei. 


Chemistry of the Cell-nucleus.s—Herr A. Kossel has carefully 
investigated the chemical composition and properties of the chromatin 
of the nucleus of animal and vegetable cells, and finds it to be 
identical with nuclein. If nuclein is heated with dilute sulphuric 


* Wigand’s Bot. Hefte, i. (1885) p. 161. See Naturforscher, xviii. (1885) 


+ Bambeke, C. van, ‘Etat actuel de nos connaissances sur la structure du 
noyau cellulaire a l'état de repos,’ 34 pp., 8vo, Ghent, 1885. 
¢ Bernimoulin, E., ‘ Note sur la division des noyaux de Tradescantia virginica, 
10 pp. (2 pls.), Gand, 1884. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885). Rev. Bibl., 
. 102. 


P ue 
§ Ber. Deutsch. Clem. Gesell., xviii. (1885) p. 1920. See Naturforscher, 
XViil. (1885) p. 376. 


88 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


acid, along with other substances, a nitrogenous base is produced, 
identical with the adenin of the larger glandular organs. This 
substance may be obtained pure in crystals of the composition 
C,H;N;, capable of forming various compounds with acids. Adenin 
belongs to the group of xanthins. The primary products of decom- 
position of nuclein are probably adenin and guanin, xanthin and 
hypoxanthin being only secondary produets. In conjunction with 
nuclein adenin appears to play an important part in the physiology 
of animal and vegetable tissues. 


Chemistry of Chlorophyll.*—Mr. E. Schunek, after separating 
the phyllocyanin and phylloxanthin of chlorophyll by Frémy’s 
method, investigates the properties of the former substance. It is 
obtained as a dark-blue crystalline mass resembling indigo. It is 
decomposed between 160° and 180°. It contains nitrogen, but no 
sulphur. It is insoluble in water, petroleum-ether, and ligroin, but 
soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, glacial acetic acid, benzol, 
anilin, and carbon disulphide. The best solvent is chloroform, a 
minute quantity imparting an intense colour to thesolvents. Oxidizing 
agents decompose it easily, yielding yellow amorphous products, the 
solutions of which show no absorption-bands. It dissolves easily in 
concentrated sulphuric, hydrochloric, and hydrobromie acids, yielding 
dark-blue solutions, which show spectra differing from that of phyllo- . 
eyanin. They are unstable, and water precipitates from them phyllo- - 
cyanin unchanged. It dissolves readily in dilute caustic potash or 
soda lye; phyllocyanates are precipitated from these solutions by 
earthy or metallic salts. Phyllocyanin aets the part of a weak base, 
forming metallic compounds with strong acids. Chlorophyllan is 
probably an impure substance containing some fatty acid along with 
phyllocyanin. 

Colourless Chlorophyll.;—M. C. Timiriazeff states that when a 
chlorophyll solution is treated with metallic zinc and an organic acid, 
it is reduced through the agency of the nascent hydrogen generated 
in the reaction, the resulting substance being perfectly colourless, 
and presenting no traces of fluorescence or of the characteristic 
spectrum of chlorophyll. In contact with air this substance gradually 
acquires the green colour and optical properties of chlorophyll. 
M. Timiriazeff considers this to be a confirmation of his previous 
hypothesis that the green colour of chlorophyll is due to the presence 
of iron in the state of an FeOFe,O, compound. 


Researches on Chlorophyll.t{—Herr A. Tschirch gives the 
following as the properties and appearances of the derivatives of 
chlorophyll. 

I. Soluble in alcohol. 


1. Bodies which show the chlorophyllan spectrum; solution 
brown. 

a. Chlorophyllan, black rosettes of crystals. 

b. Phyllocyaninic acid, black lamelle with superficial blue colour. 


* Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxviii. (1885) pp. 336-40. + Nature, xxxii. (1885) p. 342. 
t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. Generalversammlung, 1885, pp. xliii.-liy. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 89 


2. Bodies which show the spectrum of living leaves (with ex- 
ception of xanthophyll bands) ; solution emerald-green. 

a. Pure chlorophyll, by reduction from chlorophyllan. 

b. B-chlorophyll, by reduction from phyllocyaninic acid; black 
lamella with superficial blue colour. 


TI. Soluble in water. 


3. Alkali-chlorophyll; solution emerald-green, black lamelle 
without superficial colour. 


III. Soluble in ether. 


4, Cyanophyllin-barium ; emerald-green in solution, black lamelle 
without superficial colour, no trace of iron, suitable for quantitative 
determination of the green colouring matter of leaves. 

Further communications are made on the extinction-coefficient 
of the absorption-bands of a pure chlorophyll solution. From this it 
seems that the end-absorption of the blue is weaker in all parts than 
the absorption of the fixed band between B and C; whence it follows 
that the second maximum observed in the leaf and in an alcoholic 
extract of chlorophyll is to be traced to a superposing of the spectra 
of pure chlorophyll and xanthophyll. Further examination of the’ 
spectrum of xanthophyll solution confirmed the earlier view that 
xanthophyll shows only two bands in the blue, and end-absorption of 
the violet. 


Crystallizability of Xanthophyll.*—According to Herr J. Reinke, 
the crystallized chlorophyll-yellow of Hanstein is nothing but choles- 
terin with admixture of chlorophyll-yellow. The orange-red colour 
of dead leaves of Delesseria sanguinea he found to be due to fluo- 
rescence; and the same was the case also with other Floridez. 


“Soluble Starch.” {| —— The so-called “soluble starch” which 
Sanio and Schenk found in the epidermal cells of Ornithogalum and 
Gagea, has already been shown by Nageli not to be starch. Herr 
J. Kraus gives reasons for regarding it as a substance belonging to 
the class of tannins; he finds a similar substance in the epidermal 
cells of some species of Arwm. 


Proteinaceous Bodies in Epiphyllum.{ — Herr H. Molisch de- 
scribes proteinaceous bodies of peculiar form found in the branches 
of several species of Epiphyllum. They are of three kinds :—(1) fusi- 
form, and then either straight, crescent-shaped, or sickle-shaped, 
from 0°013 to 0:014 mm. long, and either homogeneous or distinctly 
striated ; (2) annular, either circular or elliptical, and homogeneous or 
laminated ; and (3) threads, curved in various ways. ‘The author 
believes that they are mainly formed by a process of intussusception. 
The chemical and physical properties of these bodies are described in 
detail, and lead to the conclusion that they are of the nature of 
crystalloids, and that they serve as reserve-materials. 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. Generalversammlung, 1885, pp. lv.-lviii. 

+ Abhandl. Naturf. Gesell. Halle, xvi. (1885). See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. 
(1885) p. 133. 

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 195-202 (1 pl.). 


90 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Formation of Gum-arabic.*—Herr G. Kraus has determined, by 
observations on the exudation of gum from Acacia melanoaylon, that 
it is formed only in the bark, and not in the wood, and only in the 
bast-layer, never in the parenchyma nor in any more external portion ; 
that the bast-fibres have no share in its formation; that it flows from 
the cells of the soft bast, and especially from the sieve-tubes ; and 
that it is not a product of degradation of the cellulose, but is a 
true cell-content, flowing out unchanged through the unchanged cell- 
walls. 


Oxalic Acid in Plants.;—MM. Berthelot and André, to extract 
this substance, bruise the plant in a mortar, boil with water for one 
hour, allow to macerate for twenty-four hours, and decant off and 
filter the liquid. The residue is again extracted with warm water, 
and finally pressed. If it is required to extract the insoluble oxalates, 
the water used for maceration must be mixed with 20-30 c.cm. of 
strong hydrochloric acid for each 100 grm. of plant. The mixed 
filtrates are acidified with hydrochloric acid (if this has not been 
already added), boiled, and again filtered. The filtrate is made 
alkaline with ammonia, and mixed with an excess of boric acid 
solution, which, in presence of ammonium chloride, prevents the pre- 
cipitation of nitrates, racemates, citrates, &c., or redissolves these 
precipitates if already formed. The liquid is then strongly acidified 
with acetic acid, mixed with calcium acetate, heated below the boiling 
point for about an hour, and the impure calcium oxalate collected 
and washed. The precipitate is redissolved in hydrochloric acid, 
and again collected. This treatment is repeated if necessary, and the 
purified precipitate is finally weighed as such, converted into calcium 
sulphate, or treated with a large excess of sulphuric acid and the 
evolved carbonic oxide measured. 

The paper concludes with some determination of the proportions 
of soluble and insoluble oxalates in different parts of Chenopodium 
quinoa, Amaranthus caudatus, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, and 
Fiumex Acetosa. 


Growth and Increase of Crystals in Plants.t — According to 
Herr Otto Képert, who has examined with this view a considerable 
number of plants, the relative number of crystals of calcium oxalate 
in different parts of the stem of plants, and in leaves of different ages, 
varies with the species. With regard to their size the results are 
more uniform. They are wanting in the youngest rudiments of 
leaves, but appear in them in the leaf-bud before they are capable of 
assimilation, immediately beneath the cone of growth, and attain their 
maximum size as soon as the organ—root, stem, or leaf—has attained 
is full development. 


Spherocrystals of Calcium Oxalate in the Cactacex.§ — In 
addition to the well-known crystals of calcium oxalate of various 


* Ber. Sitz. Naturf. Gesell. Halle, 1884, pp. 19-20. 

+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 354-60. 

¢ Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., lviii. (1885) p. 140. 

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii, (1885) pp. 178-82 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 91 


forms, Dr. M. Moébius finds, in a number of species of Cactacez, 
ageregations of the same substance closely resembling organic sphero- 
crystals. Their presence is of no value from a systematic point of 
view; since in the same genus there are species which contain, and 
others which do not contain them. 


Anatomy of Combretacez.* —The order Combretacee of Bentham 
and Hooker consists of the two tribes Combretee and Gyrocarpee. 
Herr H. Solereder, as the result of an examination of a large number 
of species, considers that these groups have but little relationship to 
one another. The Combretee are characterized, with a few ex- 
ceptions, by the presence of intraxylary soft-bast (within the xylem 
on the medullary sheath), provided with sieve-tubes. The Gyro- 
carpez, on the contrary, have no bicollateral bundles, and a further 
distinction from the Combretee is furnished by the presence of 
secreting cells, in the pith, the primary and secondary cortex, and the 
leaves. This tribe may be again divided into two natural groups, 
the Gyrocarpez in the narrower sense (Gyrocarpus and Sparattanthelium) 
and the Illigeree (Illigera), by the presence of cystoliths in the 
former group, which are absent from the latter. 


Comparative Anatomy of the Stem and Rhizome in Herbaceous 
Plants.;—Herr W. Rothert has made an extended examination of the 
differences in anatomical structure between the aerial and underground 
stems of herbaceous flowering plants. After a minute description of 
the structure of the various elements in a great variety of plants, he 
sums up the main points of difference under the following heads, viz. 
(1) Differences regarding the relation of the central cylinder to 
the cortex. In rhizomes the size of the central cylinder in com- 
parison to that of the cortex is generally less than in underground 
stems. (2) Differences relating to the mechanical properties of the 
parts in question. These include differences in the position and 
development of the sclerenchyma and collenchyma, air-passages and 
intercellular cavities, and in the development of hairs, which are 
usually, though not always, absent from roots. (8) Differences in 
the development of suberous tissue, especially in the protecting 
sheaths. These protecting sheaths are almost invariably present in 
the rhizome, but absent from the aerial stem. (4) Differences in the 
organized cell-contents. Chlorophyll is usually wanting in the 
rhizome, with the exception of its apex in Mercurialis; starch and 
inulin are often more abundant in the rhizome. (5) Differences in 
the differentiation of the tissues. This is generally less in rhizomes 
than in underground stems. (6) Differences in the number, course, 
arrangement, and structure of the desmom-tissue (vascular bundles). 
The number of bundles is usually less in the rhizome than in the 
aerial stem, and their arrangement less regular; in Monocotyledons 
the xylem and phloém have often a more or less concentric arrange- 


* Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) pp. 161-6. 

t Rothert, W., ‘ Vergleichend.-anat. Unters. iib. d. Differenzen in primaren 
Bau der Stengel u. Rhizome krautiger Phanerogamen,’ Dorpat, 1885. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxiii, (1885) p. 71. 


92 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ment in the rhizome, when those of the stem are collateral ; the pre- 
dominant character of the vessels is pitted in the former, spiral and 
reticulate in the latter. Asa general résumé, the storing-tissue and 
suberous tissues are usually strongly developed in the rhizome, while 
the assimilating tissue is wanting, and the mechanical tissue is 
greatly reduced. While the rhizome retains all the essential anato- 
mical characters of the stem, it yet shows some approximation in many 
ways to the structure of the root. 

Anatomical Structure of the Stem and of Underground Stolons.* 
According to Herr F. Haupt, the outer walls of the epidermal cells 
of stolons are thicker than those of stems, although less cuticularized ; 
the lateral and inner walls are also thicker. The stomata are less 
numerous in stolons; when beneath the soil they are usually larger. 
Stolons have, as a rule, no trichomes; hairs occur in Labiate and 
in the potato, but are more delicate, and are composed of a 
smaller number of cells; glandular hairs are found on the stolons of 
Labiate. Cork occurs in both organs. The inner endoderm is usually 
more strongly developed in stolons. In the vascular bundles the 
xylem is always reduced in the stolons, and the phloém, on the other 
hand, increased. The mechanical tissues, including collenchyma, 
sclerenchyma, and the interfascicular tissue, are always reduced in 
stolons. Starch usually occurs abundantly in stolons, especially in 
those which persist through the winter. . 

Anatomy of the Stem of Cruciferee.;—Herr E. Dennert classes 
the Cruciferee under seven different types, dependent on the arrange- 
ment of the tissues, and especially on the nature of the “strengthen- 
ing-ring” which incloses the vascular bundle, composed of primary 
prosenchyma, or of inner cambium and inner bast, or of all these 
elements, viz. :— 

1. Aubrietia-type. The prosenchyma is wanting in the strengthen- 
ing-ring ; the bast-fibres unite into a ring. 

2. Teesdalia-type. The hard-bast and primary prosenchyma unite 
into a continuous ring, with which the separate bundles are in 
apposition internally. 

3. Cochlearia-type. ‘The ring consists of alternate groups of 
vessels and bridges of primary prosenchyma; it undergoes very 
little or no change in the isolated cambium-strings. 

4. Sisymbrium-Alliaria type. The ring is much stronger ; but the 
cambium-strings remain isolated. 

5. Turritis-type. The continuous cambium produces no medul- 
lary rays. 

6. Brassica-type. When the cambium has become continuous, it 
produces radiate prosenchyma in addition to vessels and secondary 
prosenchyma. 

7. Raphanus-type. ‘The individual bundles are separated by 
primary medullary rays; secondary rays also appear later. 

* Ber. Bot. Sallsk. Stockholm, Dec. 27, 1884. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. 
(1885) p. 234. 


+ Dennert, E., ‘ Beitr. zur vergleich. Anat. des Laubstengels der Cruciferen,’ 
37 pp. (1 pL), Marburg, 1884. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 93 


Anatomy of Ceratophyllum.*—Herr J. EH. F. af Klercker gives a 
more detailed memoir on this subject. Agreeing with Haberlandt, he 
disputes the statement of Korschelt that the growing point exhibits a 
single apical cell; he finds, on the contrary, that the dermatogen 
divides only by anticlinals, and forms a sharply defined cell-layer. 
The processes in the embryo-sac which precede and follow impregna- 
tion were followed out in detail. With the development of the embryo 
the greater part of the integument disappears; a small residue re- 
maining only at the micropyle and chalaza. The embryo has no 
suspensor. 


Form of the Stem of Dicotyledons and Conifers.t—M. E. Guinier 
does not consider that the history of annual climatic vicissitudes is 
recorded in the form of the stem of dicotyledonous and coniferous 
trees to the extent generally supposed. The areas of the sections of 
the layer of growth usually increase from the summit towards the 
base. The thickness of each layer of growth is, to a certain extent, 
dependent on the preceding layer; and thick or thin layers are 
disposed in series often corresponding to periods of sixty years or 
more. 


Formation of Cork.{—Dr. J. E. Weiss classifies the various modes 
of formation of cork under three different types, all of which occur in 
the Lythrariez, Onagracee, Hypericacer, Myrtacew, Rosacee, and 
other families. The author disputes the statement of Sanio, that 
cork is sometimes formed in a purely centrifugal way. 

Annual Formation of Cork in the Periderm.§—Dr. Gerber has 
investigated the question whether the formation of cork in the super- 
ficial periderm of trees is always renewed every year; and finds that 
the thirty-one species examined can be classified into the three follow- 
ing groups :—(1) Corks which maintain an annual increase until the 
cork cambium dies in consequence of the formation of inner peri- 
derm, the younger elements differing from the older ones; or corks 
with a permanent formation of annual rings. (2) Corks the phel- 
logen of which forms cells of different kinds at the commencement 
and end of the first growing period only ; but from the second year 
only similar cells, alike in all respects to those of 'the later cork-cells 
of the first year. (3) Corks which repeat an annual increase, but 
always composed of similar elements; and therefore not forming 
annual rings. Numerous examples are given of each kind. 


Pith of Woody Plants.||—Herr G. Kassner gives the following as 
the main results of his observations on a great number of trees. 
The pith of most woody plants is lignified; its cells retaining their 


* Bih. K. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Stockholm, ix. (1885) 3 pls. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) p. 345. Cf. this Journal, v. (1885) p. 825. 

+ Guinier, E., ‘ Formes des tiges des arbres Dicotyledones et Coniféres,’ 30 pp. 
(7 pls.), Gap, 1885. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885). Rev. Bibl., p. 180. 

t SB. Bot. Verein. Miinchen, March 11, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. 
(1885) p. 367. 

§ Ber. Sitz. Naturf. Gesell. Halle, 1884, pp. 3-8. 

|| Kassner, G., ‘Ueb. d. Mark einiger Holzpflanzen,’ 38 pp. (2 pls.), 8vo, 
Breslau, 1884. 


94. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


form, with greatly thickened walls. COrystal-cells (containing calcium 
oxalate) are frequently found, and are distinguished by peculiar 
properties. In many plants these crystal-cells are divided by trans- 
verse and longitudinal walls into smaller chambers (Péerocarya, 
Quercus). As the internodes lengthen they manifest a tendency to 
become larger than any of the other cells (Ribes, Ledum). They lose 
their protoplasmic contents at an earlier period, and die before the 
other cells of the medullary tissue (Huonymus). In many plants, 
even those in which the pith is lignified, the walls of these crystal- 
cells consist of cellulose, remaining permanently thin and unligni- 
fied; on which account they often collapse and form cavities in the 
tissue. The pith of some woody plants consists, during its whole exist- 
ence, of thin soft cellulose. It is then subject to a variety of subse- 
quent changes, from further division or superficial growth, or the 
collapse of the tissue after vital activity has ceased. 


Development of Palm-leaves.*—Prof. A. W. Hichler has in- 
vestigated, in a large number of species, the origin of the division, 
whether pinnate or digitate, in palm-leaves, which differs from that 
in other leaves in being not the result of the growth of segments 
originally distinct, but of splitting or tearing. He finds the order of 
development to be this :—First, the rachis with the leaf-sheath ; then 
the lamina in the form of an expansion of the margin of the rachis.. 
Where there is a petiole, it is of intercalary origin as the leaf 
unfolds. The lamina grows very rapidly in breadth, and thus pro- 
duces folds lying very close to one another, arranged in a pinnate or 
digitate manner according to the length of the rachis; and the 
lamina then becomes split by the decay of certain angles of these 
folds. Of this there are four cases, according as it is the upper 
or lower angles, or both, that decay, or the lateral angles also. In 
Carludovica, belonging to the Pandanacew, the processes are similar. 


Contrivances for Storage of Water in the Leaf.j—Dr. EH. Hein- 
richer describes a structure which he has observed especially in the 
leaves of species of Centaurea growing in very dry situations. The 
delicate cells of the parenchyma-sheaths which inclose the finer veins 
of the leaves, and which ordinarily serve for the transfer of a portion 
of the products of assimilation, are not unfrequently transformed 
into tracheid-like cells, which then perform a different function, and 
which the author terms “reserve-tracheids.” A similar structure is 
well developed in Astrolobium repandum, and is described by the 
author in detail. This is one of a number of contrivances in the 
mesophyll of the leaf for the rapid transference, or for the storing 
up of water, corresponding to the needs of the plant as dependent on 
climate and habitat. In addition to their usual position running 
alongside the vascular bundles, these reserve tracheids are also 
sometimes found dispersed through the parenchyma of the leaf. The 


* Abhandl, K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1885 (5 pls.). See Naturforscher, 
XVlii. (1885) p. 376. 
¢ Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) pp. 25-31, 56-61 (1 pl.). 


“ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 95 


same purpose is also answered in other cases by the greater closeness 
of the network of the vascular bundles, and by the increase in the 
diameter of the separate bundles. 


Relative Resisting-power of the Upper and Under Surfaces of 
Leaves.*—Herr L. Kny finds that where the interstices between the 
finer veins on the upper surface of the leaf are strongly convex, the 
leaf offers much greater resistance to the tearing force of heavy 
bodies like shot falling on it, than the lower surface does. But where 
the upper surface is quite flat, the resisting-power of the two surfaces 
of the leaf is nearly the same. 


*“ Protection of Leaves against the Mechanical Action of Rain and 
Hail.j—Herr L. Kny considers that a contrivance for this purpose 
is to be recognized in the rounded swellings of the fundamental tissue 
of the leaf between the finer veins, such as occurs in Primula elatior, 
Ballota nigra, Mentha piperita, &c. By this contrivance, the shock of 
the impact is partially carried from the cells which first receive it 
to the neighbouring ones, and thence to the fibro-vascular skeleton. 
This arrangement is not found in leaves which are otherwise protected 
against this injurious agency, as those which are finely divided, or 
which are submerged, or have a very thick cuticle, or are sensitive. 


Development of the Stomata of the Oat.t— Miss E. A. Southworth 
states that the epidermis of the oat is composed, in the young leaf, 
before the appearance of the stomata, of quadrangular cells which 
afterwards grow much faster in length; the mother-cell of a stoma 
being cut off from the end of one of these. On each side of this 
mother-cell a nearly semicircular accessory cell is cut off out of the 
adjacent cell, and the mother-cell of the stoma subsequently divides 
into the two guard-cells. The behaviour of the protoplasm, with 
which both mother-cell and accessory cells are well filled, is very 
characteristic. When division takes place, this has condensed in the 
centre of each cell, so that it appears to be in a continuous band 
across all four cells. In the immature stoma the protoplasm is very 
slightly granular, and has a slight green tinge; when the stoma is 
mature, the protoplasm appears perfectly homogeneous, and small 
chlorophyll-bodies containing starch occupy the former vacuoles. 


Contents of Sieve-tubes.s—Herr G. Kraus finds the composition 
of the sieve-tubes of Cucurbita to differ in different individuals, and even 
in different parts of the same individual. The proportion of solid 
contents is always considerable, varying, in small fruits, between 7 and 
8 per cent., in larger fruits between 9 and 10, or amounting even to 
14 percent. The sap that flows out first is usually more concentrated 
than the later. Of the residue which remains on evaporation, about 
two-thirds is again soluble in water. A large proportion of the 
insoluble portion consists of albuminoids. There is also a large 
amount of non-albuminoid soluble nitrogenous constituents, consisting 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 258-73, t Ibid., pp. 207-13. 

t Amer. Naturalist, xix. (1885) pp. 710-1 (1 pl.). 

§ Ber. Sitz. Naturf. Gesell. Halle, 1884, pp. 9-14. Cf. this Journal, iv. 
(1884) p. 586. 


96 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of ammonium compounds and nitrates, but chiefly of asparagin and 
other amides; and a substance of the nature of saccharose. The 
alkaline reaction of the contents of the sieve-tubes is undoubtedly 
due to calcium phosphate. As much as 2 to 3 per cent. of phosphoric 
acid was determined in the aqueous solution. The same is also true 
of the alkaline reaction of other fluids found in plants, as, for example, 
that in the glands of the “ ice-plant,’” Mesembryanthemum crystallinwm. 


Heterophylly of Quercus prinoides.* — According to Mr. T. 
Mechan the leaves of this species of oak vary, from nearly orbicular 
and obtuse to narrowly lanceolate or saliciform and acute; some are 
quite entire, while others have lobed and wavy edges. These varia- 
tions can be due neither to environment nor to mere conditions of 
growth or sexual peculiarities, but only to an innate and wholly 
unknown power to vary, which science has been so far unable to 
reach. 


Organs of attachment of Ampelopsis.j—Herr A. V. Lengerken 
has examined the mode of formation of the structures by means of 
which several species of Ampelopsis (Virginian creeper) attach them- 
selves to their support. The irritation caused by the contact of the 
apex of the tendril with the foreign substance first excites the epider- 
mis to a characteristic growth; it then extends to the hypodermal 
layer and subjacent tissues. The discs are found only on those 
tendrils the apices of which are long in contact with foreign bodies ; 
branches of the same tendrils not in this condition die off. With the 
increased development of the discs, the tendril loses its power of 
winding round foreign support. Those species of Ampelopsis which 
produce these attachment discs show indications of similar structures 
on the apices of still unchanged tendrils. In A. Vevtchii this can be 
made out in the meristem of the tendrils at the earliest period. ‘The 
irritation caused by contact need not be vertical; 16 may be oblique; 
in most cases the discs are formed on the convex side of the coiled 
apex of the tendril. T'wo results follow from the irritation. A great 
excretion of mucilage takes place, by means of which the dise can 
become rapidly attached to the support; and after this excretion has 
taken place, the cortical tissue and epidermal cells inclose in their 
growth the least projection on the surface of the support, thus causing 
an extremely firm attachment of the disc. 


Absorbing Hairs of Dipsacus.{[—Sig. G. Archangeli finds, in the 
receptacles at the base of the leaves of Dipsacus Fullonum, no special 
secretion, but only rain-water. He never found glandular hairs 
provided with mobile threads of protoplasm, as described by Cohn 
and F. Darwin. Hairs of a precisely similar character occur outside 
these reservoirs on other species of Dipsacaceze which do not form such 
reservoirs, and on many other plants; he believes them to be con- 
cerned simply with the absorption of water, and to have no function 
connected with the absorption and digestion of nitrogenous substances. 


* Pyoc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1885, p. 365. 
+ Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 337-46, 353-61, 369-79, 385-95, 401-11 (1 pl.). 
+ Atti Soc. Toscana di Sci. Nat., iv. (1885) pp. 178-81. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 97 


Oil-receptacles of Hypericum and Ruta.* — Herr H. Kienast 
considers the term “gland” as incorrectly applied to these organs. 
In Hypericum the receptacles have been determined by several ob- 
servers to have a schizogenous origin. In older stages of develop- 
ment the membranes of the secreting cells offer great resistance to 
sulphuric acid; this is due to a formation of cork. The dark dots 
in the leaves of Hypericum are merely aggregations of cells without 
intercellular spaces. They originate from a cell which divides in the 
same way as the mother-cell of the oil-receptacles. 

The oil-receptacles of Ruta are also, like those of Dictamnus, of 
schizogenous origin, originating from a single cell which at first 
divides regularly into quadrants ; afterwards irregularly. The epi- 
dermis takes no part in their formation. 

Extra-floral Nectaries in Gunnera.}—Sig. J. Danielli describes 
organs which he regards as of this nature found by Sig. Beccari on 
the surface of the stem of Gunnera scabra, between the leaf-insertions. 
They have the appearance of round regularly lobed warts, umbonate 
in the centre, and with a fleshy point. As they grow older the surface 
becomes more convex, and the umbo and point almost disappear. 
They have a smooth small-celled epidermis, their substance being 
composed of a close parenchyma with a central vascular bundle which 
branches into the lobes. They are of the nature of emergences; the 
whole tissue contains cane- and grape-sugar. 

Morphology of the Calyx.t—M. D. Clos contests the ordinary 
view that the so-called “ calyx-tube” of “monosepalous ” calices is 
the result of cohesion of the sepals. It is rather an expansion of a 
part intermediate in character between axis and appendicular organs, 
and ought rather to be called the “ caliciferous tube.” 

Shimmer of the Petals of Ranunculus.s—According to Dr. M. 
Mobius, the oily shimmer of the petals of the yellow species of 
Ranunculus differs from that of any other flowers except some species 
of Acacia. In R. Ficaria this peculiar appearance extends from the 
tip of the petals downwards for about two-thirds their length, the 
lowest third being of a dull yellow colour, and the two parts sharply 
separated, though not by a straight line. The mesophyll contains but 
little anthoxanthin in the granular form; the seat of the peculiar 
colour is the epidermal cells, where it is caused by a highly refractive 
yellow oil; this appearance is greatly assisted by the fact that the 
layer of cells of the mesophyll immediately beneath the epidermis 
is densely filled with minute starch-grains. 

Composition of Pollen.|| — Dr. A. de Planta has studied the 
chemical composition of the pollen-grains of the hazel. He states 


* Kienast, H., ‘ Ueb. die Entwickelung der Oel-behalter in den Blattern vy. 
Hypericum u. Ruta,’ 49 pp. (5 pls.), Elbing, 1885. See Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) 


p. 599. 

+ Atti della Soc. Toscana di Sci. Nat., vii. (1885) 1 pl. See Bot. Centralbl., 
xxiii. (1885) p. 303. 

t{ Mem. Acad. Sci. Toulouse, vi. (1884) pp. 190-206 (1 pl.). 

§ Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) pp. 115-9. 

|| Landwirthschaftliche Versuchsstationen, 1884, pp. 97-114. See Bull. Soe. 
Bot. France, xxxii. (1885). Rey. Bibl., p. 131. 

Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. H 


98 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


that, when fresh-gathered, they contain about 9 per cent. of water, 
5 per cent. of nitrogen, and 4 per cent. of ash; or*more exactly, after 
drying, 31°63 per cent. of nitrogenous substances, 64°36 of non- 
nitrogenous substances, and 4°01 per cent. of ash. Among nitro- 
genous substances, Dr. de Planta has determined the presence of 
globulin, peptones, hypoxanthin, and amides. The presence of 
saccharose was also ascertained, while glucose is absent. The sugar 
contained in pollen-grains is therefore not directly capable of assimi- 
lation ; the proportion of cane-sugar is as much as from 7 to 8 per 
cent. Starch is also present to the extent of more than 5 per cent. 

In the pollen of the hazel the author found in addition colouring 
matters of two kinds, one easily soluble in water, the other only with 
difficulty ; cuticule, about 3 per cent.; waxy substances not definitely 
identified ; fatty acids, about 4 per cent.; cholesterin; and a bitter 
resinous substance. 


Ovum-cells and Antherozoids.*—By the examination of the ovum- 
cells and antherozoids of Chara, mosses, and ferns, spermatozoids of 
frogs, and the ovum-cells and pollen-tubes of flowering plants, Herr 
E. Zacharias has satisfied himself that the male sexual cells, are dis- 
tinguished by the small size or entire absence of nucleoli, and the 
abundant nuclein; the nuclei of the female cells containing but very 
little nuclein, abundance of albuminoids, and one or more nucleoli, 
often of great size. These nucleoli are not distinguishable in their 
chemical properties from those of other nuclei; the cell-protoplasm 
contains no nuclein. It follows that the fertilized ovum-cell must 
contain more nuclein in proportion to its other constituents than 
before fertilization. 

‘““Luminous Line” in the Seed of Malpighiaceze.t—Sig. O. 
Mattirolo attributes to the presence of lignose the peculiar appearance 
known as the “luminous line” in the sclerenchymatous layer of the 
integument of the seed of Malpighiacee, the phenomenon correspond- 
ing, therefore, to that in other nearly allied orders, as the Tiliacez. 

Seminal Integuments of Tiliaceze.{—Sig. O. Mattirolo describes 
in detail the structure of the seed in several species of Zilia and 
Corchorus, and in Sparmannia africana. In the course of development 
of the seed, the integument becomes differentiated into two well- 
defined layers, the outer layer being composed of what the author 
terms “ Malpighian cells.” Through this layer runs the peculiar 
“luminous line” characteristic of the seeds of Tiliacez, and which 
Sig. Mattirolo determines, by the application of a great variety of 
reagents, to be due to the peculiar modification of cellulose known 
as lignin. 

Suberification in the Seminal Integument of Tilia.§—Sig. O. 
Mattirolo describes the following processes as taking place in the 
development of the seeds of Tilia:—A gradual transformation by 
which the cells full of protoplasm lose their power of division ; their 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. Generalversammlung, 1885, p. Ixv. 
+ Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xxxvii. (1885) (1 col. pl.). 

{~ Nuoy. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xvii. (1885) pp. 289-319 (8 pls.). 

§ Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xx. (1885) pp. 1166-72. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. og 


contents diminish ; their walls thicken, and a deposition takes place 
of crystals of calcium oxalate. A branching of the internal surface 
of the cell-wall, by which the whole cell-cavity becomes filled up by 
the confluence of the branches. A suberous tissue is thus formed 
differing from any hitherto observed, in the presence of large inter- 
cellular cavities which are usually entirely wanting in suberous tissues. 


Lignification of the Testa of Seeds.*— Herr C. O. Harz discusses 
the value of the various tests for lignin in vegetable tissues. Wiesner 
discovered that all lignified membranes are stained yellow by anilin 
sulphate; but a still better test is moistening the object by an 
aqueous or alcoholic solution of phloroglucin with addition of hydro- 
chloric acid, when a very beautiful red colour is obtained. This test 
is an extremely delicate one for the least trace of lignification. 

In the case of seeds, lignification occurs in certain cases in the 
hairs, as in those of some Bombacee and Asclepiadee. The nucellus 
very rarely exhibits the presence of lignin, nor does the embryo, 
endosperm, or perisperm, even in the case of the horny endosperm of 
Rubiacez, Colchicacez, and palms, or the comparatively hard nucellus 
of many Leguminose. The testa, on the contrary, is very commonly 
more or less lignified. 

The author then enters into considerable detail with regard to 
the presence or absence of lignin in a large number of seeds. In 
Conifere the testa is almost always more or less lignified. In 
Graminez this was never found to be the case, though lignin occurs 
in the pale. 


Strobili of Walchia piniformis.|—According to M. J. Bergeron 
a large number of the cones described in various works as belonging 
to this species are so described erroneously. He gives the characters 
by which the undoubted cones of this plant may be known. 


Sexual Differentiation in the Fig.t—Graf zu Solms-Laubach 
discusses the different varieties of the common cultivated fig, and 
accepts the view of Fritz Miiller that both the cultivated form and 
the Caprificus or wild fig probably existed in the wild state, the 
latter being the female and the former the male form. The ancestor 
of both forms he considers to have been probably Ficus elastica, in 
which the two kinds of flowers are irregularly intermixed. 


B. Physiology. § 
Evolution of Phanerogams.||—MM. Marion and de Saporta con- 
tinue their researches into the genesis of the various forms of vegetable 


* SB. Bot. Verein. Miinchen, May 13, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. 
(1885) pp. 21, 59, 88. 

+ Bull. Soc. Géol. France, xii. eye pp. 033-8 (2 pls.). See Bull. Soc. Bot. 
France, xxxii. (1885). Rev. Bibl., 

+ Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 513-29, 309-40, 545-52, 561-72 (1 pl.). 

§ This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction (including the formation of the 
Embryo and accompanying processes); (2) Germination ; (3) Nutrition; (4) Growth; 
(5) Respiration ; (6) Movement; and (7) Chemical processes (including Fermen- 
tation). 

| Marion et Saporta, ‘L’Evolution du Régne Végétal, Paris, 1885. See 
Nature, xxxii. (1885) p. 289. 

H 2 


100 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


life from the Cryptogams to the Phanerogams. The latter they con- 
sider to have sprung directly, by imperceptible gradations, from the 
Heterosporous Vascular Cryptogams. One of these latter, in which 
the microspores penetrate to a solitary macrospore in order to effect 
fertilization, and in which the prothallus is inclosed, and germination 
takes place in situ, is already on the road to become a phanerogam, 
and a gymnosperm if the macrosporangium is not protected by a 
modified leaf. In the course of this transformation the authors trace 
three distinct stages, the Progymnosperms, the Gymnosperms, and 
the Metagymnosperms. ‘The Progymnosperms occupied an important 
position in the carboniferous flora; at the present time they are, to a 
certain extent, represented by the Cycadez. 

The authors then discuss the position of various fossil crypto- 
gamous forms which they place among the Progymnosperms :— 
Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, with distinct radiating vascular cylinder 
and exogenous growth, and Calamodendron. 


Fertilization of Goodenia.*—Mr. A. G. Hamilton describes the 
mode of fertilization in several species of this genus. He regards 
Goodenia hederacea as exhibiting an elaborate and beautiful series of 
contrivances for ensuring self-fertilization; while in G. ovata and 
other species the very same contrivances have for their object to pre- 
vent self-fertilization. 

Mr. E. Haviland,t on the contrary, regards all the Australian 
species of Goodenia as cross-fertilized. He points out that the fact 
of the stigma being densely covered with pollen from the same flower 
is not necessarily an evidence of self-fertilization ; since it is often 
placed there for the convenience of being carried away by insects to 
other flowers for their fertilization. 


Endosperm of Grasses.{—Prof. E. Tang] finds that the contents 
of the aleurone and starch-cells in the endosperm of grasses are in 
mutual connection by means of very fine threads passing through the 
cell-walls which are not pitted. At all events in the walls of the 
aleurone-cells these threads are of protoplasmic nature. In the 
aleurone cells the primary membrane of the inner and lateral walls, 
and the cellulose of the thickening mass, must be regarded as reserve- 
food-material. In germination, the first function of the aleurone 
layer is 40 act as a peripheral layer of cells for the conduction of the 
ferment-substances separated from the scutellum. In the later stages 
of germination the reserve-materials present in the aleurone are 
absorbed along with the soluble products from the amylaceous portion 


of the endosperm, through the epithelium on the dorsal surface of 
the scutellum. 


Distribution of Reserve-material of Plants in Relation to 
Disease.§—Prof. D. P. Penhallow draws the following results from 
several thousand experiments made on a great variety of trees :— 


* Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, x. (1885) pp. 157-61 (1 pl.). 

+ Ibid., ep. 237-40. 

t SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, July 2, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) 
p. 169. § Canadian Record of Science, i. (1885) pp, 193-202. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 101 


(1) In the normal plant the full exercise of its functions of growth 
and a normal histological condition occur when potash and chlorine 
are relatively in excess, and lime is relatively wanting. (2) In the 
diseased plant the imperfect nutrition and distribution of the reserve- 
products, as also modifications of the cellular structure, are associated 
with deficiency of potash and chlorine, and excess of lime. Chemical 
analyses show that when the restoration from abnormal to normal 
functional activity occurs, the chemical constituents change their 
relations to those observed in healthy trees, i.e. the potash increases 
in proportion to the lime. 

Food-material of the Ling.*—The ling, Calluna vulgaris, being a 
plant remarkable for its indifference to condition of climate, altitude, 
and soil, MM. P. Fliche and L. Grandeau have made a series of 
observations on the composition of the ash, which they found re- 
markably constant under varying conditions of soil. It is essenti- 
ally a calcifugal plant, but is indifferent to the chemical composition 
of the soil, provided it does not contain too much lime. Requiring a 
very small quantity of matter derived from the soil, it will flourish 
on poor land, where scarcely anything else will thrive. 


Products of Assimilation of the Leaves of Angiosperms.t— 
Herr A. Meyer has carried on a series of experiments for the purpose 
of determining the question: In what chemical form is the assimilated 
carbon chiefly stored up in the assimilating cells? Although un- 
doubtedly far the larger part is in the form of carbohydrates, yet there 
is nothing in the results obtained to show that a portion of it may not 
be transitorily stored up in the form of proteids. It may also occur 
in the form of fatty oils, though this is not very common, as these 
substances are not as such capable of carriage from cell to cell. 

Herr Meyer demonstrated by experiment the power of leaves to 
form starch out of sugar, even in absolute darkness, and of the non- 
assimilating cells in young leaves to receive starch from the other 
organs. As to the particular carbohydrate present in the leaves, he 
found that, as a general rule, dicotyledons store up a large quantity 
of starch, monocotyledons much less. 

He then enters into a very interesting discussion as to the relative 
size of the molecules of the different carbohydrates. Of the glucoses 
he concludes that dextrose or grape-sugar, levulose or fruit-sugar, and 
lactose or galactose, have the smallest molecules of all.the carbo- 
hydrates; probably they have all the same formula, C,;H,,O,;. Cane- 
sugar must have a molecule about twice as large as that of glucose, 
probably C,, H,,0,,, since it can be split up by invertin or by dilute 
acids into dextrose and levulose. Of nearly the same composition as 
cane-sugar are gentianose and the rare melezitose and melitose, less 
certainly also levulin. lLactosin and inulin form a group which must 
have a molecule at least six times the weight, viz. 6C;H,,O;. To 
the same group probably belong also triticin and galactin, if these are 


* Ann. Sci. Agronomiques, 1885. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885). 
Rev. Bibl., p. 78. 
+ Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 417-23, 433-40, 449-57, 465-72, 481-91 497-507. 


102 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


not identical with sinistrin and lactosin. Of all the carbohydrates 
starch must have the largest molecular weight, probably 6C, H,,O; + 
H,O; but it may be considerably higher even than this. It was 
further determined that the diffusibility of the various carbohydrates 
is in inverse proportion to their molecular weight. In the spring- 
sap of many trees, cane-sugar is present to the extent of 2°5 per 
cent.; while the carbohydrates chiefly employed for the storage of 
food-material are those with a high molecular weight—starch, inulin, 
lactosin, and sinistrin. 


Function of Tannin.*—Herr G. Kraus argues that tannin is not, 
as is generally thought, simply a waste product of excretion in the 
plant, but that it plays an important part in the formation of food- 
material, that it is, in fact, of the nature of a reserve-substance. This 
is shown by the parts of the plant in which it is very frequently 
found, as for example, in the growing point of the stem, in the inter- 
fascicular cambium, and especially in the phellogen. In leaves it 
occurs especially in the palisade-tissue; it is also found in those 
tissues which serve for the conduction of formative substances, as in 
the soft-bast and in the starch-sheath. Not unfrequently also it is met 
with in true receptacles for reserve-material. Its distribution can 
best be compared with that of starch or sugar. It can be transformed 
in quantities from place to place; and its production is closely con- | 
nected with light. Its quantity diminishes rapidly in leaves or shoots 
placed for any time in the dark. In etiolated plants it is altogether 
wanting. It is formed in the organs exposed to strong light, as 
the leaves, and from there readily transferred to other parts of the 
plant. 


Physiological Functions of the Starch-sheath.;—Herr H. Heine 
calls attention to the fact, already described by Sachs and others, of 
the invariable occurrence of a single row of cells—denominated by 
Sachs the starch-sheath—in immediate apposition to the vascular 
bundles, and, with their sieve-tube portion, accompanying these tubes 
throughout their whole length. These cells are always strongly 
charged with starch-grains, or occasionally with glucose. A careful 
examination of the facts connected with the appearance and dis- 
appearance of the starch from this layer of cells has led the author 
to the conclusion that the starch contained in the starch-sheath must 
be regarded as a store of reserve-substance, furnishing the material 
for the thickening, which is often very considerable and rapid, of the 
young bast-cells in their immediate proximity. This conclusion is 
favoured by the anatomical structure of the starch-cells, and especially 
by the close way in which they fit to one another, and to the adjoining 
phloém-cells, without any intercellular spaces. 


Growth of Leaves.t—According to Herr J. Kraus, the leaves of 
the Scotch fir are larger in their second and third than in their first 


* Ber. Sitz. Naturf. Gesell. Halle, 1884, pp. 4€-57. 

+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 189-94. 

{ Abhandl. Naturf. Gesell. Halle, xvi. (1884) pp. 46-57. See Bot. Centralbl., 
Xxlii, (1885) p. 132. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 103 


year; and the same is true of all those Conifers in which the leaves 
are in clusters of twos or threes, but not of those in which the leaves 
are solitary. A secondary growth appears to take place in the second 
year, which is repeated in the third; the increase in length being due 
chiefly to a growth of the cells in the leaf-sbeath. In other trees, 
the mode of growth of the leaves is of two different kinds. Hither the 
increase in size takes place from below upwards, so that the upper- 
most leaves are the largest, as in the lime, birch, and elm, or the size 
of the leaves at first increases upwards, but again decreases rapidly 
towards the apex of the branch, as in the maple and horse-chestnut. 
In the beech both modes occur. The leaves on the main branches of 
Pinus excelsa are larger than those on the lateral branches. 


Influence of Electricity on Growth.*—The object of Dr. Holde- 
fleiss’s researches was to determine what influence, if any, was 
exerted on a crop of roots and potatoes by a weak galvanic current 
passing through the soil. In the field, copper_plates, 50 by 80 cm. 
square, were sunk vertically, so that one plate covered two drills; 
the plates were 56 m. distant, and were connected with 14 Meidinger 
elements. In a further experiment there was a combination of zinc 
and copper plates without a battery, placed ata distance of 33 m. 
apart, and a third experiment was made with another arrangement 
of pairs of plates, whereby a stronger current was produced, 

As the result, a constant current was observed, but no influence 
appeared to be exerted on the growth of the crop as regards quality 
or quantity, when under the influence of the first arrangement; under 
the second set of conditions, the crop at first was forwarded, but not 
later on ; and an increase in yield amounting to 15-24 per cent, was 
remarked in the third case. 


Influence of Calcium Sulphide on Barley.t — The material 
employed by Herr J. Fittbogen to ascertain the effect of calcium 
sulphide on the growth of barley was the ash of two sorts of brown 
coal, containing 3°85 and 2-74 per cent. respectively of the compound. 
A known quantity of artificially prepared sulphide was also used, 
mixed with the usual mixture of plant-food, together with sand. In 
the earliest stages of growth, the harmful action was perceptible, and 
as growth proceeded the poisonous action showed itself by producing 
white and brown markings on the leaves, which markings gradually 
spread over the whole leaf. These spots, when microscopically 
examined, were found to indicate the cells which were empty and 
destitute of chlorophyll ; moreover, the presence of calcium sulphide 
seemed to retard growth. This action seems to be due to the forma- 
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen, produced by the medium of water, 
the oxygen of the soil also being removed from the service of the 
plants. It was thought probable that the calcium hydroxide formed 
by the decomposition of the sulphide might also prove detrimental ; 


* Journ. Chem. Soc.—Abstr., xlviii. (1885) pp. 1152-3, from Bied. Centr., 
1885, pp. 392-3. 

+ Journ, Chem. Soc.—Abstr., xlviii. (1885) p. 1154, from Bied. Centr., 1885, 
pp. 385-92. ; 


104 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


yet no harm seemed to arise from this compound when added within 
certain limits; consequently, as the hydroxide formed by double 
decomposition lies within these limits, it is concluded that it exercises 
no influence. 


Movement of Water in Plants.*—To determine the relative in- 
fluence of transpiration and of “root-pressure”’ (osmosis from cell to 
cell) in causing the ascent of sap, Miss G. E. Cooley made a number 
of experiments with the manometer on Robinia pseudacacia, with the 
following results:—The influence of transpiration is felt in very 
remote parts of the plant; and, in this case at least, root-pressure 
has but little influence in supplying the wants created by transpira- 
tion. 


Conduction of Water.j—Dr. F. G. Kohl describes an apparatus 
by which he claims to have proved, as the result of a number of 
experiments, that (1) The bending of a shoot causes the cell-cavities 
to become less, but does not completely close them for the passage 
of water ; (2) The continuity of the current of water is not inter- 
rupted by the bending of a shoot; and (3) It is possible by alternate 
increase and diminution of the diameter of the vessels or tracheids of a 
shoot, to increase or diminish the current of water, the conditions of 
transpiration remaining the same; and that a complete closing of 
the cell-cavities altogether suppresses the transpiration-current. | 


Conduction of Sap through the Roots.{—As the result of the 
present state of our knowledge, Herr C. Kraus states that it is 
most probable that in all plants, even woody plants, the water absorbed 
from without is forced up a certain height in the wood by pressure. 
There is very often no bleeding from the woody portion of a cauline 
organ which does not root, although this might be expected from the 
structure and arrangement of the parenchyma. ‘The normal sap 
which exudes from the root when wounded is very thin, while that 
which exudes from the stem contains a relatively much larger quantity 
of substances in solution. 


Galvanotropism. §—Herr J. Brunchorst contests that theory of 
Rischawi || that galvanotropic curvatures depend only on a direct 
cataphoric current; he considers, on the other hand, that at all events 
positive curvatures depend to a large extent on the substance elimi- 
nated at the positive electrode; negative curvatures are possibly not 
to be regarded as truly galvanotropie. 


Variations of Transpiration.{—By a series of experiments on 
the seeds of peas and haricots, M. J. Vesque has come to the con- 
clusion that, while nocturnal transpiration is at first less than diurnal, 


* Canadian Record of Science, i. (1885) pp. 202-7. 

+ Bot. Ztg., xliii. 1885) pp. 522-6. 

{ Forsch. a. d. Geb. der Agriculturphysik, viii. (1885) pp. 33-50. See Bot. 
a ae Xxiii. (1885) p. 69. See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 591, v. (1885) 
». 837. 

: § Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) pp. 192-8. 

|| See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 1032. 

q Ann. Agronomiques, x. (1884) pp. 113-25. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France , 
xxxii. (1885). Rey. Bibl, p. 101. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 105 


it gradually increases and at length surpasses the latter. In propor- 
tion as the plant grows older, the quantity of water in it increases. 
The quantity of water transpired during twenty-four hours reaches its 
maximum in the 15th day after germination. 


Nitrates in Plants.*—-According to experiments made by MM. 
Berthelot and André on a large number of plants, the formation of 
nitrates at certain spots of the tissue, and at certain periods of growth, 
is a vital function of plants, dependent on the work of particular 
cells, and is in close connection with the processes of oxidation and 
reduction. They occur in all parts of the plant, but most abundantly 
in the stem. 


Composition of the Gases in Floating and Submerged Leaves.{— 
MM. N. Gréhant and J. Peyrou find, as the result of a number of 
experiments on plants with floating or submerged leaves, that the 
gases exhaled by the same plant differ to a marked extent according 
to whether the sky is cloudy or the leaves exposed to bright sun- 
light ; those of Potamogeton lucens gave, in the former case, 3°6 per 
cent., in the latter case 6°9 per cent. of oxygen. 


Amphid-Substances in the Sap of Plants.{—According to Herr 
C. Kraus, there are in the sap of plants, in addition to acid and alka- 
line, a number with amphid-reaction. This he has determined by 
experiment on the sap of the medullary parenchyma of more than 20 
species. 


Elimination of Oxygen from Plants.§ — Prof. N. Pringsheim 
describes a series of experiments with the micro-spectrum on a 
number of different plants, both green, brown, and red, which tend to 
show that there is no invariable coincidence between the maximum of 
absorption of carbon dioxide and the maximum of elimination of 
oxygen. 


New Alcoholic Ferment which does not Invert Sugar. || Signor 
J. F. Teixeira found that brews were gradually losing their character, 
and the yeast, on examination, contained a special ferment, which it 
was possible to isolate. The cells are globular, 0°2-0°33 m broad, 
and do not invert saccharose. 


Fermentation in the Living Sugar-cane./—Sigg. Palmeri and 
Comes have observed that a process of true fermentation goes on in 
the sap of the sugar-cane, the fermentation fullowing the course of 
the vascular bundles and being indicated by the dark-red colour 
of the stem. They state that the organized ferments found in the 
fermenting tissues are Hormiscium sacchari Bonord., which they 


* Journ. Pharm, et Chim., 1884. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) pp. 274 
and 275. 

+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 485-6. 

+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. Generalversammlung, 1885, pp. Xx.-xxvi. 

§ Ibid., pp. Ixxii.-lxxx. 

| Journ. Chem. Soc.—Abstr., xlviii. (1885) p. 1168, from Bied. Centr., 
1885, pp. 416-7. 

§ Rend. R. Accad. Sei. Fis. e Mat. Napoli, 1883. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. 
1885) p. 19. 


106 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


identify with Saccharomyces ellipsoideus Rees, and Bacterium Termo, 
the latter, however, appearing to be connected with the decay of 
the tissue rather than with the fermentation of the sap. These 
organisms appear to enter the plant through the stomata. 


Gum-ferment, a new diastatic Enzyma.* — According to Prof. 
J. Wiesner, the transformation of cellulose into gum or mucilage is the 
result of the action of a diastatic ferment. It is distinguished from 
other diastatic ferments in being able to transform starch into dextrin, 
but not into any copper-reducing sugar. Gum-ferment is known by 
a very characteristic and sensitive reaction; orcin and hydrochloric 
acid produce, after boiling for a short time, a red, and then a violet 
colour, with separation of a blue precipitate. It can be shown by 
this reaction that the gum-ferment arises in the protoplasm, passes 
into the cell-walls, and then brings about the transformation of 
cellulose into gum or mucilage. It appears to have the power of 
preventing the formation of sugar. It occurs in gum-arabic, the gum 
of the Drupacee and Pomacew, and in other kinds. Herr Wiesner 
has not been able to obtain the ferment in a pure condition. 


Haberlandt’s ‘Physiological Anatomy of Plants.’}—This ex- 
haustive work of Professor G. Haberlandt divides the subject treated 
into nine sections. The Ist section treats of the Cell; the 2nd, of 
the formation of Tissues ; and the 3rd, of the Tegumentary system, 
including the Epidermis. The 4th, 5th, and 6th sections are devoted 
to the Mechanical and Absorptive systems, and the 7th to the Assi- 
milative. In the 8th section, treating of the Vascular Bundles, a 
special terminology is adopted, the whole bundle being called the 
Mestom, the xylem the Hadrom, and the phloém the Leptom. The 
fibrous tissue or Stereom consists chiefly of lignified prosenchymatous 
cells, the Stereides. The 9th section treats of the Intercellular space 
system. 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 
Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Development of the Prothallia of Ferns.t—Mr. D. H. Campbell 
finds that spores of many ferns germinate much more easily than is 
generally supposed, if sown on fine moist soil, namely, under 
favourable conditions, in from 3 to 5 days. The species chiefly ex- 
perimented on were Onoclea Struthiopteris and sensibilis. In the genus 
Onoclea the exospore is frequently thrown off on germination, and 
between it and the endospore is another coat which the latter must 
rupture. The spore, on germinating, lengthens, and divides trans- 
versely into two cells, a smaller transparent one, which becomes the first 
root-hair, and a larger one containing abundance of chlorophyll. The 
larger cell then usually divides by other transverse septa into a row 
of cells; and, if grown in water, frequently does not go beyond this 


* Bot. Ztg., xliil. (1885) pp. 577-83. 

+ Haberlandt, G., ‘Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie im Grundrisse dar- 
gestellt, 8vo, Leipzig, 1884. 

¢ Bot. Gazette, x.(1885) pp. 355-69 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, v. (1885) p. 493. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 107 


condition, and develops no sexual organs. The terminal cell then 
divides longitudinally; and, after a number of divisions in both 
directions, one of the terminal cells takes the lead and becomes a 
triangular apical cell, which again becomes obliterated towards the 
close of the growth of the prothallium. The above process is subject 
to variations. 

In the two species above named, and in Asplenium filix-foemina, it 
was exceptional to find both kinds of sexual organ on the same pro- 
thallium; while Aspidium spinulosum is generally monecious. In 
Cystopteris fragilis two forms of prothallium were found, smaller 
male, and larger hermaphrodite. The male prothallium is, as a rule, 
much smaller than the female, and of very irregular shape. Hither 
no definite apical cell is formed, or it is early lost; not unfrequently 
the prothallium is reduced to a single row of cells, terminating in an 
antheridium: and in Asplenium filix-foemina even to a single cell, besides 
the root-hair, which produced an antheridium with perfect antherozoids. 
In this same species, on one occasion, the prothallia produced in the 
summer large numbers of antheridia; growth ceased entirely in the 
winter, but was resumed in the spring, when archegonia were produced 
in large numbers, and subsequently young plants. 


Budding on Apogamous Prothallia of Ferns.*—Dr. H. Leitgeb 
has studied especially two of the five cases described by De Bary of 
the apogamous development of shoots on fern-prothallia. One of 
these is when a shoot appears in the normal position, and a second 
shoot opposite to it on the dorsal side of the prothallium. This 
results, according to the author, from alternations in the degree of 
illumination. In the second case, the primary members of a single 
shoot distribute themselves over both surfaces of the prothallium. 
This is also the result of varying degrees of relative illumination on 
the two sides of the prothallium, combined with the fact that the roots 
of fern-embryos are always strongly negatively heliotropic. 


Carboniferous Lycopods.;—Mr. R. Kidston describes three new 
species of Sigillaria (S. McMurtriei, 8. coriacea, and S. Walchii), and 
one of Lepidodendron (L. Peachii). 


Muscinez. 


Section Harpidium of Hypnum.{—Sig. G. Venturi publishes a 
monograph of the Mosses coming under this subgenus, which he de- 
scribes as, with but few exceptions, growing in watery places, ditches, 
and ponds, where they form dense tufts, the green extremities of the 
branches alone emerging from the water. They have also the power 
of creeping over moist soil, and produce their fructification especially 
in such situations. The species comprised by the author in this 
section are Hypnum fluitans, intermedium, verrucosum, aduncum, Kneiffii, 
Sendtneri, capillifolium, Hausmanni, and ripariwm, which are described 
in detail, with their numerous varieties. 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 169-76. 
+ Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edin., viii. (1885) pp. 415-24 (1 pl.). 
{ Nuoy. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xvii. (1885) pp. 161-84. 


108 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


New Aquatic Moss.*—Prof. J. B. Schnetzler describes a Moss 
attached to pieces of limestone found by fishermen in their nets when 
fishing at a depth of 200 m. at a particular spot in the Lake of Geneva. 
No fructification has yet been found on it, but the author considers 
it as probably allied to Hypnum (Thamnium) alopecurum, which it 
resembles in its mode of branching and in the form of its cells. It 
is multiplied by green shoots ; and the leaves contain abundance of 
chlorophyll and starch. Assimilation and the formation of chlorophyll 
therefore take place at a depth which marks the extreme limit of the 
sun’s rays. 

Hepatice of Terra-del-Fuego.j,—The Hepatice brought from 
Terra-del-Fuego, in 1882, by Dr. C. Spegazzini, have been examined 
by Signor C. Massalongo, who finds and describes a very large number 
of species new to science, about one-fourth of the whole collection. He 
also establishes a new genus of Jungermanniee, Pigafettoa, with the 
following characters :—Perichetium few-leaved, or pseudo-lateral from 
subfloral innovations; cauline and perichetial leaves subsimilar; 
colesula subovate, large-mouthed, 3-4 lobed above, lobes irregularly 
inciso-dentate or subcristate ; calyptra pear-shaped, with 3-4 sterile 
pistillidia near the base ; cauline leaves subtransversely subsuccubous, 
bifid, areolation made up of pachydermal cells; amphigastria smaller 
than the leaves, bidentate. 


Classification of Sphagnacee.{— Dr. Roll points out the very 
great diversity displayed by different sphagnologists in the limitation 
of species ; and insists on the remarkable variability within the limits 
of the various alleged species of all the characters derived from 
external characteristics: the size, form, and colour, the number, size, 
and direction of the branches. The fruit, on the other hand, offers 
no difference from which specific characters can be drawn throughout 
the genus, with the exception of the few exotic forms of the sections 
Hemitheca and Isocladus. There are, in fact, among the Sphagnacez 
neither constant species nor typical forms. The characters that are 
of practical convenience in the arrangement of the Sphagnaceze under 
so-called species must not be regarded as natural or of any genealo- 
gical value; they indicate rather stages in the history of development 
than distinct species. Dr. Roll illustrates the above conclusions by 
the comparison, in their various features, of a very large number of 
forms of Sphagnum, and supports Warnstoft’s proposal for a congress 
of bryologists to determine what variations of structure are of genetic 
value. 


Rabenhorst’s ‘Cryptogamic Flora of Germany.—The fourth 
volume of this work treats of the Mosses; and of this volume three 
parts are now published, including a general introduction, and an 
account of the Sphagnacez, Andrezacex, and Archidiacee. In the 


* Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) pp. 330-1. 

+ Nuoy. Giorn. Bot. Ital., xvii. (1885) pp. 201-77 (17 pls.). Cf. this Journal 
vy. (1885) p. 10380. 

t Flora, Ixviii. (1885) pp. 569-80, 585-98. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 109 


introduction, the structure of Mosses in general is described under 
seven heads, viz. (1) the protonema, (2) the stem, (3) the leaf, (4) the 
sexual organs, (5) the inflorescence, (6) the sporogonium, and (7) the 
vegetative mode of reproduction. The Musci are divided, in the first 
place, into four orders: Sphagnacere, Andreswacew, Archidiacee, and 
Bryinee ; the last again into two tribes, Cleistocarpe and Stegocarpe, 
and the latter of these into two sub-tribes, Acrocarpe and Pleuro- 
carpe. Of Sphagnum, the sole genus of Sphagnacez, twenty-three 
species are described. In the Andrexacez are comprised nine species 
of Andreea; in the Archidiacee the single species Archidium 
phascoides. 


Alge. 


Assimilating System of Alge.*—Although in even the higher 
alge (sea-weeds) there is no distinct differentiation of the structure 
into epidermal, assimilating, and conducting tissues, still, according 
to Herr N. Wille, there are cells which are especially concerned in 
assimilation, and which may be either iso-diametrical or elongated in 
a direction either parallel to or at right-angles with the axis. Such 
an assimilating-system he classes under three heads, and eighteen 
types, viz—(1) An assimilating-system which acts also as a con- 
ducting system; to this belong three types; viz. those of Ulva, 
Polysiphonia, and Lithoderma; (2) An assimilating distinct from a 
conducting system : either a, conducting system imperfectly developed, 
including seven types, viz. those of Rhodomela, Dictyota, Ceramium, 
Corallina, Ahnfeltia, and a type with organs which, from a physiological 
point of view, are leaves, viz. Myriactis and Batrachospermum ; 
b, conducting system well developed, with four types, viz. Desmarestia, 
Chorda, Chordaria, and Furcellaria ; and (8) in addition to an assi- 
milating system, there is both a primary and a secondary conducting 
(Leitungs and Zuleitungssystem) system :—four types, viz. those of 
Nothogenia, Rhodophyllis, Cryptosiphonia, and Halimeda. 


Alge from Madagascar.j—In a collection of alge made by 
M. Ch. Thiébaut from Majunga in the north-east of Madagasear, 
Tamatave, and the coast of the same island opposite Réunion, and 
described by M. E. Bornet, he records a new species of Floridea, 
Constantinea ? Thiébautit. 


Fresh-water Algz of Rome.{—Sig. E. Martel enumerates the 
fresh-water alge of Rome and the Campagna. Of Floridex only one 
species is described—Hildebrandtia rivularis. Of Chlorosporez there 
are fifty-five, including a new genus of Palmellacex, Chlorothecium 
Borzi, belonging to the Sciadiacez, but distinguished from all the other 
genera of the family by its dimorphic cells. The purely vegetative cells - 
of the first generation are ovoid; those destined to produce 1, 2, or 4 


* Bot. Sallsk. Stockholm, April 22, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) 
pp. 264, 296. 4 
; + Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885) pp. 16-19 (2 figs.) 
{ Ann. Istit. Bot. Roma, i. (1884) pp. 182-204. 


110 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


zoospores are rounded and collected into palmelloid groups. Thirty- 
nine species of Nostochinee are described, and ten of Chroococeacee. 


Alge of the Indian Ocean.*—Herr F. Hauck describes Dictyota 
atomaria obtained from Bombay at a depth of from two to four metres. 
The frond is capable of forming, by proliferation, a new stalked 
branch. The tetrasporangia and antheridia are found on different 
individuals; the latter form elongated or oval whitish spots, not 
exceeding 1 mm. in breadth. 

Marchesettia spongioides, belonging to the Areschougiacex, has a 
remarkable resemblance to a sponge; it is found at Singapore, in 
New Caledonia, and in Madagascar. The tetrasporangia and cysto- 
carps develope at the summit of peripheral branches. The cystocarps 
belong to one: of the most complex types; the sporiferous nucleus 
has in its centre a large placental cell. 


Pheothamnion, a new Genus of Fresh-water Alge.j—Under 
the name Phzothamnion confervicola, Herr G. Lagerheim describes a 
freshwater alga forming brownish-yellow tufts on Vaucheria, Clado- 
phora, &e. Hach tuft consists of a relatively small filament with 
monopodial branching, which takes place in the same way as in Clado- 
phora. The cells are ’ cylindrical or ovoid, with a parietal ribbon- 
shaped brownish-green chromatophore. No nucleus, pyrenoids, or 
starch, could be detected in them. The lower cells of the primary 
axis and the basal cells of the older branches become sporangia, 
swelling up, and forming two zoospores by bipartition, which then 
escape through an opening in the cell-wall. The zoospores are 
roundish, and have two equal cilia. They do not conjugate, but 
attach themselves directly to an algal filament, and surround them- 
selves with cell-walls. The germinating cell divides into two, the 
upper one of which produces the filament by further growth and 
division. A palmella-condition was also observed, in which the 
cells divide in two directions, and become invested in a common 
gelatinous envelope. 

Notwithstanding its brown pigment, Lagerheim refers Phxotham- 
nion to the Chlorophycex, chiefly on account of the structure of 
the zoospores, constituting a new family, Pheothamniex, near to 
Chroolepideze and Chzetophoree. 


Chlorochytrium Cohnii. {—Herr G. Lagerheim has had the 
opportunity of further examining this parasitic alga, discovered by 
Wright.§ It is interesting as being parasitic on animals, Campanu- 
laria, Vaginicola, &c., as well as upon alge, _—Schizonema, Urospora, 
Enteromorpha, &e. The separate cells vary in form : spherical, 
elliptical, flask-shaped, or quite irregular ; the chromatophore forms 


* Hauck, F., ‘Cenni sopra aleune Alghe dell’ oceano te 4 pp. (3 pls.). 
Seé Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii, (1885). Rev. Bibl., p. 1 

+ Bih. K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Hand1.,, ix. 14 pp. (dl zis Be Bot. Ztg., xliii. 
(1885) p. 604. 

{ Ofvers. K. Vet. Akad. Forhandl., 1884, 7 pp. (1 pl.). See Bot. Ztg., xliii. 
(1885) p. 605. 

§ See this Journal, i. (1881) pp. 801, SPL 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 111 


a parietal dise with a starch-grain. The zoospores are formed by 
repeated bipartition, and escape through an opening in the outgrowth 
by which the parasite is attached to the host; they are pear-shaped 
and biciliated. Larger zoospores, with four cilia, have also been 
observed by Lagerheim, but no conjugation of these with the micro- 
zoospores has yet been detected, as in the case of C. Lemne. Both 
kinds appear to be capable of direct germination. 


Fronds of Laminariaceze,*—In the 4th part of his ‘ Observationes 
Phycologice,’ Prof. J. E. Areschoug describes the 11 species of 
Scandinavian Laminariacee. Nereocystis Luetkeana and Pelagophycus 
giganteus are annual, the plant dying entirely every year. In the 
perennial species the new fronds begin to show themselves in January, 
and attain their complete development towards April. In Laminaria 
flexicaulis the old frond begins to bear spores at the moment when the 
new frond appears, and dies in the middle of the summer when the 
new frond has become large. In Alaria esculenta all the fronds 
disappear in the autumn before the new fronds have made their 
appearance, but the stem is perennial, and produces new fronds in 
the spring. 

Motion of Diatoms.;—Mr. C. Ouderdonk, having studied the 
Diatomacez for some time, mainly in regard to a discovery of their 
mode of motion, has come to the conclusion that there is a fluid in 
motion on the outer surface of the valves, no other supposition 
accounting for the observed phenomena. He therefore endeavoured 
to find the fluid, or semi-fluid, and thus describes his results :— 

“T turned my attention to the Palmellacee. Here I had an in- 
visible frond, firm enough to be lifted out of the water and hold 
the green globular masses contained in it. I began to search for 
stains to make this invisible matter visible. I found that methyl- 
anilin-green stained the Palmella a clear blue, while it also hardened 
it. Ifound that this stain also stained the living diatoms blue; more 
than this, my success was far beyond what I had hoped, for I saw 
in many cases a blue mantle slowly unfold and detach itself from 
the now white denuded frustule. Subsequently, by many observa- 
tions, I found that all diatoms which have come under my notice are 
encased in a gelatinous pallium; that this pallium is most manifest 
under the action of the stain in the case of the diatoms with strong 
motion, and least manifest in the case of fixed diatoms like those 
with a stipes; that the Diatomacez have not internal motion analogous 
to the motion called cyclosis in the Desmidiez ; that the motion on 
the outside of the outer covering of the Diatomacee is strongly 
analogous to the motion on the inside of the outer covering of the 
Desmidiez. 

“ From the above-mentioned facts, and others which time forbids to 
mention, I offer as a theory that the motion of the Diatomacez is 
caused by what I will call external cyclosis. I do not court credence 


* Acta Reg. Soc. Scient. Upsalensis, iii. (1884) 16 pp. See Bull. Soc. Bot. 
France, xxxii. (1885). Rev. Bibl., p. 180. 
+ The Microscope, v. (1885) pp. 205-6. 


a1 (D. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(an editor of a journal in the cause of Microscopy objected to my 
papers on the ground that I could not expect to gain credence), I only 
trust microscopists will investigate; if my theory is false, let it fall.” 


Lichenes. 


Lichen-studies.*—In the course of a reply to Herr Forssell’s 
criticism on his ‘‘ Lichen-studies,” Herr H. Zukal repeats the main 
points in which he dissents from Minks’s interpretation of the 
development of lichens. 

The structures described by Minks as “ gonocysts” actually oceur, 
but are only gonidia which, by a peculiar process of growth, have 
got extruded on to the superficial crust, where they acquire an appear- 
ance so peculiar that they are with difficulty recognized as metamor- 
phosed gonidia. Zukal proposes for them the term Haogonidia. 
These may, in certain circumstances, develope into a new lichen- 
crust. In this whole process there is nothing very strange; it may 
be regarded as simply a modified formation of soredia. 

“Minks’s gonangia” are spherical colonies of Palmella or Gleo- 
cystis, overgrown and inclosed by thick-walled brown lichen-hyphe. 
His “microgonidia” are moniliform rows of spherical strongly re- 
fractive and greenish particles of protoplasm, which fill up the hyphe 
of many lichens, and sometimes give them a peculiar appearance. 

Lichens of Scandinavia.{—In reviewing the genera of Scan- 
dinavian lichens, Herr K. B. J. Forssell proposes a general classifica- 
tion, the main feature of which is a division into five primary groups 
dependent on the structure of the spores, viz. (1) unicellular, and not 
muriform ; (2) bicellular, and not muriform; (3) quadricellular, and 
not muriform; (4) multicellular, and not muriform ; and (5) multi- 
cellular and muriform. The lichens with unicellular spores are again 
classified as follows :— 


A. Spores coloured. 

(1) Discocarpi (Alectoria, Buellia muriopsis). 
(2) Coniocarpi. 

a. Thallus fruticose (Spheerophorus). 

b. Thallus crustaceous (Calicium, Cheenotheca). 

B. Spores hyaline. 

(1) Asci with few (not 8) but large spores. 

a. Thallus fruticose (Alectoria, &c.). 

b. Thallus crustaceous (Lecidia sanguinaria, Pertusaria). 
(2) Asci with 8-co usually small spores. 

a. With chroococcus-gonidia (Omphalaria, Synalissa). 

b. With palmella-gonidia. 

a. Pyrenocarpi (Thelocarpon, Trimmatothele). 
8. Discocarpi. 
* Spores very numerous (Acarospora, Biatorella), 
** Asci with at most 24-32 spores. 
+ Apothecia lecanora-like (Lecanora, &c.). 
tj Apothecia lecidea-like (Lecidea, &e.). 

* Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) pp. 292-6. 
+ Bot. Notiser, 1885, pp. 33-57. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii, (1885) p. 37. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 113 


(3) Asci with eight spores of medium size. 
a. With palmella-gonidia. 
a. Pyrenocarpi. 
8. Coniocarpi. 
y- Discocarpi. 
b. With trentepohlia-gonidia (Ionaspis, Glomerilla ?). 


Fungi. 

Mycorhiza.*—In a further communication on this subject, Herr 
B. Frank states his opinion that the symbiosis is probably one to 
which all trees are subject under certain conditions; but that the 
mycorhiza is probably formed only on soils which contain a large 
amount of humus or of undecomposed remains of plants; and its 
apparent limitation at present to the Cupulifere and a few other trees 
is probably due to their partiality for soil of this character. Through 
the mycorhiza the tree absorbs not only water and mineral con- 
stituents, but organic substances also derived from the humus, the 
humus having no power of supplying these substances directly to the 
tree. Of especial value is the mycorhiza in the case of those plants 
which, like Monotropa, do not form chlorophyll. 

A discussion followed the reading of the paper, in which a general 
agreement with the conclusions of the author was declared by Woronin, 
Reess, De Bary, and others. 


Fungi of Cellars.j;—Dr. J. Schriter describes the fungi found in 
the cellars which undermine Breslau, where the external conditions 
are great moisture, a nearly uniform temperature, and almost complete 
darkness. The walls are covered with a mucilaginous slime, 1-15 cm. 
thick, of a light flesh-colour due to the presence of oxide of iron. 
This slime consists to a very large extent of various micrococci, the 
most abundant of which is a peculiar hitherto undescribed species, 
which the author calls Leucocystis cellaris, resembling, in its simplest 
stage of development, Friedlinder’s micrococcus of pneumonia, Leuco- 
cystis pneumoniz. It is composed of colourless strongly-refractive 
cells 15-2 » long, and 1-1°5 pw broad, inclosed in a gelatinous 
envelope as much as 5-8 » in thickness, and forming large lumps. 
The cocci multiply by dividing in all three directions, the products 
remaining, up to a certain point, inclosed in the original envelope. 
Both cocci and envelope are strongly stained by anilin pigments ; 
careful treatment shows the envelope to be composed of a number of 
layers. 

In addition to this there are found in the slime many other 
Schizomycetes: large bacilli in various stages of division, a very long 
bacterium with distinct coils, imbedded in a small amount of slime, 
a Myconostoc, and a strongly refractive micrococcus in moniliform 
chains. 

In all the older cellars is found also the tinder-fungus, Rhacodium 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. Generalversammlung, 1885, pp. xxvii.—xxxiii. 
Cf. this Journal, v. (1885) pp. 844, 1025. 

+ JB. Schles. Gesell. Vaterl. Kultur, lxi. (1884) p. 193, and Ixii. (1885) p. 290. 
See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) pp. 174, 333. 


Ser. 2.— Vou. VI. I 


114 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


cellare, covering everything with dense masses of felt, several metres 
in length, and as much as 2 cm. in thickness. Its power of attaining 
such vigorous development on a substratum which does not afford the 
least nourishment distinguishes this fungus from all others at present 
known; and indicates that it must obtain its sustenance from the 
particles suspended in the air of the cellar. It consists of a loose 
tissue of branched hyphe from 2°5 to 3 » in diameter, with occasional 
irregular swellings. The filaments are provided with irregularly 
placed indistinct septa, and a thick olive-brown membrane with 
hooked or annular unevennesses, and strongly refractive contents. 
The author found among the hyphe large masses of isolated spores, 
of a narrow elliptical or almost club-shaped form, 6-13 w long and 
3-3°5 p broad, of an olive-brown colour, simple or divided by a 
single septum, and resembling the spores of Cladosporium. These 
spores are formed on the apices of the young branches, and can be 
made to germinate in water or solution of sugar. The author con- 
siders it probable that Rhacodium is a stage of development of an 
Ascomycete; but the asci and ascospores have not yet been detected. 

The effect of the exclusion of light on fungi which ordinarily 
grow above ground is shown in the lengthening of the stipes and the 
partial or complete abortion of the pileus; many forms found in dark 
places, and described by writers as distinct species, are modifications 
of this nature of Lentinus lepideus and other species. ‘To the same 
category belong the various forms of Rhizomorph, which are modifica- 
tions of Armillaria melleus and of other Hymenomycetous fungi; 
those formed on dead willows and poplars, which are often much 
branched, are usually derived from a species of Mycena. The black- 
brown, horse-hair-like threads which frequently proceed from pine- 
leaves, known as Rhizomorpha setiformis, are the degraded fructification 
of Marasmius androsaceus. Of the same nature are the malformations 
known as Oozonium, many of which belong to the cycle of development 
of Merulius lacrymans. 

The author then describes in detail the remarkable fungus- 
vegetation of the Hoymgrube near Czernitz, and concludes with a 
description of Agaricus acheruntius, a species rarely found in woods, 
and attaining its most luxuriant development in the uniform moisture 
and temperature of underground passages. 


Development of Merulius lacrymans.*—Prof. R. Hartig has 
carefully investigated the development of the fungus which produces 
dry-rot in timber, and has been able to fill up several gaps in our 
knowledge of it. It is exceedingly sensitive to cold, and is hence 
never found on living trees, but only in human dwellings. The 
spores are so minute that about four million occupy a cubic mm.; in 
large quantities they form a light-brown powder; they contain a 
drop of oil, and a small sharply-defined colourless spot, possibly a 
nucleus. The germinating filaments are readily formed in nutrient 
solutions, but do not undergo great development unless in contact 


* Hartig, R., ‘Der achte Hausschwamm,’ Heft i. 82 pp. (2 col. pls.), Berlin, 
1885. Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) p. 123. Cf. this Journal, v. (1885) p. 845. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. Tis 


with wood, when they branch freely and penetrate readily from cell 
to cell and vessel to vessel. The perforation of the cell-wall takes 
place by chemical means ; ferments being formed in the protoplasm 
of the fungus, which disintegrate the part of the cell-wall with 
which they come into contact. The larger hyphe are often covered 
by numerous granules or crystals of calcium oxalate, which remain 
after the hyphe have disappeared. Development outside the wood 
takes place only in moist air. 

The fructification of Merulius lacrymans is very irregular in size 
and form; it makes its appearance in places where the mycelium 
receives a small amount of light. It changes in colour, from white on 
its first appearance to reddish and finally brownish-yellow ; the margin 
always remains white, and exudes drops of fluid into moist air, like 
the mycelium. As soon as the chalky character of the dense cushion of 
mycelium indicates the commencement of the development of the 
fructification, the ends of the hyphe which lie on the surface swell 
into a club-shape and become basidia, which place themselves at 
right angles to the surface, and develope the spores at their apices. 
The spores are developed in the same way as in other Hymenomycetes. 

The author enters into considerable detail respecting the chemical 
constitution of the fungus. The spores will not germinate in water, 
the juice of fruits, or gelatin, except after the addition of urine, 
depending on the presence of ammonia. The fungus has the pro- 
perty of transporting water from one part of its mycelium to 
another, which greatly adds to its destructive properties. It derives 
its nourishment entirely from the wood among which the mycelium 
penetrates, depriving it of its nitrogenous ingredients, which it finds 
especially in the living cells of the medullary rays; but its chief 
food-material is cellulose. It takes up the ash-constituents of 
its host directly by contact, while the organic nutrient substances are 
absorbed by the help of a ferment. 


Polyporus Schweinitzii as a Parasitic Fungus.*—Herr P. 
Magnus records an instance of the Weymouth pine, Pinus Strobus, 
killed by the mycelium of this fungus, the large fructification of which 
had appeared for many years on the root and base of the stem. The 
mode of action of the mycelium is the same as that of the nearly allied 
P. annosus. P. Schweinitzii is not uncommon on Conifers, but always 
on the root or base of the stem. 


Sour-Rot of Grapes.t—M. K. Portele, in reference to the cater- 
pillar of the Tortriz wana, which does much damage to grapes, finds 
that if it attacks the hard berry, the berry becomes acid and harder ; 
if, however, sugar has formed in the berry, then many ferments are 
introduced into the mash, and the wine is deteriorated. If the worm 
attacks ripe berries, then Penicillium glaucum and Aspergillus glaucus 
form in the wound; the growth of this mildew may close up the 
entrance, when the whole contents of the berry rot, and quantities of 
bacteria are produced, which destroy the mycelium. If the opening 


* Verhandl. Bot. Ver. Proc. Brandenburg, xxv. (1884) pp. viii—x. 


+ Journ. Chem. Soc.—Abstr., xlviii. (1885) pp. 1153-4. From Bied. Centr., 
1885, pp. 403-4. 
12 


116 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


remains open, the contents also decomposed, Saccharomyces ellipsoideus 
and S. apiculatus are produced, then alcohol is formed, which is again 
changed into carbonic anhydride and water, but more frequently into 
acetic acid. Should heavy rain fall, these affected grapes will do no 
harm to the must, as they will be washed clean, and only the husks 
remain. 

Disappearance of Insects in consequence of the appearance of © 
Puccinia malvacearum.*—According to Dr. F. Ludwig, this parasitic 
fungus first made its appearance in the neighbourhood of Greiz, in 
1875, since which time its ravages have nearly destroyed all the wild 
and cultivated Malvaces. There are many insects the larva of which 
feed exclusively on various species of the order; these must either 
disappear or find some other food-plant. 

New Ustilaginee.j—Herr E. Ule records the following new 
species of Ustilaginex found on grasses or sedges in Brandenburg :— 
Tilletia aculeata on Agropyrum repens, T. Brize on Briza media, T. 
alopecurivora on Alopecurus pratensis, T. Avene on Avena pratensis, 
T. sterilis on Festuca ovina and Keleria cristata, Urocystis Festucze 
on Festuca ovina, and U. Caricis on a species of Carew. 


New Chytridiacea.t—Herr P. Magnus records the discovery of 
a new species of parasitic fungi belonging to the Chytridiacez, Olpi- 
diwm zygnemicolum, in the cells of a Zygnema, not attacking either a 
Spirogyra or Mesocarpus growing along with it. Swarm-cells were 
observed piercing the cells of the host, from which zoosporangia and 
resting-cells were developed. It is distinguished from other species 
of Olpidium by the absence of a long neck to the zoosporangium. 

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Fungi).—The last 
three parts (19-21) of this section of Rabenhorst’s great work are still 
occupied with the Spheriacee, and chiefly with the families Spherel- 
loidez and Pleosporex. Of Spherella 120 species are described, of 
Leptospheria 139, and of Pleospora 63. 


Protophyta. 

Movements of Oscillaria.s—Prof. J. B. Schnetzler, from obser- 
vations of a large species of Oscillaria, O. erugineo-cerulea, describes 
the movements as of six different kinds, viz. (1) Rotation round 
the axis of the filament or of its segments; (2) creeping or gliding 
over a solid substratum; (3) a free movement of translation in the 
fluid ; (4) rotation or flexion of the filament ; (5) sharp tremblings or 
concussions; and (6) radiating arrangement of the entangled fila- 
ments. The author considers that simple osmose is insufficient to 
explain these various movements; but that they must be due, in 
some way at present unexplained, to the protoplasm. Everything 
which increases or retards the vital energy of the protoplasm, in- 
creases or retards respectively the intensity of the movements of the 
filaments. 

* Hedwigia, xxiv. (1885) pp. 219-20. 

+ Verhand]. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, xxv. (1884) pp. 212-7. 
¢ Ibid., xxvi. (1885) pp. 79-80. ; 

§ Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xiv. (1885) pp. 160-71. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 117 


Floating Rivularia.*—Professor F. Cohn describes a floating 
Rivularia forming a “ flos aque” on the surface of a marsh. He gives 
it the specific name Rivularia fluitans, and considers it identical with 
Rabenhorst’s Gleotrichia pygmexa. 


Glycogen in Beer Yeast.t—Dr. L. Errera finds that the cells of 
Saccharomyces cerevisie in active growth contain glycogen in con- 
siderable proportion. Sometimes the entire cell-contents consist of 
this substance, which doubtless plays the same part as starch in the 
higher plants. The presence of glycogen explains many earlier 
observations respecting yeast, for instance, that it yields sugar when 
boiled with dilute acids. 


Rise of Micro-organisms in Damp Soil.t— Herr J. Soyka has 
determined, by experiment, the possibility of micro-organisms rising 
in a capillary tube of water, and hence concludes that they may be 
carried up to the surface of the soil by capillary attraction. 


AAtiology and Pathology of Gonorrhea of the Urethra.§—Dr. 
Bockhart has cultivated by inoculation the gonococci obtained from 
gonorrhcea patients. They soon produced suppuration, and in the 
matter were found large numbers of gonococci, collected mostly in 
larger or smaller groups, and having often the form of diplococci. 
Further investigation showed that these gonococci were the patho- 
genous bacteria of gonorrheic affections. When brought into contact 
with the mucous membrane of the urethra, they make their way, 
probably between the epithelial cells, into the lymph-passages of 
the fossa navicularis, where they increase and produce violent 
inflammation. Thence they penetrate into the blood-vessels and 
upwards towards the bladder. Finally they destroy the colourless 
blood-corpuscles which they have attacked, either in the tissue itself, 
or in passing through the epithelial layer, or in the gonorrhea 
secretion. Those that remain in the tissues perish either there or in 
the blood. 


Micrococci of Erysipelas.|| — Dr. Fehleisen has observed the 
uniform presence of micrococci in the lymph-glands of the parts of 
patients affected with erysipelas; and by culture on pepton-gelatin 
infusion of flesh, and infection in rabbits, has proved the cocci to be 
the cause of the disease. 


Zooglee and Related Forms.{—Dr. W. Trelease describes several 
new species of chromogenous bacteria, as well as a new variety of 
Saccharomyces. Slices of boiled potato answered best for their culture, 
though other substances were previously tried. The cultures were 


* Ber. Schles. Gesell., 1884, pp. 273-5. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. 
(1885). Rev. Bibl., p. 110. 

+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 253-5. Cf. this Journal, iii. (1883) p. 397. 

$ Prag. Medicin. Wochenschr., 1885. See Naturforscher, xviii. (1885) p. 434. 

§ SB. Phys.-Med. Gesell. Wiirzburg, 1883, pp. 13-9. See Bot. Centralbl., 
xxiii. (1885) p. 143. 

|| SB. Phys.-Med. Gesell. Wiirzburg, 1883, pp. 9-13. See Bot. Centralbl., 
XXlil. (1885) p. 142. 

4] Studies Biol. Laborat. Johns-Hopkins Univ., iii. (1885) pp. 194-216 (1 pl.). 


118 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


started by rubbing the potato on the floor, sink, &c., and then separating 
from the mass of zoogloee the ones he wished to study. Methyl- 
violet was found to be the best staining agent, and Dr. Trelease 
contradicts Rasmussen’s assertion that preparations with this reagent 
undergo alteration. 

The new forms described are the following :—a Micrococcus which 
formed spots of magenta colour, which is doubtfully identified with 
M. prodigiosus, but it never gives the characteristic blood-red colour 
of this latter species. 

Bacterium candidum (Trel.) grows best on wet potato. The 
zoogleea, at first moist, dries later on and looks powdery, becoming 
wrinkled, till ultimately it assumes a yellow colour. The constituent 
cells are ellipsoidal, and usually in chains up to six; when in water 
the cells move about, but no flagellum could be distinguished. When 
sown on beetroot the zoogloea was red, but a new culture on potato 
showed the characteristic white colour. B. awrantiacum (Trel.) forms 
at first a pale yellow semi-fluid zooglcea, which later on becomes 
waxy and orange-coloured. Cells smaller than preceding, and show 
central spores. (In each case he refers to similar forms previously 
described.) B. luteum (Trel.) is at first nearly fluid and colourless, 
it soon becomes waxy, and as it dries, becomes wrinkled and of a 
lemon-yellow colour. After two or three days it dries up and becomes 
a brownish-maroon. The cells are short ellipsoids, or rod-like, and 
spores were noticed. B. chlorinum (Trel.) has a greenish-yellow 
zooglcea, and on drying shows no wrinkling. JB. incarnatum (Trel.) 
is somewhat like the preceding, but varies in colour from a “ dirty 
flesh-colour” to deep red brown; cells ellipsoidal, or more elongated 
unsegmented rods. 

He also describes Micrococcus candidus (Cohn), B. tumescens (Zopf), 
B. violacewm (Bergonzini), B. hyalinum (Ktz.), Cladothriz dichotoma 
(Cohn), and Leptothrix buccalis (Robin), with a new Saccharomyces, 
S. glutinis (Cohn) var. candidus (Trel.) which resembles Cohn’s 
claret-coloured form, except that its colour is white; it pullulates as 
yeast does, but never forms strings of more than three cells. 


Bacilli of Syphilis.*—Prof. Doutrelepont and Dr. J. Schiitz have 
succeeded in detecting by staining the bacilli of syphilis by a com- 
plicated and tedious process. They are nearly straight or slightly 
curved or coiled or bent long rods. Here and there are light- 
coloured spots, possibly spores, rarely swellings at the extremities. 
They are formed singly, or in pairs like crossed swords, or in large 
irregular groups. They are usually found in pale inflated cells, 
often without any discernible cell-boundary. They are not usually 
numerous; only fresh products of syphilis yielded them in large 
quantities. Cultivation has at present been without result. 


Oxidation and Reduction under the Influence of Microscopic 
Organisms in the Soil}—M. A. Miintz has already shown that in 


* Deutsch. Med. Wochenschr., 1885, p. 320. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. 
(1885) p. 145. 
+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp 248-50. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 119 


presence of air and the nitric ferment in soils, iodides are converted 
into iodates. He now finds that alkaline bromides are converted into 
bromates under the same conditions, but similar experiments with 
chlorides gave no definite results, In presence of the nitric ferment, 
but out of contact with air, alkaline iodates, bromates, and chlorates 
are completely and somewhat rapidly reduced to iodides, bromides, 
and chlorides respectively. 


Etiology of Asiatic Cholera.*—The report of Drs. E. Klein and 
H. Gibbes, together with the transactions of a committee convened to 
consider it, on which there were, among others, Sir W. Jenner, Sir 
W. Gull, Sir J. Fayrer, Prof. Burdon-Sanderson, Dr. Aitken, and 
Dr. Timothy Lewis, has been published by the India Office. 

Drs. Klein and Gibbes traverse directly several of Dr. Koch’s 
statements ; for example, the German observer stated that the number 
of comma-shaped organisms in the intestinal tissues and contents is 
in proportion to the acuteness of the attack, and that these organisms 
generate within the body a ferment by which the system is poisoned ; 
the delegates of the India Office find, on the other hand, that the 
number of comma-bacilli in the stools of choleraic patients varies 
very greatly; they did not find that Peyer’s patches or the solitary 
glands of the ileum were enlarged, while they explain the occasional 
abundance of the bacilli by the supposition that they here find the 
most suitable conditions for growth. Fine sections of the mucous 
membrane stained in various anilin dyes revealed the total absence of 
comma-bacilli from the mucous membrane itself, from the tissue of the 
villi, and the adjoining tissues. Blood of choleraic patients obtained 
according to the usual approved method from patients in various 
stages of the disease was not in one instance found to contain any 
kind of bacterium, and similar results were obtained by cultivation 
experiments. 

With regard to Dr. Koch’s proposition that comma-bacilli are not 
found under any conditions other than cholera, it is remarked that 
this bacillus, or at any rate one that appears to be morphologically 
identical with it, occurs also in the stools of diarrhcea, and has been 
met with in cases of dysentery, enteric catarrh, chronic phthisis, and 
chronic peritonitis. With regard to the causal connection between 
the comma-shaped organisms in cholera, a belief which Dr. Koch 
based on the examination of a certain village tank, Drs. Klein and 
Gibbes write that a sample of the water from the same tank was 
examined by them, and was found to contain undoubted comma- 
bacilli; nevertheless, there was no case of cholera among the 200 
families that used the tank. “We have in this instance an experi- 
ment performed by nature on a scale large enough to serve as an 
absolute and exact one. The water had been contaminated with 
choleraic evacuations, and of course with the comma-bacilli, and it 
was used extensively by many human beings for several weeks.” It 
is clear, then, that this water did not contain the cholera virus, and 
that the latter has nothing to do with the comma-bacilli. 


* Folio, London, 1885, 44 and 30 pp. 


120 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The delegates conclude that— 

1. Comma-shaped organisms are ordinarily present in the dejec- 
tions of persons suffering from cholera. 

2. They are not to be found in the blood nor in any of the tissues, 
including the mucosa of the small intestine when the latter is 
examined in a fresh condition. 

3. Comma-shaped organisms of closely allied morphological 
appearance are ordinarily present in different parts of the alimentary 
tract in health; are developed to an unusual extent in some of the 
diseases characterized by hyper-secretion of the intestine; and there 
are grounds for assuming that when any predominant form is observed 
it is in great measure attributable to the nature of such secretion. 

4. The comma-shaped bacilli ordinarily found in cholera do not 
induce that disease in the lower animals, and there are no real 
grounds for assuming that they do so in man; while the circumstance 
that they have been found in tanks which constituted the ordinary 
water-supply of adjacent villages unassociated with the presence of 
the disease, goes to negative any such assumption. 

Dr. Lewis states that, where comparable, his own observations 
were wholly in accord with those of Drs. Klein and Gibbes; he has 
been able to satisfy himself that the alimentary tract in health may 
even harbour not one only, but certainly two or three comma- 

‘shaped organisms; one of these has been cultivated by Dr. Miller » 
of Berlin, and another, also from the mouth, had been cultivated by 
Dr. Klein; the latter seems to have the closest possible resemblance, 
physiological as well as morphological, to the “ choleraic commas.” 
He does not doubt but that, sooner or later, means will be devised 
by which an abundance of the self-same commas would be obtainable 
from ordinary alvine secretions; in the case of the monkey this 
has, indeed, been already effected by Dr. Klein, after ligaturing the 
ileum and injecting sulphate of magnesia. What is really new about 
this bacillus is its name and some phases of its natural history ; 
if a wet and a dry cover specimen of a pure cultivation be made, 
the former will be found to have its field covered with minute 
vibrios in a state of great activity, while that of the dry preparation 
will be characterized by the presence of comma-shaped organisms. 
The “comma,” as ordinarily understood, is but a segment of this 
vibrio, detached by the drying process. 

In appended memoranda Dr. Aitken remarks that we require a 
fuller knowledge of microbes—their life-history, their variations 
under altered surroundings, the biological relations (if any) between 
pathogenic and septic or infective forms; are the changes brought 
out by multiplied cultures, biological or chemical, or both? how 
far are pathogenic forms variable, and is specific functional activity 
a more or less rapidly acquired variation than morphological modifica- 
tions? Prof. Burdon-Sanderson remarks that the existence of comma- 
bacillus in the intestine does not bear on any practical question 
relating to the prevention of cholera. Dr. N. Chevers disbelieves in 
sanitary cordons, and in systems of quarantine, as means of defence 
from cholera invasions. Dr. Marston thinks that any action based 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 121 


on Koch’s view will be futile. Sir W. Smart, who had much experi- 
ence of cholera during the Crimean war, remains under the impres- 
sion that some such organism, if not the comma-bacillus, may yet 
be discovered, and proved by experiment to be the specific cause of 
cholera in man, but the present evidence is insufficient. Dr. Suther- 
land insists on the necessity of sanitary improvement, if cholera 
is to be successfully fought against. 


Crookshank’s ‘Practical Bacteriology. *—Dr. E. M. Crookshank 
has produced a most excellent book on Bacteria, which notwithstand- 
ing the number of works dealing with the subject, will occupy a 
distinct place of its own in regard especially to the practical side of 
bacteriology, to which the bulk of the book is devoted. We know of 
no book which any one desiring to appreciate the present position of 
bacteriology could more usefully study, whether he intends to follow 
up the subject by practical demonstrations of his own or otherwise. 
The coloured plates, of which there are twenty-seven, add largely to 
the comprehension of both the methods and their results.| There 
are also numerous woodcuts. 

The book is divided into the following principal heads :— 
(1) Apparatus, material, and reagents employed in a bacteriological 
laboratory. (2) Microscopical examination of bacteria in liquids, in 
cultivations on solid media, and in tissues. (3) Preparation and staining 
of tissue secretions. (4) Preparation of nutrient media and methods 
of cultivation. (5) Experiments upon the living animal and examina- 
tion of animals experimented upon. The preceding forms Part L, 
while Part II. is systematic and descriptive, with special microscopical 
methods. 


* Crookshank, E. M., ‘ An Introduction to Practical Bacteriology, based upon 
the methods of Koch,’ xxii. and 249 pp., 42 figs. and 30 pls., 8vo, London, 1886. 
+ Plates IIL, IV., and V., supra, p. 25, are taken from this book. 


122 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


MICROSCOPY. 


a Instruments, Accessories, &c.* 


Bulloch’s Lithological Microscope.—The general construction of 
this instrument (fig. 5), is similar to the Professional stand of Mr. 
W. H. Bulloch except in the following details :— 

There are two stages, each is graduated to 15’ reading by a ver-. 
nier to 20", and can either be revolved by hand or by tangent screw 
which also acts as a slow motion. The worm cut on the periphery 
of the stage has 360 teeth (equal to single degrees), and the tangent 
screw head is graduated to 6°, so that each division reads to 1’. The 
tangent screw can be thrown in or out of connection as required. 
Each stage has stops for Maltwood finder, and also stops for the small 
lithological slides. The above arrangement is common to both stages. 
One of the stages has a plain sliding object-carrier. The second is 
also furnished with a sliding object-carrier, and with micrometer 
screws in two directions “for the direct measurement of objects 
without any reference to magnification.” The screw threads are 
0:5 mm., the heads being graduated to 250, so that each division 
reads to 2 « and by vernier to tenths equal to 0:2 p. 

At the side of the limb there is a scale reading to 0°5 mm., and © 
the slow motion screw-head is graduated to 500, each division equal- 
ling 1 p». The polarizing prism fitting in the substage has a graduated 
circle, and a spring catch at each 90°. The analysing prism at the 
lower end of the body-tube has a revolving movement by a lever 
of 90° and can be removed to the side by a slide similar to the 
Wenham binocular prism. At the lower end of the tube is a Klein’s 
quartz-plate, and a centering nose-piece. A goniometer eye-piece 
is used with crossed spider lines, a Nicol prism, and a calc-spar 
plate. The fitting is made adjustable, for if the calc-spar is not cut 
in the proper direction the cross cannot be placed in the centre of 
the field without slightly tilting the crystal. 

In working; to change from polarized to ordinary illumination, 
the prism below the stage can be turned aside, leaving the wide 
angle condenser in position; or the whole substage can be turned 
aside, a movement which is supplementary to swinging on the axis in 
the centre with the object on the stage. When the condenser is not 
required there is a supplementary substage for the lower prism, so 
that the prism can be used close to the object, and no light admitted, 
except that which has passed through the prism. 


Chevalier’s Portable Microscope.—An ingenious method of pro- 
viding a solid and steady base for a portable Microscope was devised 
by M. C. Chevalier, and is shown in figs. 6 and 7. 

The tripod feet of the instrument fit into three notches in the 


* This subdivision is arranged in the following order:—(1) Stands; (2) Kye- 
pieces and Objectives; (3) Iuminating Apparatus; (4) Other Accessories ; 
(5) Photo-micrography; (6) Manipulation; (7) Microscopical Optics, Books, 
and Miscellaneous matters. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 123 


Fia. 5. 


Buuwocy’s LirHoLogicAL Microscope. 


124 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


circumference of a heavy brass disc. Over the disc fits a ring 
(shown separated in the fig.), which when screwed down fixes the feet 


Fic. 6. Fia. 7. 


of the tripod immovably. In the 

, centre of the disc is a support for 
' the end of the standard to rest on. 

The feet fold together, and the 

mirror and stage can be turned up 

against the standard, whilst the © 

horizontal arm can be set vertical. 

When the body-tube is unscrewed, 

the whole instrument is reduced to 

very small dimensions. Fora coarse 

adjustment the stage is moved, and 

for a fine adjustment the draw-tube, 

in which the eye-piece slides. Both movements are by rack and pinion. 


Klein’s Horizontal Heating Microscope.* — This (fig. 8) was 
devised by Prof. C. Klein for the purpose of observing minerals with 
the Microscope under high temperatures. 

The body-tube is mounted horizontally on a brass standard screwed 
to a metal plate, with which the wooden base is strengthened. 
Opposite to it is a second standard, which slides in grooves and 
carries the lower part of the Microscope—mirror, condenser of long 
focus, and polarizer. In another groove at the side of, and parallel to 
the former, is a third standard, with an extending rod, which supports 
a pair of forceps with platinum points to hold the mineral to be ex- 
amined, which can be placed at any convenient point between the 
condenser and the low-power objective. An analyser is attached by 
a hinge-joint to the front of the eye-piece, so that it can be turned up 
out of the way when not required, as shown in the fig. A selenite 
plate can be interposed between the analyser and the eye-piece. A 
screen (shown by dotted lines) can be placed on the lower tube to 
shut off extraneous light. 

Heat is applied to the object by a Bunsen burner, which is 
movable on a hinge, so that the flame can be quickly applied to a 
given point and as quickly removed again. 


* Nachr. K. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen, 1884, pp. 133-5. 


Fic. 8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSOOPY, ETO. 125 


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Kuer’s Horizontan Heating Microscope. 


126 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Prof. Klein thus describes his observations on some crystals of 
leucite which will illustrate the application of the Microscope :— 
Sections parallel to the faces of the cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, 
and icositetrahedron (regarding the crystals as cubic for the sake of 
simplicity), all behaved in the same way when heated. Darkness 
spread over them, the characteristic twin lamelle disappeared, and 
the sections remained dark between crossed Nicols until the flame 
was withdrawn, when they transmitted light as before (beginning with 
the coolest side), ard the lamelle returned. The same section could 
be repeatedly heated with the same results. It follows from these 
experiments that leucite becomes isotropic when heated, and Prof. 
Klein draws the conclusion that it originally crystallized at a high 
temperature as a cubic mineral, and became rhombic (as he shows 
elsewhere) on cooling. 


French Dissecting Microscope.—This instrument (fig. 9), though 
called a “dissecting” Microscope, is in the ordinary form of a 
small student's compound Microscope. Its special feature is not so 
much the stand itself as the case in which it is packed, which has a 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 127 


very convenient arrangement of mounting apparatus, including trays, 
reagents, and instruments. The knives, scissors, &c., are, as will be 
seen, arranged on a hinged cover to the inside of the lid, which is of 
extra depth. 

Klonne and Miuller’s Pendulum Object-frame or Bacteria- 
finder.—Messrs. Klénne and Miiller have devised this apparatus 
(figs. 10 and 11) for readily finding small objects. It may be fitted 
to any Microscope, and can be traversed over the whole of an object 


Fie. 10. 


by means of two graduated motions, so that the position of any point 
may be marked and recovered without difficulty. The frame (fig. 10) 
which holds the slide, is moved backwards and forwards by a swing- 
ing motion about the fixed point d, and from side to side by the 
traversing screw c. These motions are measured by the graduations 
on the circular slot at b, and by the millimetre scale and vernier at a. 

To fit the frame to the Microscope, the piece a is swung out of 
the slot 6 and brought round to the left of d; the framework hfg is 
pushed forward over the stage from behind until the rests ee lie upon 
the stage, and f upon a projection at the back of the pillar. The 
screw g presses against one side of the stage, and h is screwed up to 
the other. fandg are adjusted by the makers so that the line de 
(¢ being near the centre of the slot) passes through the centre of the 
stage. ‘The object is then inserted into the frame a from below; it is 
held in position by the spring shown at the upper side, and is pressed 
against the stage by the two springs below when the frame has been 
swung back into the position shown in the figure. 

The object having been placed by means of ¢ so that its edge is at 
one side of the field of view, is searched from top to bottom by the 
motion about d; it is then shifted by means of ¢ through a distance 
equal to the width of the field and a second vertical strip of this 
width is traversed by the pendulum motion; the process is repeated 


128 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


until the whole object has been searched. The exact position of any 
point may then be noted by the readings of banda. If the frame is 
transferred from one Microscope to another, the exact points at which 
the screws g and h indent the sides of the stage, and the exact extent 
to which g is screwed into its bearings must be noted. To facilitate 
the latter adjustment, a small slit is cut across the threads of g. 
Professor Arendt, of Leipzig, writes to express his satisfaction 
with the apparatus, which works extremely well in practice. The 


Fig. 11. 


il | ener | 


slide can be inserted into the frame quite as easily as under the 
ordinary springs, and marked points in an object are rapidly recovered. 
He says, “ For example, I have to-day searched a Bacteria-slide which 
I had prepared, and found in it thirty-seven points of particular 
interest. This was the work of about an hour. To find all these 
points again occupied me only four minutes, and the adjustment is so 
accurate that they were in every case brought back into the centre of 
the field.” 
Fig. 11 shows the apparatus in place on the Microscope. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 129 


Microscopes at the Antwerp Exhibition.*—Dr. H. van Heurck 
reports upon the Microscopes exhibited at the recent Universal 
Exhibition at Antwerp. “The Microscope,” he says, “is generally 
very imperfectly represented in universal exhibitions, and the Antwerp 
exhibition was no exception, only six firms being represented, Hart- 
nack, Nachet, Prazmowski (Bezu, Hausser and Co.), Reichert, Ross, 
and Zeiss. 

Of Hartnack’s instruments Dr. van Heurck describes Bacterial, 
Mineralogical, and Photographic Microscopes, also his Cupro- 
ammonia Cell (post). M. Nachet’s instruments are the Large Model, 
Petrographical, Chemical, Travelling, Demonstration, Dissecting, 
and Double body Microscopes. Also his ‘“ Loupe-chambre-claire ” 
(post). Of Bézu’s, the Mineralogical, and Large and Second 
Hartnack Models. In each case the objectives exhibited are also 
reported on, and the special fiuid for homogeneous immersion used by 
Dr. Hartnack described (infra, p. 133). 


Hippisley’s Lens- and Slide-Holder.—Fig. 12 shows the in- 
geniously simple mounting adopted by Mr. J. Hippisley for the 
lenses made of globules of glass described Vol. V. p. 890. 

The lenses are secured between two pieces of 
thin brass, one of which has its two ends turned Fic. 12. 
up over those of the other, and hammered down. 
The lens thus mounted is slipped into a holder 
of brass wire in the manner shown in the figure, 
the slide being similarly held by another part 
of the holder. The focusing adjustment is 
made by pressing together the two parts of the 
holder which are normally kept apart by the 
“spring” of the wire caused by the turns which 
are made in it at the bottom. Mr. Hippisley 
describes its use thus :— 

“ It is intended to be held horizontally, when 
the focal adjustment will be found to be well 
under command of the thumb and finger of one 
hand. The spring of the wire allows ample 
traverse of the lens over the field; and by 
judicious application of the other thumb and 
finger the slide may be shifted longitudinally, so 
that any part of the field can be examined with- 
out removing the instrument from the eye. 
The other hand makes a convenient. screen for 
the eye not in use. 

This is only one of many variations of contrivances for utilizing 
these lenses. ‘ Thumb-screws’ are an abomination for slowness of 
action and other inconveniences. A wedge I have found much more 
useful for fine adjustment, as its operation is equally fine, and it 
may be suddenly thrust in or, withdrawn for the beginning (or coarse 
part) of the adjustment. But I do not think, unless it is wanted to 


* Journ. de Microgr., ix. (1885) pp. 364-75 (6 figs.). 
Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. K 


130 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


transfer the instrument with focus adjustment to the hands of some 
one unused to a lens, that even that provision is necessary practically, 
for anything not exceeding 150 or 200 diameters.” 

Mr. Hippisley also says that he makes “Coddington” lenses by 
melting pear-shaped pieces of glass until the ends in advancing 
towards a spherical form have approached to the right distance, 
which is ascertained by repeated trials. As the two ends cannot, 
except by chance, be exactly of the same curvature, one end has 
to be selected and marked, as that to which the eye is to be 
applied. 


Griffith's Substage Diaphragm.—Mr. E. H. Griffith’s substage 
diaphragm is intended as a substitute for the cheaper kind. The 
principal claims for it are that it 
Fie. 13. will do the work well that is re- 
quired of much more expensive 
ones, and as it is placed in the 
centre of the substage fitting, and 
so constructed that it may be 
turned in any direction, many 
effects may be secured by simply 
moving the slide. Being central it 
is not so much in the way as some’ 
other forms. 

It is simply a perforated metal 
button fitting the Society screw 
of the substage. Through the 
head is a groove, cut with a 
milling-machine, which is pro- 
vided with a diaphragm slide 
which has different sized and shaped apertures which can be placed 
exactly central by means of stops, or out of centre if desired. The 
slit can be made to be perpendicular, diagonal, or longitudinal to the 
slide, as desired, by turning the button. 


eA is 


Sorby's Direct Illuminator.—In some recent discussions on the 
microscopical structure of metals, Dr. H. C. Sorby has recalled 
attention to the illuminator devised by him many years ago for the 

examination of minerals. It consists 

Fie. 14. (fig. 14) of the “ Parabolic Reflector,” in 

the centre of which, in a semi-cylin- 
= il 


. drical tube, open in front, is placed a 
_N small plane reflector which covers half 
: |) of the objective, and throws the light 
) directly down upon the object, and back 
through the other half. This allows of 
two kinds of illumination, oblique and direct, to be readily used, as 
the plane reflector is attached to an arm so that it can be swung out 
of the way when not required, as shown by the dotted lines in the fig. 
Dr. Sorby writes :—“ I may say that for the study of polished and 
etched sections of iron and steel, it is almost indispensable. In 


x 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETO. 131 


examining other objects, especially if they have glass covers, the 
direct illumination of course causes much reflection from the glass, 
and makes the object look milky. The reflection from iron and steel, 
however, entirely overpowers this light from the cover, so that it 
does not interfere with the use of the illuminator.” (See also infra, 
p. 175, for Dr. Sorby’s paper on the preparation and illumination of 
iron and steel for microscopical examination.) 


Equalizing the Thickness of Slips with Oil-Immersion Con- 
densers.*—It is necessary that an oil-immersion condenser should 
have a fairly long focus; otherwise it would be of no use if the slip 
happened to be rather thick. If the slide is thin, it will be found 
impossible to keep the oil contact when the condenser is in focus, 
unless you increase the thickness 
of the slide, by uniting a thick 
cover-glass to the back by oil. 
It will be found very difficult to 
do this without oiling the stage 
when the Microscope is inclined. 
The oil between the condenser 
and the cover-glass is sure to 
unite with that between the cover- 
glass and slide, and then the 
cover-glass falls, upsetting the 
whole arrangement. To obviate 
this Mr. E. M. Nelson has found the following plan to answer 
admirably. <A piece of glass 1 in. square, upon one side of which, 
close to one edge, a strip 1/8 in. broad is fastened by shellac, is 
oiled to the back of the slide; the ledge hooking over the edge of the 
slide prevents it slipping down. 


Fia. 16. 


Coxeter’s Silico-Carbon Battery and Electric Lamp. — Messrs. 
Coxeter and Nehmer exhibited at the January meeting the battery 
and illuminator, figs. 17 and 18. 

The battery has in each of the four cells two large silico-carbons, 
with platinum clamp connections, and one zinc rod with screw 
terminal. It is charged with chloride of ammonium. No chemical 
action takes place except when it is actually in use; and once charged 
it needs no further attention, but is always ready when required. 
There is a shunt on the lid to connect the cells consecutively, and thus 
illuminate the object with the varied requirements of high and low 
power. The current passes through a rheostat before it reaches the 
incandescence lamp, to prevent its being spoiled; the electrical 
resistance should be afterwards lessened or taken out of the circuit 
by moving the sliding button A, and thus the battery is economized. 
The lamp-holder is jointed, and can be moved into any position, 
either above or below the stage, or to any part of it, and the position 
of the light is not altered by any movement of the Microscope. The 
light can be turned on and off at tho lamp when desired. It is 


* Engl. Mech., xlii. (1885) p. 280 (3 figs.). 
K 


132 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


claimed that the lamp “is the only one with practically no heat; it 
gives a delightfully soft and steady light, capable of great variation 


Fic. 17. Fic. 18. 


in intensity, and far less tiring to the eyes than ordinary reflected 
light.” 

The lamp can also be carried on a swinging tail-piece, after the 
plan introduced by Mr. E. Bausch.* 


Bulloch’s Cobweb Micrometer.;—A form of cobweb micrometer 
has been introduced by Mr. W. H. Bulloch, in which in addition to 
the movement of one set of lines with the micrometer screw, another 
screw, worked with a milled head on the other side of the instrument, 
moves both sets of lines together, so that it is possible to set the 
graduated screw-head at zero for any particular measurement. This 
is a very convenient as well as useful feature. 


Jung’s Nose-piece Adapter.—Herr R. Jung has further improved 
the Nachet-Thury form of adapter. t 

Fig. 19 is the adapter, and fig. 20 the ring which is screwed to 
each objective. The adapter consists of a fixed inner cylinder which 
screws into the body-tube, and a movable outer cylinder which is 
kept pressed up towards the lower end of the body-tube by a strong 
spiral spring. The bottom of the outer cylinder ends in a shoulder 
which is cut away for about a third of its circumference, so as to 
allow a ring and its objective to be slipped in when the cylinders 


* Appleton’s Annual Cyclopedia for 1884 (1885) p. 515 (1 fig.). 
+ Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 239-40. 
+ See this Journal, i. (1881) p. 661. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 133 


are separated. The spring, by drawing the outer cylinder back again, 
keeps the objective firmly in place. So far, the arrangement is 
similar to the Nachet-Thury form. 

To draw down the outer cylinder against the strong spring, in 
order to release the objective, requires some 
force, and if it is allowed to slip, the fingers are Fie. 19. 


se =. 


apt to be nipped, apart from the injury to the  — 
fine adjustment, while if the spring is weak and il 
so easily extended, the objective is only loosely vil 
held. To avoid these difficulties the upper @iiigam 
margin of the outer cylinder has two notches cut @ 
in it, one of which is shown in fig. 19 (the other 
being opposite to it), whilst the inner cylinder 
has two pins with projecting heads. When a 
notch is opposite a pin, the outer cylinder is 
close home, but on rotating it, so that the pins 
do not fall in the notches, as shown in the fig., 
the outer cylinder is forced down. 

In order to release the objective, therefore, 
no force is required ; all that is necessary being 
a slight rotation of the outer cylinder, so as to 
take the pins out of the notches. To ease the 
rotation, the pins have each a loose collar, which revolves as the outer 
cylinder is turned. 


Hartnack’s Fluid for Homogeneous Immersion.*—Dr. E. Hart- 
nack supplies, in place of cedar-oil, vaseline oils—the white oil for 
axial illumination and the yellow oil for the oblique. 


Rotary Object-carrier.;—Mr. J. M. Flint describes a device for 
exhibiting a series of mounted objects, without a change of slides. 
As described it is arranged for Foraminifera, viewed as opaque 
objects, with a low power. They are mounted on small brass discs 
furnished with a stem, by means of which they may be carried in 
a “ Beck’s disc-holder ” when it is desired to make a thorough study 
of the specimens. Ordinarily these discs are inserted in thin wooden 
slides of regulation size and kept in boxes, until the series is com- 
plete. In order to protect the specimens from dust or injury, and at 
the same time maintain their accessibility, movable covers are con- 
structed as follows :—A score or more of curtain rings, not flattened, 
are slipped upon a squared rod of wood, and brushed over freely 
with thick shellac. On the following day, before the shellac has be- 
come hard, the rings are slightly separated in pairs. When the pairs 
are firmly united, a thin glass cover is secured to the upper surface of 
each pair, and thus a litile box cover is formed, deep enough to 
inclose disc and specimen. Now, by driving two small gimp-tacks 
into the wooden slide, at the proper distance apart, and deep enough 
so that the heads of the tacks will just enter the groove between the 


* Journ. de Microgr., ix. (1885) p. 367. 
+ Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 204-5. 


134 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


rings, a simple catch is formed, by means of which the cover may be 
secured, and also be removable at pleasure. 

For exhibition, these discs are transferred to a thin circular 
plate 6 in. in diameter, made of three or four sheets of cardboard 
glued one upon the other. This makes a firm plate, not liable to 
warp, and in which holes may be readily bored for the insertion of 
the discs, and the tacks driven to secure the covers. By inserting 
the discs as near the edge of the plate as possible, a line 15 or more 
in. in length is obtained on which to display the objects. The 
circular plate bearing the specimens as above is made to rotate upon 
@ pivot passing through its centre in such a way that the objects are 
brought successively into the field. 

The manner of support of this pivot and its attachment to the 
stage must depend upon the instrument used, which, however, should 
have a stage with mechanical movements, and the attachment be made 
to the upper stage-plate, thus giving control of each object when 
brought into the field in the same manner as if it were mounted upon 
the ordinary slide. The author constructed a pivot support out of a 
piece of thin board (cigar-box), 2 in. wide and 3 in. long, the pivot 
being 2 common wood-screw inserted near one end, and carrying a 
wooden nut to steady the revolving plate, and the attachment to the 
stage-plate being effected by means of four small screws driven 

_ nearly home on the under side of the thin strip bearing the pivot, — 
the heads of the screws being so arranged that they slide into grooves 
on the stage-plate, which ordinarily carry one of the clamps for 
securing the object slip. Shallow notches on the edge of the revolv- 
ing plate, into which drops the curved end of a light spring, serve to 
inform the observer when the object is in the proper position. 
Transparent objects might be mounted on small squares of glass, 
made transferable from wooden or glass slips to the revolving plate 
as above, the necessary holes being made in the plate to allow the 
passage of light from below. 


Kunckel d’Herculais’ Compressor.—This (fig. 21), the design 
of M. Kunckel d’Herculais, is intended for the “ gradual compression 


Fic. 21. 


St 


Neiinertm TT SS SST 


Saige MUM 


of living organisms, and it has the advantage of allowing paraffin to 
be used for sealing the preparation.” The apparatus has a micrometer 
screw to insure gradual compression. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 135 


Not being clear as to the mode in which the designer intended his 
apparatus to be used, we applied to him on the subject, but without 
receiving any reply. Mr. G. C. Karop has, however, kindly furnished 
us with the following note :— 

“T do not think the use of this compressor necessarily refers to a 
temporary closure only. You have a specimen which cannot be 
satisfactorily examined except under pressure; the effect of pressure 
you may wish to keep and exhibit. A specimen is placed on a slip 
with, say, a drop of glycerin or other preservative; a cover-glass is 
placed on this, and the whole is transferred to the compressor-plate, 
the three curved springs being in position on the cover. The whole 
is then put on the stage of the Microscope, and the construction allows 
of the objective working down through the ring, whilst sufficient 
pressure is obtained by the micrometer screw to show the desired 
points. This being dono, the apparatus is removed from the stage, 
any surplus glycerin, &c., wiped off, and the preparation sealed by 
paraffin with a hot wire, according to the well-known method. When 
dry it is put on a turntable and permanently sealed by a ring of 
Paris glue or white cement, &c.” 


Martius’ Method of Determining the Absolute Rate of Ciliary 
Vibration by the Stroboscope.*—By the stroboscope, as is well 
known, a vibrating body is instantaneously illuminated or is viewed 
at successive intervals through a revolving or vibrating aperture. 

A familiar instance of this is the “ wheel of life” toy sold in the 
streets a few years ago. The wheels of a carriage, or a moving animal, 
seen by the light of a flash of lightning, appear perfectly stationary, the 
duration of the light being so brief as to admit of only an inappreciable 
movement of the body while illumination lasts. Ifa regular succes- 
sion of light flashes is produced, the moving body will be seen in as 
many different positions as there are flashes of light. If a body 
rotating rapidly on a fixed axis be viewed by light flashes occurring 
once during each revolution of the body, only one image will be 
observed, and this will result from a succession of impressions upon 
the retina, which by the persistence of vision become blended into 
one continuous image. In this case no movement of the body will 
be apparent; but if the flashes of light succeed each other ever so 
little slower than the rotatory period of the revolving body, the body 
will appear to move slowly forward, while in reality it is moving 
rapidly ; and should the light flashes succeed each other more rapidly 
than the revolutions of the revolving body, the body will appear to 
move slowly backward, or in a direction opposite to that in which it is 
really turning. These curious effects are also produced when the 
number of the light flashes is a multiple of the number of revolutions, 
or vice versd.F 

* Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Physiol. Abtheil.) 1884, pp. 456-60. 

+ The preceding paragraph is interpolated from an article by Mr. G. M. 
Hopkins (‘Scientific American’) in which he describes the method he used for 
applying intermittent light to a microscopical examination of ciliated organisms 
by an electrically rotated aperture disc, arranged to interrupt the beam of light 
employed in illuminating the object to be examined. 

The instrument consists of a single electric motor mounted on a plate having 


136 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


In the same way if a vibrating rod is viewed through a hole in a 
revolving disc, and the rate of revolution is varied until the period 
coincides with that of the rod, the latter will always be seen in the 
same phase and will appear stationary. 

The method may be applied to the analysis of many kinds of 
periodic vibration, and to the examination of objects in motion. Dr. A. 
van Beek used a revolving screen perforated with holes, by means of 
which the object under the Microscope is periodically illuminated, to 
estimate the rate of ciliary vibration in the cells of a frog’s tongue. 

With such an apparatus it is not found possible to vary the 
rate and constancy of the revolutions with sufficient delicacy, and 
Herr Martius has consequently applied the electro-magnetic strobo- 
scope, as used by Kronecker, to the same purpose. A strip of 
paper (fig. 22) is made to vibrate between the source of light and the 


diaphragm of the Microscope so that at each vibration the object is 
illuminated by a flash of light. A great advantage is gained by 
using a plain strip in place of a perforated screen ; for if the instru- 
ment is so arranged that the strip while moving in one direction 


a collar fitted to the substage. The shaft, which carries a simple bar armature, 
also carries upon its upper extremity a disc having two or four apertures, which 
coincide with the apertures of the stage and substage two or four times during 
the revolutions of the disc. The course of the current from the battery through 
the instrument is through the spring touching the commutator, through the 
shaft and frame of the instrument to the magnet. The speed of rotation can be 
varied, experiment showing that the period of darkness should be to the period 
of illumination about as three to one for the best effects. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 137 


completely obscures the light, and only admits the flash when it 
retreats far enough in the other direction to uncover the side of the 
diaphragm, then a slight shifting of the whole stroboscope will 
lengthen the duration of the flashes without affecting their rate ; while 
the rate can be varied by adjusting Bernstein’s acoustic contact- 
breaker, which regulates the vibrations. Moreover, by this method 
the object can only be illuminated once in each complete oscillation 
of the strip, while with a vibrating slit it may be illuminated either 
once or twice. A frog’s palate examined with this apparatus was 
found to have a period of ciliary movement varying from ten to 
fourteen (mostly from eleven to twelve) vibrations in a second. 

A second indirect means of measurement may be used as a check 
upon the direct determination of the period from the phenomenon 
already mentioned. When the rate of the stroboscope is equal to 
that of the cilia, they appear as nearly as possible stationary ; as the 
rate is increased waves of motion will be seen to run along them 
until a point is reached at which they appear to be in uniform motion. 
It will be found that at this point the rate of the instrument is 
exactly double that of the cilia. 

Various rotifers examined by intermittent light showed the cilia 
perfectly stationary. The ciliary filaments of some of the Infusoria 
(Vorticella and Stentor), when viewed by intermittent light, not only 
appeared to stand still, but their length seemed much greater than 
with continuous light. The interrupted light brings out not only 
the cilia around the oral aperture, but shows to good advantage the 
cilia disposed along the margin of the body.* 


Accessories for Microscopical Drawing.j—G. 8. S. writes that 
it often happens to him, when wishing to draw a mounted object, that 
it is not placed exactly in the position in which it is wished to draw 
it, and to so place it, the slide requires raising at one end or side. 
For this purpose he devised a very simple piece of apparatus. 


Fie. 23. 


A piece of thin wood a little longer than an ordinary slide is cut, 
and a hole 3/4 in. square made in the middle. About 1/2 in. from 
either end, and on the lower side, cut a narrower transverse groove, 
and slip an india-rubber band over each end until it reaches the 
groove. The slide to be examined is placed on the wooden one 


* Loe. cit. + Sci.-Gossip, 1886, p. 8 (2 figs.). 


138 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


under the elastic rings, and then, by inserting a wedge between the 
wooden and other slide the object can be placed as desired. 

Another very simple contrivance for placing an unmounted object 
in any desired position is shown in fig. 23. By turning the milled 
head the object can be moved in a direction transverse to the 
apparatus, and by moving the other in or out, the object can be 
moved in a longitudinal direction. The hole in the vertical tube 
can be fitted with a cork to hold pins; a small pair of forceps or a 
piece of wax can be used to hold a geological specimen. 

Dunning’s Zoophyte-Cell.— All who work with the ordinary 
zoophyte troughs know the difficulty there is in cleaning them, also 
the risk of breakage in doing so, more especially with the very 
shallow troughs. Mr. C. G. Dunning has designed the apparatus 

shown in figs. 24-26 to 


Fic. 24. overcome this difficulty. 
MMM LLY The lower plate (fig. 
25) is of metal, 3 in. long, 
Fic. 25. 14 in. wide, and about 


1/10 in. thick, with an 


oval perforation, the un- 
der side being sunk out 
as shown in the section 
(fig. 24). In this sinking 
is fixed, by means of 
Canada balsam, a piece of 
stout cover-glass, which 
forms the bottom of the 
cell, the sinking being 
sufficiently deep to pre- 
vent the thin glass from . 
actually bearing on the 
stage when in use, or on a 
table, or when laid down. 
The cover (fig. 26) con- 
sists of a thinner plate 
of metal rather shorter 
than the lower plate, 
and having a correspond- 
ing aperture. To the 
under side of this plate is also fixed a piece of cover-glass. 

To use the apparatus it is only necessary to lay it flat and well 
fill the cell with water, arranging the object if necessary ; then put 
the cover on from the bottom edge by placing the notches over the 
two pins which are inserted in the bottom plate, and gradually 
lowering it, the superfluous water will then be got rid of, and the 
whole should be wiped. The capillary attraction assisted by the 
weight of the cover is sufficient to prevent any leakage, while the 
pins prevent it from sliding down when inclined. Although, of 
course, there is no supply of air, Vorticellz, zoophytes, &c., can be kept 
under exhibition for more than two hours without change of water, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 139 


but should that be found necessary it is easily done by lifting the 
cover carefully by means of the projecting horns on the top edge and 
adding fresh water with a dipping tube. The apparatus is intended 
more particularly for use as a shallow cell, so that moderately high 
powers can be applied, yet the depth can readily be increased by 
means of an intermediate plate the same size as the cover and with a 
corresponding aperture; this plate may either be of metal or ebonite, 
and with this inserted between the lower plate and the cover the cell 
is as free from leakage as before. : 

The area of the cell is purposely rather large, as being more con- 
venient for zoophytes, &c., but should it be desired to restrict the 
movements of a lively object, it is only necessary to select a glass 
ring rather thinner than the depth of the cell, place it in the middle, 
fill the whole cell with water and place the object within the ring and 
cover as before. 


Hardy’s Examining Tank for Pond-Life, &c.—Mr. J. D. Hardy 
exhibited at the last Conversazione a very convenient tank for showing 
aquatic organisms. 


AA (fig. 27) are two uprights, each having a slot in which the 


Fig. 27. 


TOOTAMUVENONOE OUT OOOO ACUO TOT SOOO UO TON ECW OTUOET VOT VOVMOVUROOVOOCOOOOONU ENON OV OUTOOOTUOWOOTOUOTT EN NOV rTVTVOOTTVOTTT 


holders B B can be raised or lowered. The screw nuts CC keep the 
holders in place, at the same time allowing the tank to be inclined at 
any angle. The holders are not fastened to the tank, but clamp it so 
as to leave it free to be moved through them, for the purpose of 
bringing the tank more forward for examination with the Microscope 
or otherwise. A piece of cork cut to fit loosely and float on the 
water stops the water running out when the tank is tilted. 

The stand is weighted with lead at the bottom, and the tank, 


140 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


which is 6 in. square, is made of the best thin white glass in the 
Same manner as Mr. Hardy’s “ flat bottle.” 

In using the Microscope, the mirror and carrier are unscrewed 
and placed on the opposite side of the tank from the Microscope, the 
light being reflected in a line with the body-tube. The objective was 
also screwed in the substage by an adapter and focused by the 
substage pinion. 


Bostwick’s Absorption Cell.*—Mr. A. E. Bostwick has devised a 
cell for obtaining the absorption spectra of liquids which have but 
little selective absorption, and which would therefore have to be used 
ordinarily in large quantities. 

The cell is a rectangular box, 6 in. by 3 in. by 3in. The bottom 
and the two ends are of wood, covered with shellac, and the two sides 
of looking-glass, cemented to the wood, so that the box is water-tight. 
The reflecting surface of the glass is turned inward, and at each of 
two diagonally opposite corners the amalgam is scraped away so as to 
make a vertical slit about 2 mm. in width. One of these is placed 
close to the spectroscope slit, and through the other a parallel beam 
of light is admitted. It is evident that the box may be so placed that 
the beam will be internally reflected in it a number of times, depending 
upon the angle between the two, and will finally pass through the 
second slit into the spectroscope. The length of its path through the . 
cell may therefore be varied indefinitely by turning the latter, and is 
limited only by the decrease in intensity caused by general absorption 
—not only in the liquid, but also at each reflection. With mirrors 
of polished metal the result might be even better, since the absorption 
in the glass would be eliminated. In this case, however, the number 
of liquids which could be used in the cell would be somewhat ~ 
limited. 


Verick’s, Benecke’s, and Moitessier’s Photo - micrographic 
Cameras.—The first of these cameras by MM. Vérick (fig. 28) allows 


Fic. 28. 


of four negatives being taken successively. It consists of a tube 
fitting over the body-tube after the eye-piece 1s removed, carrying a 
box C, with a central opening B, closed by a movable shutter A. 


* Amer. Journ. Sci., xxx. (1885) p. 452. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 141 


In the box slide four carriers D, for the sensitive plates, and these 
can be placed in position over the central opening one after another 
and a negative taken.* The special advantage of the apparatus 
is that it enables different degrees of exposure to be tested, or 
different portions of an object to be rapidly photographed in 
succession. 

A simpler form of camera is shown in fig. 29, on the same principle 
as the preceding, but for one plate only. 


| ll 


al 


i 


For focusing it is necessary first to regulate the focusing lens F, 
which is a single lens in an adjustable screw mounting. For this 
purpose a square of glass is placed in the box C, on the lower face of 
which some scales have been fastened. The lens is then placed so 
that the base-plate is applied exactly to the upper edge E of the box 
C. It is then focused on the scales by screwing the lens in or out, 
and is then clamped by the set-screw. The lens, when thus regulated, 
will of course only serve for the particular person to whose sight it 
has been adjusted. 

The sensitive plate is placed in the carrier D, and its contact with 
the guides on the bottom of the box assured by turning the screw 1 
gently. The image of the object is then focused by the adjustments 
of the Microscope, again applying the lens F upon E and using it 
as an eye-piece. 

Dr. B. Benecke t devised the camera, fig. 30, for taking eight 
photo-micrographs. In a circular camera B, rotates a disc A having 
a square aperture 12 cm. wide in the centre. The bottom of the 
camera has an opening at C, 2 cm. in diameter, communicating with a 
tube which fits into the body-tube of the Microscope; it can be closed 
by a slider, the handle at which is at D. A plate H, for eight photo- 
graphs, fits into the aperture in the disc, and can be rotated over O, 
a spring clip F indicating the eight equidistant positions. The 
shutter E of the camera is secured by the three catches G, and on the 
under side it has a spring which presses on the back of the plate. 
In order to mark the corresponding positions of the different photo- 


* The drawing has been reduced in width. The box of the original apparatus 
is about a fifth wider so as to leave more space for the carriers, 

+ ‘Die Photographie als Hiilfsmittel Mikroskopischer Forschung,’ 1868, 
pp. 54-6 (1 fig.). 


142 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


graphs on paper copies or glass positives (which is important in the 
case of stereographs), the opening at C has two cuts in its margin 


Fic. 30. 


TIT 


which show on the plate as two small black lines (see H) and so 
enable the image to be easily oriented. 
Dr. A. Moitessier’s camera,* B, fig. 31, is intended for taking six 


Fig. 31. 


micro-photographs, each aperture having a sliding shutter A. Being 
too heavy to be supported on the Microscope, a special support for it 
is necessary, fig. 32. The camera C is placed on the wooden plate B, 


* ‘La Photographie appliquée aux recherches micrographiques,’ 1866, p. 121. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 143 


which is supported over the Microscope by the pillars, A. A tube 
inserted in an opening ia B forms the connection with the Microscope, 
and the camera can be brought by a sliding arrangement into six 
different positions, corresponding with the photographic plate. D is 
the illuminating apparatus, consisting of mirror, condensing lens, and 
movable screen to shut off the light as required. 


Apparatus for taking Stereoscopic Photo-Micrographs.—Stereo- 
scopic photo-micrographs could of course be obtained by applying a 
camera to each end of the tubes of a binocular Microscope, and taking 
two photographs simultaneously, or as suggested by Babo, by slightly 
raising either end of the slide alternately, or again by taking a second 
photograph with the objective focused to a lower plane of the object 
than that to which it was focused when the first was taken. A 
combination of these two methods is said by Dr. 8. T. Stein * to give 
excellent effects. 

Dr. A. Moitessier suggested | the apparatus, fig. 33. The fixed 
tube A, attached to the body-tube, has a second ex- 
ternal tube B, which rotates upon it, a pin working Fig. 33. 
in a semicircular slot D stopping the rotation beyond 
180°. At the end of B is attached a half-dia- 
phragm ©, and the objective is screwed over the 
diaphragm. On rotating the tube in opposite 
directions, the diaphragm takes the positions E and 
KE’, so that opposite halves of the objective are 
alternately made use of and different images ob- 
tained. Photo-micrographs thus taken will give 
stereoscopic or pseudoscopic effect, according as 
they are mounted, The apparatus will only act 2 z 
effectively with low powers and opaque, not trans- © © 
parent, objects. 

In order to alter readily the inclination of the 
object to the axis of the Microscope, Dr. B. Benecke { devised the 
apparatus shown in figs. 34 and 35. 

A circular plate A, fig. 34, with a central opening, is fixed by the 


tube F in the aperture of the stage. The vertical pieces E support a 
similar plate BG, which swings on a horizontal axis passing through 


* «Das Licht im Dienste Wiss. Forschung,’ 1884, p. 197. 

+ ‘La Photographie appliquée aux recherches micrographiques,’ 1866, p. 148. 
: é - oie Photographie als Hiilfsmittel Mikroskopischer Forschung,’ 1868, p. 81 
(2 figs.). 


144 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


H. A third disc C is supported by B and moves with it. It carries 
the slide D. A photograph having been taken, with the object inclined 
in one direction, the carrier is tilted in the opposite direction, and a 
second one taken. As it is indispensable that the object should be 
exactly in the plane of the axis of rotation, the disc C is connected 
with B by a piece of tubing 
having a thread so that it 
can be raised or lowered. 
A wedge slipped under one 
end of the plate B is the most 
convenient mode of inclining 
it, a spring being inserted 
under the other end. Screws 
are not so good. According 
to the objective used the 
angle of inclination for the 
best effects varies from 4° 
with high powers to 12° with 
low powers. The wedge can 
be marked at different points, 
so as to show the angle of 
inclination. 

In focusing the two 
wedges, care must be taken 
that exactly the same details 
of the object are focused 
in each case, otherwise the 
photographs will not com- 
bine in the stereoscope. 

(Fig. 385 shows the ap- 
paratus in place on the 
Microscope. ) 

Another form was devised 
by Prof. G. Fritsch, a de- 
scription of which, for want 
of the woodcut illustrating 
it, must be deferred. 

Dr. H. Fol has devised * an apparatus (fig. 36) for photographing 
microscopic objects under small magnifying powers. He considers 
that such photographs are undoubtedly of much greater value when 
observed under the stereoscope. 

The table T carries at one end the board B and camera CP, with 
the supports A. The table is raised and lowered on the tripod by 
the rack and pinion F H, or moved horizontally by a second one on 
the further side. The board B turns on a pivot k and the extent of the 
motion is shown on a graduated scale at the top. It is fixed in any 
position by 8. The camera is double, each bellows being adjustable 
by the milled heads K K. The object lies in a black cup O in water 


* Fol, H., Lehrb. d. Verg]. Mikr, Anat., 1884, p. 79 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 145 


or weak alcohol, the stand G for it being independent of the rest of 
the apparatus, which Dr. Fol considers to be essential to prevent the 
shifting of the object. The objective may be one of Steinheil’s 


mT) 
ro) 


— 
i 


SA 


1 —— 


smallest aplanatics, or a low-power objective provided with a small 
diaphragm. 

The camera being central, the object is placed at the level of the 
pivot k, and focused. The camera is then shifted 4° or 4°5° to the 
right, and a photograph taken, and then to the same extent on the 
left and another taken. 


Objectives for Photo-micrography.*—Mr. W. H. Walmsley con- 
siders that to obtain the very highest results, all powers lower than 


* The Microscope, v. (1885) pp. 219-20, 
Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. ~ 


146 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


1/4 in., should be supplied with special corrections to render the visual 
and actinic foci coincident. At the same time it may be stated as an 
axiom that any objective that will give a clear, well-defined image of 
an object under the eye-piece, will also produce a sharp and accurate 
reproduction of the same upon the sensitive plate. He has made 
most excellent negatives with a French Triplet 1/4 in., costing no 
more than five dollars, and magnifying 200 diameters—not equal, it is 
true, to the results obtained with lenses of higher grade and finer 
corrections, but so good that only a critical eye would discern the 
difference between them. We quote in full the author’s succeeding 
remarks :-— 

“So let not those possessing only cheap instruments be deterred 
from entering upon this fascinating branch of photography on that 
account, as their cheap tools will turn out good work with the aid of 
patience and careful manipulation. Wide angular aperture is not so 
conducive to good results as a moderate one. Given good corrections 
of spherical and chromatic aberrations, good penetrating and defining 
powers, and the objective of moderate aperture will defeat its wide- 
angled rival on the photographer’s field in every encounter. 

“It may safely be asserted that all powers in ordinary use may be 
successfully employed in photographing by aid of ordinary lamp- 
light. I have used them all from 4 in. to 1/18 homogeneous. 
immersion ; with, and without amplifiers, and all with equally good 
results. If a selection has to be made by one just furnishing an 
outfit, I would suggest a 1 in. or 2/3; 1/2 in. or 4/10; and 
1/5 or 1/6. With these and a camera of sufficient bellows capa- 
city, a range of powers from about 25 to 250 diameters may be 
obtained, quite sufficient for nine-tenths of the work ever required 
in this direction. If a higher power be necessary, then a 1/10 
immersion is recommended. None of these powers from the 1/5 
upwards will require any special correction. If they define any 
given object under the eye-piece, clearly and distinctly, it may be 
accepted as certain that they will produce a correspondingly good 
photograph of it. But for powers less than 1/4 in., I would earnestly 
recommend those specially corrected for photography, else sharply 
defined results cannot be depended upon with any certainty. I 
have seen objectives of low powers, in which there was no apparent 
difference between the actinic and visual foci, and which gave— - 
without any further corrections—negatives as sharp as the image 
seen upon the focusing screen; but such instances are rare, and 
cannot be’counted upon. I would therefore reiterate, for all powers 
lower than 1/4 in., employ only those specially corrected for photo- 
graphy.” 

Photography and Minute Details.*—The following remarks are 
made by a contemporary on the discussion on this subject at the 
November meeting. 

“Tt appears to us that, in these discussions, sufficient allowance 
is not made for the varying acuteness of vision possessed by different 


* Brit. Journ. of Phot., xxxii. (1885) pp. 786-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 147 


persons—a subject upon which we have found most observers are 
particularly touchy. ... Almost every one has eyes which are 
more or less astigmatic ; how very different, therefore, must a set of 
lines in the Microscope appear to most persons, according to the 
relation of their direction to that of the meridian of astigmatism ! 
Again, as to actual acuteness of vision—that is to say, power of visual 
perception of minute objects—that varies in individuals to a degree 
which could scarcely be believed by those not conversant with the 
subject. ... 

"e The moral we would draw from these facts is that, when questions 
of the eye against photography in the Microscope are discussed, the 
conclusions arrived at are worthless unless the powers of the observer’s 
eyes are thoroughly ascertained, both as to acuteness of vision and 
extent of astigmatism.” 

The writer has not quite appreciated that the discussion turned, 
not on the limit of visibility of minute objects, but on resolution or 
the limit of visible separation. The latter depends on the wave- 
lengths of the portion of the spectrum used, and hence photography 
will resolve lines closer together than “ white light” will. 


Imperfection of the Eye and Test Objects.*—Mr. L. Howe calls 
attention to the fact that “fine parallel lines, whether drawn artificially 
or existing in natural objects, do not make fair test objects for the 
Microscope.” This is caused by an ocular imperfection which is 
very common—astigmatism. 

In consequence of this defect, when one of Nobert’s test-plates is 
subjected to examination, the perpendicular lines which one person 
can see perfectly well, cannot be seen by another who considers 
his vision in every way normal. The same holds for other tests of a 
similar nature, such as diatoms or objects marked with fine dots or 
lines in close juxtaposition. This, the author says, is by no means 
an imaginary difficulty, as it has occurred to him more than once to 
find this difference of opinion between persons who are accustomed 
to view such objects, and whose eyes and hands are trained to use the 
Microscope. Fortunately, however, there is a very simple method of 
overcoming the difficulty. This consists in revolving the object on 
the stage of the Microscope, in such a way that lines which at first 
were vertical become afterwards horizontal ; for when turned through 
an arc of 180° they pass through every meridian in which it would 
be possible to see them, provided the amplification and definition be 
sufficient to make them at all visible. 

Pygidium of the Flea as a Test Object.,—Mr. E. M. Nelson 
finds that the so-called hairs of the pygidium of the flea are spines 
which “form nothing that can be called any sort of test for a high- 
power objective.” 


Webb’s Lord’s Prayer.—Mr. W. Webb, well known for his 
microscopic writing of the Lord’s Prayer (the series of which com- 


* The Microscope, v. (1885) pp. 226-8. 
t+ Journ, Quek. Mier. Club, ii. (1885) p. 197. 


n2 


148 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


mences at the rate of 3,616,791 letters to the square inch and extends 
to 212,746,216 letters, or at the rate of more than fifty-nine Bibles 
written in a square inch), has added a further novelty to the series, 
being a photograph and a writing of the Lord’s Prayer side by side 
on the same slide, the former being photographed on the slide and 
the latter engraved on the cover-glass. 

We observe that at a recent meeting of the Microscopical and 
Natural History Section of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical 
Society,* a member stated, “ Mr. Webb died about ten or fifteen years 
ago, but I cannot give the exact date.’ Mr. Webb is, however, still 
alive, and as will be seen from the above, still engaged in microscopic 
writing. 

Leeuwenhoek Medal. — The Gold Medal established by the 
Royal Dutch Academy in memory of Leeuwenhoek, was last year 
awarded to Prof. Ferdinand Cohn, as the histologist who in the last 
decade had most distinguished himself in the study of microscopical 
beings. 


ALLIson, F. B.—Microscopical Binoculars. . 

[Explains Mr. Nelson’s difficulty as to the want of stereoscopic effect in the 
case of objects lying “ vertical,” by the diminished difference of perspective. 
Cf. this Journal, V. (1885) p. 1076.] ; 

Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 262. 
American Society of Microscopists. 

[Report of Cleveland Meeting (by Dr. S. M. Mosgrove).—Also of the 
Working Session (by Dr. W. P. Manton).—Personal Notes on Cleveland 
(Editorial).—Mr. Griffith’s latest (by Dr. F. L. James, from the ‘ National ~ 
Druggist ’).] ; 

The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 193-203, 203-204, 207-210, 232-233. 
B., C. R.—A Cheap Dissecting Microscope. [Post.] 
Bot. Gazette, X. (1885) pp. 427-8. 


Beck’s New “Star” Microscope. [Cf. Vol. V. (1885) p. 512.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) p. 229 (1 fig.). 


Behrens, W. J—Rules for the Use of the Microscope. 

[As to “keeping the metallic part clean.” Focus up with high powers. 
Microscope, if it is to be for a long time out of use, should be put away in 
some closely shutting cupboard in which is placed some chlorate of lime.] 

Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), II. (1885) p. 41, 
from The Microscope in Botany (Transl. of the original German work). 


BiGNELL, G. C.—Photo-micrography. [ Post.] 
Year-Book of Photography, 1886, p. 95. 
Birnpavum, K., and J. Grimm.—Atlas yon Photographien Mikroskopischen 
Praparate der reinen und gefalschten Nahrungsmittel. Abtheilg.I.: Atlas zur 
Mehlpriifung. (Atlas of Photographs of Microscopic Preparations of pure 
and adulterated Foods. Part I. Flour testing.) 
16 pp. and 16 phot. plates, fol., Stuttgart, 1886. 
Bostwicx, A. E.—A new form of Absorption Cell. [Supra, p. 140.] 
Amer. Journ, Sci.. XXX. (1885) p. 452. 


* Chem. News, liii. (1886) pp. 34-5. 

+ Cf. Versl. en Med. K. Akad. Wet. (Amsterdam), ii. (1885) pp. 105-10 
(Address of Prof. Stokvis to Prof. Cohn), and pp. 111-4 (Reply of Prof. Cohn). 
Also pp. 88-90. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 149 


BrotTuers, A.—Microscopic Writing. : 
[Webb’s Lord’s Prayer, &c.—Machine for writing, purchased by Mr. Rideout 


at the 1862 Exhibition. 
Chem. News, LIII. (1886) pp. 33-4. 
3 ee [Electric Spark under the Microscope.] : j 
[Produced by a carbonate of potash battery (with an induction coil) at the 


extremities of two lead-pencil points. ] 
Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., XXIV. (1885) p. 20. 


Buitocys, W. H.—About Magnification. 

[Queries as to the power of 1 in. lens, formula and power of 2 in. eye-piece, 

and length of a 10 in. tube.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) p. 240. 
Bulloch’s (W. H.) Cobweb Micrometer. [Supra, p. 132.] 
Amer, Mon. Micr, Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 239-40. 
Case, Convenient Microscopical. 

{There are a great many. pocket cases for microscopical mounts in the 
market, but the most convenient article for the purpose that we have seen 
is a flat muslin box which does not take up much more room than a 
large pocket-book. It contains four trays, each of them made to hold six 
slides lying flat, thus exposing the label as in the large cabinets” 
(Queen & Co.’s). ] 

St. Louis National Druggist, VII. (1885) p. 230. 
CASTELLARNAU Y DE LLEOPART, J. M. pE.—Vision Microscépica. Notas 
sobre las Condiciones de Verdad de la Imagen microsedpica y el modo de 
expresarlas. (Microscopical Vision. Notes on the Conditions of resemblance 
in Microscopical Images and the Method of Delineation.) Jn part. [Post.] 
Anal. Soc, Espan. Hist. Nat., XTV. (1885) pp. 257-88 (1 fig.). 
Con, H. C.—See Friedlander, C. 
Cole’s (A. H.) Self-adjusting Frog-plate. 

[No description given. ] 

Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), II. (1885) p. 41. 
Cox, J. D.—[Letter accompanying Photo-micrographs of Diatoms.] 

[Also comments on Dr. Cox’s views by M. W. Prinz, who considers the new 
photographs ‘“‘lead to the same confusions and consequently merit the 
same criticisms” as the previous series. ] 

Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., XII. (1885) pp. 7-11. 
Czapskti, S._[Abbe’s Optical Theories. ] 

[Conclusion of review of Dippel’s ‘Grundziige der Allgemeinen Mikro- 
skopie.’? Cf. Vol. V. (1885) p. 1079.] 

Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., V. (1885) pp. 405-8. 
Evans, F. H.—Objectives. 
[As to surprising discrepancies in his measurements of the magnifying 


powers of various objectives. ] 
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) p. 361. 
Everett, J. D.—Outlines of Natural Philosophy for Schools and general readers. 
[ Microscope, pp. 188-91, 1 fig. ] 
335 pp. and 216 figs., 8vo, London, 1885. 
Ewerut, M. D.—Prof. Rogers’ Ruling Machine and Method of ruling Standard 
Micrometers. [ Post.] The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 221-26, 
Fuint, J. M.—Rotary Object-carrier. [Supra, p. 133.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 204-5. 
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 275. 
Fou, H.—Nouveau Microscope. (New Microscope.) [Post.] 
Arch, Sci. Phys. et Nat., XIV. (1885) p. 575. 
Frey, H.—Das Mikroskop und die Mikroskopische Technik. (The Microscope 
and Microscopical Technique.) 
8th ed., vi. and 524 pp., 417 figs., 8vo, Leipzig, 1886. 
Friedlander, C—The Use of the Microscope. Transl. by H. C. Coe. 
2nd ed., 200 pp., 8vo, New York, 1885. 


150 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Girtner, G.—UVeber das electrische Microscop. (On the Electric Microscope.) 
[Post.] 
Med. Jahrb. K. K. Gesellsch. Aerzte Wien, 1884, pp. 217-44 (1 pl. and 1 fig.). 
Med. Times, II. (1885) pp. 412-5 (1 fig.). 
GLAZEBROOK, R. T., and W. N. Suaw.—Practical Physics. 

[“ Travelling ” Microscope for measurements, pp. 64-6. Microscopes used 
to measure expansion, pp. 200-1. Measurement of the magnifying power 
of a lens or of a Microscope, pp. 283-7. Measurement of the Index of 
Refraction of a plate by means of a Microscope, pp. 303-5 (1 fig.).] 

xxii. and 487 pp., 80 figs., Svo, London, 1885. 


Goopwin.—Photo-micrography for Winter Evenings. 
New York Phot. Times, XV. (1885) p. 639. 
Grimm, J.—See Birnbaum, K. 
H., R. O.—[Objectives.] 
[Explanation of F. H. Evans’ difficulty, supra, depends on the difference 
between the optical tube-length and 10 in.] 
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 427. 
Hervurcx, H. van.—Le Microscope 4 l’/Exposition Universelle d’Anvers. (The 
Microscope at the Antwerp Universal Exhibition.) (Contd.) 
[Microscopes, objectives, &c., of Herr C. Reichert, supra, p. 129.] 
Journ. de Micrographie, IX. (1885) pp. 496-504 (6 figs.). 


Hitrouooox, R.—Photo-micrography. L., II. 
[1. General consideration of photographic methods. 2. Apparatus. (a) 
Plates. Developing apparatus (trays). Lanterns. Dark room.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr, Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 201-3, 224-7 (6 figs.). 


[Hiroucock, R.]—Postal Club Boxes. 
[Contents of Boxes Cy, E, Cx, D, and Cw.] 
Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 217-8. 


Ps », | Microscopical Societies. 
[List of thirteen American societies, with brief particulars. ] 
Amer. Von. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 237-9. 
a » Palmer Slide Co.’s Bevel-edge Slides (and remarks by Mr. 
G. S. Woolman) Amer, Mon, Mier. Journ., VI. (1885) p. 239. 


Houmes, E.—A simple and handy Compound Selenite and Mica Stage. 
[Indicates “ how a very useful stage may be made for a few pence, which 
will answer most, if not all, the purposes of the most expensive appa- 
ratus.” A whole revolution of the films is unnecessary. A lever motion 
can be made to give all the alterations. Take a film of selenite and one 
of mica, and mount on circular pieces of wood with projecting handles. 
Then take five thin slips of wood a little larger than an ordinary slip, 
and cut circular pieces out of each. Only two of these are just large 
enough for the films to move in, and the other three, slightly smaller, 
form top and bottom and centre piece to keep films apart. Glue all these 
together, with the selenite and mica films in place. When dry, these 
have a free movement of about 60° or so, and a thin strip at back, to 
lodge slide against completes it. ] 
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 321 (8 figs.). 
Homo10s.—Objectives. 
[Further as to “objectives & Vimmersion of topaz, diamond, or precious 
stones of high refractive index.” ] 
Engl. Mech., XLII.°(1886) p. 386. 
Horxins, G. M.—Das Mikroskop in den mechanischen Kiinsten. (The Micro- 
scope in the Mechanical Arts.) [Post.] 
Central-Ztg. f. Optik u. Mech., VI. (1885) pp. 270-2 (10 figs.). 
Hows, L.—An Imperfection of the Eye and Test-Objects for the Microscope. 
[ Supra, p. 147.] The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 226-228. 
[Jamzs, F. L.J]—See American Society of Microscopists. 
Jeaffreson, J. B., Death of. Nature, XXXII. (1885) p. 278. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 151 


K.LONNE, J., and G. Mituer.—Blendvorrichtung fiir Mikroskope. (Diaphragm 
for Microscopes.) [Post.] 
Title only of German Patent, Kl]. 42. No. 3416. 
+e + a5 Pendel-Objecttisch fiir Mikroskope. (Pendulum 
Stage for Microscopes. [Supra, p. 127.] 
Title only of German Patent, Kl. 42, No. 4238. 
M., W.—The Magnifying Power of an Inch Objective. 

[Proposal to “settle the standard value of an objective which with standard 
length of tube and a 2 in. eye-piece shall have a certain magnifying 
power and be called a one-inch.” ] 

Amer, Mon. Micr. Journ., V1. (1885) pp. 203-4. 
Ma.LaAsspz, L.—Sur les Chambres claires en genéral et sur une Chambre claire 
a 45°. (On Camere lucid in general, and on a 45° camera lucida.) [Post.] 
Travaux Laborat. d’ Histol. du Collége de France, 1884 (1885) pp. 166-79 (1 fig.). 
Manton, W. P.—See American Society of Microscopists. 
Microscope and how to use it, with Instructions for Mounting Objects. 
16 pp. and 3 tigs., 8vo, London, n.d. 


Moors, A. Y.—The Zeiss 1/18 in. Objective. 
[Results of comparison with a Spencer 1/10 in favour of the latter.] 
The Microscope, VY. (1885) pp. 228-29. 
MosGrove, 8S. M.—See American Society of Microscopists. 
Mituuer, G.—See Klonne, J. 
Neuson, E. M.—A Method of Equalising the Thickness of Slips when using an 
Oil-immersion Condenser. [Supra, p. 131.] 
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 280 (3 figs.). 
< ,, A New Aplanatic Pocket Lens. 

[Recommending Zeiss’s No. 127. Extreme field 5/8 in., of which 7/16 in. 
is flat. Power 10.] 

Engl, Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 283. 

- » Testing Objectives. 

[‘* The art of testing object-glasses can only be acquired by long practice, 
and by seeing a great number of lenses, especially those by different 
makers.” ] 

Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) p. 427. 
Photography and Minute Details. ([Supra, p. 146.] 
brit. Journ. Phot., XXXII. (1885) pp. 786-87. 
Photo-micrography. 

(General consideration of photographic methods.) 

New York Phot. Times, XV. (1885) pp. 691-2 (in part). 
Presidents, Portraits of. 

(‘The R. Micr. Soc. are adopting a plan which might be advantageously 

followed by all other scientific or learned societies.’’] 
Brit. Journ. of Photography, XXXII. (1885) p. 786. 
Prinz, W.—See Cox, J. D. 
Read’s (H. T.) Fine Platinum Wire. [Post.] 
St. Louis National Druggist, VII. (1885) p. 308. 
Rogers, W. A.—The Microscope in the Workshop. 

[Paper read before Boston Meeting of Mechanical Engineers, Post.] 

Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) pp. 397-8. 

RosEensBuscu, H.—Mikroskopische Physiographie der Mineralien und Gesteine. 

.Ein Hiilfsbuch bei mikroskopischen Gesteinsstudien. Band I. Die petro- 

graphisch wichtigen Mineralien. (Microscopical Physiography of Minerals 

and Rocks. A guide to the microscopical study of rocks. Vol. I. The 
petrologically important minerals.) 

[Describes the author’s original polarising Microscope, and the Nachet and 
Klein forms, pp. 112-23 (6 figs.). Also Fuess’s new stand and stage, 
pp. 562-4 (2 figs.). Post. ] 

2nd ed., xvi. and 664 pp., 177 figs., 26 phot. pls., 
and Newton scale in colours, 8vo, Stuttgart, 1885. 


152 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


RoystTon-PicotTt, G. W.—Microscopical Advances, Ancient and Modern, II., 
III, IV. 
[Advancing angular aperture. The definition of lines, points, and spherules. . 
Refracting spherules or molecules, black dots, test rings, and lines. 
Post. | 
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) pp. 291-2 (2 figs.), 331-2 (14 figs.), 417-8 (6 figs.). 
Cf. also Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 277 CLucernal Microscope). 


S., G. S.—Accessories for Microscopical Drawing. [Supra, p. 137.] 
Sci.-Gossip, 1886, p. 8 (2 figs.). 
Srervus, H.—Die Geschichte des Fernrohrs bis auf die neueste Zeit. (The 
history of the Telescope to the most recent date.) 

[Contains references to the Microscope, and deals fully with achromatism. | 

vi. and 135 pp., 8 figs., 8vo, Berlin, 1886. 
Suaaw, W. N.—See Glazebrook, R. T. 
Smith’s (H. L.) “‘Homo-tester.” 

[New illustration of it. ] 

Micr. Bulletin, TI. (1885) p. 48 (1 fig.). 

Soret, J. L.—Appareil permettant l’observation microscopique des globules de 

vapeur. (Apparatus for the microscopical observation of globules of vapour.) 

[ Post. ] Arch, Sci. Phys. et Nat., XIV. (1885) pp. 575-6. 
STOWELL, C. H.—(Death of] Thad. S. Up de Graff. 

The Microscope, V. (1885) p. 229 

[Srowett, C. H. and L. R.]—Is it a Micro-photograph or a Photo-micrograph ? 

The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 208-9. 

45 55 <p Ayres’ Micro-photographs. 

Ibid., p. 209. 

” oy) 39 Is it a Fraud 2? 

[Comment on an editorial in the ‘Cincinnati Medical News,’ which 
denounced as a fraud an offer of a Microscope and 1/2 in. and 1/6 in. 
objectives for 22°50 dols.] 

The Microscope, VY. (1885) pp. 231-2. 
5s s 5 See American Society of Microscopists. 


Srupss, E. T.—Presidential Address to the Postal Microscopical Society. 
[How best to carry on, advance, and improve the Society. ] 
Journ. of Micr., V. (1886) pp. 1-9. 
TuHompson, F. C.—An Easy Method of Making Micro-photographs. [ Post.] 
Year-Book of Photography, 1886, pp. 49-52. 
VicgNAL, W.—See Malassez, L. 


Waut, O. A.—[Pinhole Microscopes.] 

(“The simplest Microscope is a piece of paper, or cardboard, which is 
perforated with a pin. The pinhole is brought close to the eye, and 
objects examined through it are considerably magnified. If the surface 
of the card, or paper, is first blackened with ink, the image will appear 
plainer and brighter. In the absence of the Coddington lens, this method 
may serve to examine some of the superficial characters of drugs.” 

: St. Louis National Druggist, VII. (1885) p. 281. 


5 4 On Photo-micrograph Cameras. ‘ 

[Walmsley’s and Atwood’s Cameras. “ Buy no form of apparatus in which 
the focussing plate is fixed”in one immovable position,” as it is easier to 
make slight changes of focus by moving the ground glass than by moving 
the objective. For enlargements also a movable plate is essential. ] 

St. Louis National Druggist, VII. (1885) p. 320. 


. 4 Druggists’ Microscope. 
[Statement of some of the essential features advisable in an instrument 
intended for actual work. ] 


St. Louis National Druggist, VIII. (1886) p. 7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 1538 


Wa.ums.tey, W. H.—How to make Photo-micrographs. 

(“Plain and practical hints”; dealing with Microscopes, (any Microscope 
with a joint can be employed, a monocular body is better than a bino- 
cular, a rotating stage indispensable, and a centering substage a great 
convenience—the eye-piece should be removed and the body-tube lined 
with black flock paper), Objectives (supra, p. 145), Illumination (with 
1/4 in. and higher an achromatic condenser is necessary, otherwise a 
bull’s-eye is sufficient), and Cameras. | 

The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 217-21 (see also p. 233), 271-4. 


= < Photo-micrography by Lamp-light. 
New York Phot. Times, XV. (1885) pp. 274 and 289, 
“p oa Photo-micrographs on Gelatine Plates for Lantern Pro- 
jection. 
[Title only of paper read at Ann Arbor Meeting of the Amer. Assoc. Adv. 
Sci., 1885.] 


Amer. Journ. Sci.. XXX. (1885) p. 327. 
Walmsley’s (W. H.) Photo-micrographic Camera. 
(Cf. Vol. III. (1883) p. 556 and post.] 
New York Phot. Times, XV. (1885) pp. 703-4 (1 fig.). 
Woopwarp, H.—([Microscopic research as applied to Palwontology and 
Mineralogy.] 
[Reference to this Society’s work. ] 
Geol. Mag., III. (1886) pp. 47-8. 
Wooumay, G. 8.—See [Hitchcock, R.]. 


8. Collecting, Mounting and Examining Objects, &c.* 


Obtaining Diatoms from poor Material.;—Herr K. Miiller writes 
that he has “‘ discovered a new system of obtaining specimens from 
poor material. Take the material and dilute it well with water in a 
bowl, and let it stand about a quarter of an hour. The mud must be 
well stirred in the water so that it looks like muddy water. Let it 
stand and rest again. The heavy mineral particles will sink down. 
After a quarter of an hour the water will be clear again, but on the 
top all vegetable particles will float. If you have a small, fine sieve, 
pour the water through, and all the rough parts will remain in the 
sieve, while the diatoms will go through and will float on the surface 
of the water; let it stand about a quarter of an hour, when the 
diatoms will have settled on the edge of the plate, and there form a 
greenish-black border, which you can take off and put under the 
Microscope.” 


Dissecting Trough.—Mr. R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A., F.R.S.E., 
Demonstrator of Zoology, University College, Liverpool, describes 
the dissecting trough which he has devised as follows :— 

“ As is well known to naturalists, dissection is much more easily 
and successfully accomplished under water, the tissues being thereby 
floated up and supported. At the same time it is absolutely essential 


* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects; (2) Preparing, (a) in 
general, (b) special objects; (3) Separate processes prior to making sections; 
(4) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes; (5) Staining and Injecting ; 
(6) Mounting, including preservative fluids, cells, slides, and cabinets; (7) Ex- 
amining objects, including Testing ; (8) Miscellaneous matters. 

+ Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 230-1. 


154 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


to have the water kept clear. Whilst engaged in the prosecution of 
a research into the minute anatomy and histology of Patella vulgata, 
I found that owing to the granular character of the liver and 
nephridia of that mollusc, it was almost impossible to keep the water 
pure and free from granular débris, entailing constant journeys to 
and from the sink, with the risk of disturbing and destroying the 
dissection by the pouring off and renewal of the water. I accordingly 
devised a form of dissecting trough which has answered its purpose 
very well. 

It consists (fig. 87) of a long box of zinc or tin (preferably the 
former) divided into three compartments. The central division A 
is the largest ; the two end divisions are of much smaller size, equal 


Ie, Bi7/- 


to each other, however. The partition between A and C has a slit ss’ 
about 1/2 in. from the top; that between A and B does not quite 
reach the bottom of the trough. Into compartment C a water pipe 
w opens with a stop-cock ¢ in the position indicated; from com- 
partment B an escape pipe w’ passes off. The pipe w is in com- 
munication with a water tap by means of guttapercha tubing, w' by 
the same means with the sink. In compartment A a loaded block of 
paraffin is placed, the thickness of which varies with the size and 
depth of the dissection. The block is made so as to leave a clear 
space of half an inch between it and the sides of the trough. When 
the stop-cock ¢ is turned on, the water flows in, fills chamber C, over- 
flows into A when it has reached the level of the slit ss’, fills 
chambers A and B, escaping by the pipe w’. The direction of the 
current of water is indicated in the sketch by the arrows. The water 
is of course always kept at the same level by the inflow; the arrange- 
ment of the slits in the partitions, however, tends to cause the débris 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 155 


of muddy water to sink to the bottom, the larger particles collecting 
at or near the slit mn. By this means the water in which the dissec- 
tion is carried on is kept pure; the débris is removed, and the 
annoyance of having constantly to renew the water is avoided. The 
supply of fresh water of course is regulated in accordance with the 
necessity for renewal. The trough may be made of any length and 
shape to suit the nature of the dissections to be performed in it. It 
might be an advantage to have the sides sloping outwards instead of 
vertical. Wrist-supports might also be fitted on to the sides. 

The trough was made for me by Mr. Frazer, optician, of Edinburgh, 
who suggested various mechanical improvements during its con- 
struction.” 


Differentiating Embryonic Tissues.*—It may be safely assumed 
that all hardening and staining fluids possess, in a higher or lower 
degree, the power of developing, in the photographer’s sense, histo- 
logical distinctions between embryonic cells, long before these dis- 
tinctions become manifest in perceptible morphological differences. 
It is evident also, that this differentiating action varies in strength 
according to the conditions under which the reagents are applied. 
One of the best ways of intensifying the differential effects of hardening 
fluids, is to use several of them in combination or in sequence. ‘The 
use of osmic acid, followed by Merkel’s fluid, is an example of this 
kind. The advantages of this method in the study of pelagic fish 
eggs have already been noticed,t and Dr. C. O. Whitman now de- 
scribes what the method will accomplish when applied to the eggs of 
Clepsine. The mode of procedure is as follows :— 

The eggs are placed in 1/4 per cent. solution of osmic acid for ten 
minutes, then rinsed in clean water and transferred to Merkel’s fluid 
(platinum chloride 1/4 per cent., and chromic acid 1/4 per cent. in 
equal parts), in which they are allowed to remain one and a half 
hours. They are next washed in flowing water for the same length 
of time, then treated with 50 per cent. and 70 per cent. alcohol. 
They need remain only a short time in the first grade of alcohol 
(about thirty minutes), but should be left for twelve to twenty-four 
hours in the second. For staining the author used Grenacher’s 
alcoholic borax-carmine, adding to it from one-third to one-half its 
volume of glycerin. The glycerin intensifies the action of the dye, 
so that a moderately deep stain is taken in the course of twenty-four 
hours. 

It is best to stain immediately after the eggs have remained the 
required time in alcohol, as receptivity for the staining fluid diminishes 
considerably with the lapse of time. The osmic acid has time to 
penetrate to all parts of the embryo, and the blackening is arrested 
and partially removed by the action of Merkel’s fluid. The diffe- 
rential effects of the osmic acid are, however, sharpened under the 
influence of the chrom-platinum solution. 


* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 1134-5. 
+ Ibid., xvii. (1883) p. 1204, and Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci,, xx, (1884) 
p. 28. 


156 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


This method has enabled the author to trace out the history of 
the endoderm, and the precise origin of the nerve-cords, nephridia, 
salivary glands, larval glands, &e. 


Preparing Mammalian Ovaries for Examination of Graafian 
Follicles.*—Dr. W. Flemming recommends a 2 per cent. solution of 
osmic acid, and also a mixture of chromic, osmic, and acetic acids 
for hardening ovaries and safranin or gentian-violet for staining the 
sections. 


Preparation of Connective Tissues.|—Herr T. Ognew condemns 
most of the ordinary fixative agents, on account of their rendering 
connective tissue cells and their processes imperceptible. His best 
results were obtained from 1 per cent. solution of osmic acid. In 
using this, however, several precautions must be observed. The 
length of the embryo must be from 2-8 cm. The embryo must 
be still warm when placed in the hardening fluid. It must not remain 
in the acid longer than twenty-four hours. Preparations of connective 
tissue cannot be said to be properly stained unless the cells and their 
finest processes stand out quite clearly. 

For the osmic acid preparations the best stain is a mixture of a 
saturated watery solution of safranin and Bohm’s hematoxylin. 
Five to twenty drops of the hematoxylin solution are added to a 
medium-sized watchglassful of the safranin solution. After mixing 
it is necessary to remove the precipitate which arises, by filtration. 
Preparations stained by this method can be mounted in glycerin 
without detriment to their colour. 


Preparing Spinal Cord.—At the December meeting of the Society 
a section of the spinal cord of the ox, prepared by Mr. C. Robertson, 
Demonstrator of Anatomy at Oxford, was exhibited by Dr. Beale, and 
the method of preparation is thus described by Mr. Robertson. 

“ Portions of the warm cord about an inch long are placed in weak 
spirit (10 over proof) from four or five hours, then transferred to 
a 6 per cent. solution of bichromate of potash for six days, care being 
taken during the process of hardening to remove with a razor thin 
sections from the ends to allow the solution to thoroughly penetrate 
to the interior of each piece. The process of hardening is completed 
by transferring to weak spirit for two days, then to strong for two or 
three more days, when the cord can be kept till wanted for sections. 
Portions of the cord are stained before sections are made by soaking 
for twelve hours in a solution of good picrocarmine, washed in weak 
spirit, and soaked for a short time in absolute alcohol, which should 
be used to wet the razor in cutting. The sections are cleared in oil 
of cloves, and mounted in dammar varnish or Canada balsam dissolved 
in benzole in the usual way. 

I have tried most of the methods recommended in the text-books 
for demonstrating the structure of the spinal cord, brain, ganglia, 
&e., and find that none of the methods recommended bring out the 


* Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Anat. Abtheil.), 1885, pp. 221-44 (2 pls.). 
+ Ibid., pp. 487-49 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 157 


processes and cells or enable one to trace the cell process so well as 
the method of soaking in the picrocarmine before cutting ; there is 
also little risk of damaging the sections after they are cut, as they 
can be washed off from the razor to the slide, cleared with oil of cloves 
and mounted in dammar varnish or balsam dissolved in benzole in the 
usual way. 

It is very difficult to procure good picrocarmine in this country. 
The best thing that I have met with I obtained ready made from 
MM. Rousseau and Son, Paris. The only objection to the bichro- 
mate-of-ammonia method is that the solution is liable to deposit in 
the form of small specks amongst the nerve. Some of these specks 
are seen in the sections.” 


Preparing Teleostei for showing Development of Thyroid and 
Thymus Glands.*—Dr. F. Maurer studied the development of these 
glands chiefly in the trout. From eggs obtained recently spawned, 
the troutlets emerged in forty-eight to fifty-six days. Chrom-acetic 
acid was found to be the only satisfactory hardening agent (1/2 per cent. 
chromic acid, 1 per cent. acetic acid, in distilled water). During the 
first twenty days no deformity of the embryo need be anticipated, 
but from this period the amount of distortion goes on increasing. 
The eggs remained in the chrom-acetic from eight to twelve hours, 
they were next washed in water, and then, after the removal of the 
yolk, transferred to alcohol. Staining was always performed with 
alcoholic borax-carmine. In order to prepare the specimens for 
imbedding in paraffin, they were soaked in absolute alcohol, and 
afterwards in chloroform. Giessbrecht’s shellac method was adopted 
for mounting in series. 

For examination of the mature thyroid and thymus, these glands 
were injected with a watery solution of Berlin blue thickened with 
gelatine. The injection was effected by snipping off the apex of the 
heart and passing the canula through the ventricle into the bulbus 
arteriosus. 


Permanent Mounting of Trachee of Insects.t—Mr. F. T. Hazle- 
wood has succeeded in a very simple way in mounting permanently 
the tracheal system of insects. 

He dissects out the soft parts and spreads them on a glass slide of 
the usual size; lets them dry perfectly ; and then with pencil-brush 
gives them a good coating of collodion. After this melt a little hard, 
pure balsam in a test tube, and put it on the object with a cover-glass 
applied at once. 

This method is remarkable for its results. The intestines, the 
ganglia, and the brain, are “ perfectly magnificent.” The intestine 
makes thus one of the most beautiful objects for dark-ground illu- 
mination. The brain shows the most abundant ramifications of the 
trachez, especially in the immense parallel branches in the rods of 
the eyes. The ganglia can be floated on a cover-glass, dried, and 
mounted in this way. 


* Morphol. Jahrbuch, xi. (1885) pp. 136-8. 
+ The Microscope, y. (1885) p. 235, 


158 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Preparing Silkworms.*—Mr. A. C. Cole gives the following 
methods of preparation :— 

The silkworms are to be hardened in spirit; the parts intended to 
be mounted are then to be cut, or dissected out, and placed in liquor 
potasse for from thirty-six to forty-eight hours; then thoroughly 
washed and cleaned with a soft brush, then soaked in distilled water, 
to be once or twice changed, during three or four hours; then placed 
in acetic acid; next in water, to remove the acid; next in spirit, for 
re-hydration ; next in oil of cloves; next in turpentine, and mounted 
in balsam. 

When the tracheal tubes only (separated from the spiracle) are 
required for study, it is better to mount them in a cell, in glycerin 
jelly, and they should be placed, after the acetic-acid treatment, in a 
mixture of half glycerin and half water, with a slight addition of 
acetic acid, until all trace of air is removed. 


Preparing Alimentary Canal of Crustacea.t— For hardening 
the river cray-fish, Dr. J. Frenzel recommends Kleinenberg’s picro- 
sulphuric acid diluted with only twice its volume of water. The 
preparation is left fifteen minutes in the fiuid, then treated with the 
usual grades of alcohol. Osmic acid and the various chromic solu- 
tions proved worthless. Perenyi’s fluid caused a slight swelling, but 
was of some service in the study of the liver and the nuclei of the 
middle gut. Corrosive sublimate (saturated aqueous solution) proved 
an excellent means of isolating the epithelium of the middle gut in 
the lobster. In preparations hardened in this fluid the epithelium 
becomes loosened from the wall of the canal, so that it can be stripped 
off in sheets and prepared for surface-examination. 

For imbedding, paraffin is to be preferred to celloidin. Precaution 
should always be taken to prevent the formation of large crystals, 
which not only render the paraffin brittle, but also injure the finer 
structure of the preparation, by immersing it in cold water and cutting 
soon afterwards. If the paraffin block is allowed to stand for weeks, 
crystallization sets in. 

In staining, the sections are fixed on the slide with chrome 
mucilage, and then stained with alum carmine, alcohol carmine 
(Grenacher), aqueous hematoxylin (Bohmer), and safranin. For the 
epithelium of the middle gut, a double stain with acid carmine and 
hzmatoxylin offers some advantages. 


Preservation of Meduse.j—Dr. W. Haacke preserves Meduse 
in the following way, by which they are said to retain their shape 
better than by any other method known. 

The Medusz are placed in a vessel of sea-water, and killéd by the 
addition of a few drops of concentrated solution of chromic acid; 
they are then placed in fresh sea-water, which is repeatedly changed 


* Cole's Studies in Microscopical Science, iii. (1885) sec. 4, p. 34. “The 
tracheal system in our present preparation would have been thus mounted, but 
balsam being calculated to display the structure of the spiracle and foot to 
greater advantage, it was considered advisable to employ that medium.” 

+ Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) p. 1246. From Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxv. 
(1885) pp. 141-3. ¢ Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 515-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 159 


until all trace of chromic acid is got rid of. A mixture of alcohol 
and glycerin is then added to the water, and the proportion of these 
latter is gradually increased until the Medusz come to be in a pure 
solution of glycerin and alcohol, which is made of the same specific 
gravity as sea-water. 


Mounting Diatoms in situ.*—Dr. F. L. James has found that the 
processes commonly in use, and recommended in the text-books for 
preserving diatoms, as well as other minute aquatic organisms, desmids, 
alge, &c., in the natural state, are all of them more or less unsatis- 
factory, and he never succeeded in making a really good mount until 
he came across a letter from Mr. C. H. Stodder, of Boston,t giving 
his method of mounting in situ, which is briefly as follows :— 

“The alge upon which the diatoms are growing are thoroughly 
dried, as usual, on bibulous paper. It is presupposed that all extra- 
neous dirt, &c., has been removed. I have provided a slide with a 
circle of ink marking the centre on the reverse side, clean cover-glass, 
a bottle of chloroform solution of Canada balsam, some chloroform, 
and a watch-glass. These must all be ready at hand, as the operation 
must be carried through quickly. I select a bit of the weed, just 
large enough to mount, put a few drops of chloroform in the glass, 
and immerse the weed in it. The chloroform seems to be as efficient 
as water in restoring the dried alga to its natural shape. As it 
evaporates quickly, a few drops should be added from time to time 
until the alga is thoroughly permeated and has a natural appearance. 
It is then transferred to the slide, covered with a drop or two of 
chloroform, and arranged in the position which it is to occupy. A 
drop of balsam is now put on, before the chloroform has entirely 
evaporated, and the cover-glass applied. When thus manipulated, 
the balsam follows the chloroform, penetrates the cells of the weed, 
and makes them translucent so as to show all the details of their 
structure admirably, and the diatoms are displayed adhering in their 
natural positions. The balsam must be allowed to harden slowly, as 
it will not do to apply heat, since there is danger of shrivelling the 
delicate structures by so doing. 

While the specific markings of diatoms can rarely be shown in 
mountings of this description, what is equally important, the mode 
of growth, can thus be demonstrated—which cannot be with cleaned 
diatoms. I have before me a slide of Ptilota, from the Pacific, which 
displays finely several species of diatoms of which I had seen no trace 
until this method was tried. If you have a number of specimens to 
mount at once, it will be better to put them directly into a small 
bottle of chloroform instead of the watch-glass. They can thence be 
taken directly to the slide, well saturated with chloroform. The 
most important point is to add the balsam before the chloroform has 
evaporated.” 

The method of Mr. Stodder gives equally good results with fresh- 
or salt-water alge. 


* St. Louis National Druggist, vii. (1885) pp. 233-4. 
+ Amer. Journ. Micr., ii. (1877) pp. 142-3. 


160 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Another method, suggested by Mr. Atwood, of Chicago,* also 
gives most excellent results. It is as follows :— 

“For mounting marine algz I prepare an artificial sea-water by 
dissolving in rain or distilled water a sufficient amount of sea-salt, 
which can be procured of any druggist. The dried alge immersed 
in this will, in an hour, have resumed their original state. When 
this has occurred I pick out and clip off such pieces as are best 
adapted for mounting, transfer them to a bowl of distilled water, and 
wash them clean. ‘They are thence transferred into a saturated solu- 
tion of salicylic acid. The slides are prepared for receiving the 
mounts, with cells made of bleached shellac dissolved in Cologne 
spirits, thoroughly dry. ‘The specimen is removed from the salicylic 
solution and arranged in its place, and the cell is filled with the 
salicylic solution. The cover-glass, first breathed upon, is put into 
its place, the surplus fluid: removed in the usual way, and the cell 
closed with a thin coating of gold size. In a day or two I lay on 
more size, and when it is dry finish off with zinc cement or Brunswick 
black. 
In mounting an alga having Isthmia parasitic upon it, I have 
found it almost impossible to fill the diatoms if balsam be used, 
whereas the salicylic solution fills every valve and cavity. The acid 
sometimes, but not often, decolorizes the alge. ‘The immersion of — 
marine alge in the artificial sea-water is an important point that . 
should not be neglected, as otherwise their full beauty cannot be 
brought out.” 


Preparing thin Sections of friable and decomposed Rocks, Sands, 
Clays, Oozes, and other Granulated Substances.;—Mr. F. G. Pearcey 
describes the method adopted in the case of some of the ‘ Challenger ’ 
collections, transparent sections of which were required, but which it 
was impossible to prepare by the ordinary method of the lapidary’s 
wheel on account of their friability. It was therefore necessary to 
find some method of making them hard and compact, so that they 
could be subjected to this process. The principle of the method 
consists in the introduction of some foreign substance to cement the 
grains together, and make the material hard and compact. This 
is carried out by soaking in a solution of gum copal in ether, and 
then evaporating the ether, a method which is in use by naturalists 
for making sections of the hard parts of Echinoderms. 

Preparation and Use of the Cement.—The first process consists in 
preparing a solution of gum copal in ether. Take one half-pound 
of the best gum copal and place it in a strong glass jar, sufficient to 
hold about one quart, with finely ground air-tight stopper ; add about 
20 ounces of ether B.P. (sp. gr. 0°735). This should stand for 
at least two days, and should be shaken frequently, or stirred with 
a glass rod; when all the gum copal is dissolved, it should form a 
clear, thin, transparent liquid, and is then ready for immediate use. 

The substance to be hardened should be first well dried in a 
porcelain dish, upon a hot iron plate placed upon a tripod stand over 


* Amer. Journ. Micr., ii. (1877) pp. 154-5. 
+ Proc. R. Phys, Soc, Edin., viii. (1885) pp. 295-300 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 161 


the flame of an ordinary Bunsen burner. The material is next placed 
in a porcelain crucible, varying in size according to the amount of 
substance required. About twice the volume of the solution of gum 
copal and ether should then be poured upon it, always taking care to 
press the stopper of the bottle well in afterwards. 

The crucible is next placed upon the hot plate, care being taken 
to have a moderate heat at first, and to allow the mass to simmer 
till the ether has partly evaporated, when a greater heat may be 
applied. If the substance is a fine sand or ooze, it must be well 
stirred with a needle-point or small knife, otherwise it will stick to 
the bottom of the crucible, and not allow the gum copal to mix with 
it. If it is a soft, porous, or decomposed rock, it will only be 
necessary to turn it a few times, so that the solution may thoroughly 
penetrate all the pores. Great care must be taken during this part 
of the operation, as the cement is very inflammable, and therefore 
caution is essential, not only in stirring, in consequence of the gum 
having a tendency to stick to the sides of the crucible, but also in 
removing the stirring-needle to avoid contact with the flame. 

After nearly all the ether has evaporated, the substance, if it is 
of a granular nature, should form a thin, stringy mass when stirred, 
and the operator can judge whether sufficient of the gum remains to 
cement the grains together; if too much has been applied, more of 
the substance and a small quantity of pure ether must be added, and 
the whole boiled over afresh. When there is a sufficiency of gum, 
the mixture should be kept boiling and well stirred till it becomes of 
a reddish or brown colour; sometimes it is difficult to discern the 
colour, as the substance interferes with it, but it can be seen in most 
cases. ‘The operator, however, can easily ascertain whether it has 
been sufficiently boiled and has attained the necessary consistency, 
by taking a little out on the point of a knife, and rapidly cooling it 
by pressing it against some cold surface, or holding it a short time 
in water. If it hardens immediately, it has been boiled enough. 

The crucible can now be taken off, and while yet warm, the 
substance should be scraped out with a knife, and rolled or pressed 
with the fingers into an oblong mass; it is then ready for moulding, 
or it can be laid aside and 
moulded at any time by Fic. 38. 
gradually softening on a a b 
piece of glass or in a 
porcelain dish upon the 
hot plate. The moulds 
are easily made by cutting 
strips of ordinary tin 4 in. 
by 3/4 in., bent tightly 
over a round iron rod, a CLOSED OPEN 
small slit being cut on 
one side of the tin to allow the wire connected with the mould to sink 
below the surtace of the rim ; this permits the mould to stand level and 
close to the glass plate; take the tin off the iron rod and bind it firmly 
round with fine copper wire: it is then ready for use (fig. 88 a). 

Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. M 


162 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Moulding.—This must be done while the substance is quite hot 
and plastic. First put a piece of common flat glass, three times the 
size of the cavity of the mould, upon the hot plate, with the 

mould on the top and the notched end downwards, so 

Fic. 39. as to have it perfectly flat on the glass, and when 
quite hot, place the substance in the mould and press 
it firmly in with the presser (fig. 39), taking care to let 
as little as possible of the substance escape from the 
bottom. This may be to a great extent prevented by 
holding the mould down with the back of a knife with 
the left hand, and pressing in the substance with the 
right. 

This done, take the whole off the plate smartly, 
with the glass attached, and press it on another flat 
slab or iron plate with the left hand, and with the 
right pour on a little cold water, when it will im- 
mediately set hard. Next place the whole in cold 
water for two or three minutes, after which the piece 
of glass at the bottom can be knocked or broken off; 
then loosen the wire which fastens the mould together, 
and open it a little (fig. 38, 6); the moulded substance 
will then drop out in the form of a very hard mass, 
and is ready to be cut into sections. After a little 
practice, the whole operation can be done in an hour. 

Preparation of the Sections—Rub down and polish 
one end of the moulded substance, first upon a common 
hone, with a slow, equable motion, and a steady pres- 
sure, so as to produce the desired flatness of surface, 
and afterwards upon a Water-of-Ayr stone to give a 
fine polish. It must be held quite flat, so as to pre- 
vent the stones from getting worn into a hollow, when 
it will be impossible to get a perfectly flat surface. 

The desired flatness and polish being secured, 
proceed to cement with Canada balsam the polished 
surface on an ordinary glass slide 3 x 1 in., or 
according to the size of the sections required. This 
is done in the same way as with hard rocks, but great 

Sa EESen care must at first be taken not to have the slide too 

hot, or the balsam will become too brittle. After 
having been properly mounted, it should be cemented round with 
a composition formed of four parts of resin and one of beeswax, 
melted together in a crucible on a hot plate, and put round the 
preparation with a glass pipette; when quite cold it may be 
cut with a lapidary’s wheel, or ground down on a metal plate with 
emery powder. The slice remaining on the slide should be well 
cleaned and rubbed down on the hone to the required thinness. 
This part of the process is most difficult. The slides should be kept 
as flat as possible, and looked at frequently with the Microseope, so 
that the first indication of disruption may be detected. The proper 
thinness having been obtained, the sections should be at once covered 


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ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 163 


with a glass cemented with balsam; but considerable practice is 
required in this part of the work, as the preparation being very thin, 
is liable to be broken into pieces by very slight overheating. The 
superfluous Canada balsam around the slice should be first carefully 
scraped off with a sharp-pointed knife, and the slide well washed in 
spirit of turpentine, using a camel-hair brush to clean the section 
thoroughly. <A little Canada balsam should then be dropped upon 
the centre of the section, and a clean cover-glass, heated a little, should 
be laid upon it while yet warm, and pressed down upon it, so as to 
force out the air-bubbles if any remain. 

The slide on which the section still remains should not be too 
hot, otherwise the gum will become soft and the preparation spoiled. 
Several preparations may be quite easily made from one moulding, 
and when mounted, labelled and laid aside for future examination. 

Mineral particles, no matter how small, can be cut into sections 
in the manner described. 


Cedar-wood Oil for Paraffin Imbedding.*— Mr. A. B. Lee ad- 
vocates the use of cedar-wood oil for clarifying tissues previously to 
imbedding them in paraffin. 

The object is steeped in the oil, and then transferred to a bath 
of pure paraffin, or, if it be a delicate structure, first of all to a 
mixture of oil and paraffin. The cedar-wood oil clarifies very rapidly, 
and the object absorbs the paraffin quickly and thoroughly, so that 
it is only necessary to leave it for a very short time in the paraffin. 
The length of time that the object is left in the oil is of no moment, 
as it does not become brittle or over-hardened; treatment with this 
oil renders section-cutting very easy, and the method of procedure is 
exceedingly simple. 

Apparatus for Imbedding Preparations specially adapted for 
the Nervous System.j—Instead of the ordinary clamp arrangement, 
Dr. 8. v. Stein recommends a small metal case, open above, and to the 
bottom of which a clasp, with or without a slot, is fitted. The walls 
are formed by two rings. The upper ring, 30 mm. high, is pushed 
over the lower one, 10 mm. high. To make the imbedding mass adhere 
firmly, the floor of the box is fitted with three screws which project 
into the cavity for a distance of 4 mm. 

When used, the upper ring is oiled and adjusted. The imbedding 
mass (one part oil and two parts wax) is then poured into the case 
until the screws are covered. After this has cooled down a little, the 
object is placed thereon, and the rest of the space filled up. The mass 
sets ina short time. The upper ring is then withdrawn, and there 
remains a wax column in which the object is firmly fixed. The 
sections are cut under water. This procedure is easily effected by 
the Leiser or Schanze microtome. The size and shape of the case 
ae or oval) depends on the form of the part of the nervous system 

a hemisphere, &c.). 

This method has the advantages—(1) that the specimen is not 

* Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 563-4. 

+ Centralbl. f. d. Med. Wiss., 1884, pp. 120-6. Cf. Virchow and Hirsch’s 
Jahresbericht (for 1884) 1885, p. 41. 

mM 2 


164 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


exposed to any pressure, (2) the knife does not become blunt soon, 
as it does not come in contact with the upper plate, as is the case with 
Ranvier’s microtome. 

Imbedding in Celloidin.*—Dr. C. S. Minot advises that after 
dehydration in alcohol, the object should be placed for twenty-four 
hours in a mixture of equal parts of absolute alcohol and pure ether 
before immersing in the thin solution of celloidin. In this it 
remains for from one to three days, according to the size of the 
object, and is then imbedded in a thicker solution of celloidin. 

This is best done as follows: A cylindrical cork of convenient 
diameter is selected; a strip of glazed paper wrapped round it 
tightly and fastened with a couple of pins as indicated in fig. 40. In 
the box thus formed the object is placed and the celloidin poured 
carefully over it. If necessary the object can be secured in any 
position by pins. Bubbles will rise from the cork and interfere 
with the imbedding; two precautions will essentially diminish this 
danger: 1. Pour in so much celloidin that it covers the object half an 
inch deep, giving an opportunity for the bubbles to rise above the 

tissue ; 2. Before imbedding, cover the end of the 

Fic. 40. cork with a thin layer of celloidin, which is allowed 
to dry on completely. After the object is covered, 
the cork is mounted on a lead sinker, and allowed to 
stand until a film has formed on the upper surface. 
It is then immersed in alcohol of 82-85 per cent. 
(stronger alcohol attacks the celloidin) for one to 
three days. The sections have to be cut under 
alcohol. 

For mounting sections with celloidin left on 
them, Dr. Minot has found none of the methods. 
hitherto recommended satisfactory, but after trying 
various reagents, considers chloroform the most con- 
venient medium of transfer from alcohol to balsam, 
In using it, care must be taken to place the section 
for half a minute in perfectly fresh alcohol, which 
is really 95-96 per cent. ; if this is done, chloroform 
will clear it up almost immediately. When the 
section is in chloroform on the slide, the mounting 
must be expeditious, and the balsam added while the 
chloroform is still covering the section. 'The transfer, particularly of 
a large section, from the spatula to the slide, with chloroform, is 
often very difficult. 'To mount a single section, put it in alcohol on 
the slide, wash with a few drops of fresh strong alcohol; let most of 
the alcohol drain off, but while the section is still covered with it 
add chloroform, drain off the mixture, and pour over the still moist | 
section a fresh dose of chloroform; if the washings have been really 
thorough, the sections will clear at once. 

With regard to the paper-box, Dr. R. G. Hebb tells us that he 
has always used pill-boxes made of white board or of willow-wood. 


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* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp, 828-9 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 165 


They have all the advantages of the former, and are of all sizes and 
very cheap. 
Imbedding-Box.*—A convenient box (fig. 41) introduced by Dr. 
Dimmock,t may be made of two 
pieces of type metal (or better of Fic. 41. 
brass), each piece of metal having 
the form of a carpenter’s square. 
A convenient size will be found 
in pieces measuring 5 cm. (long 
arm) by 3 cm. (short arm) and 
7mm. high. With such pieces a 
box may be constructed at any 
moment by simply placing them 
together on a plate of glass which 
has previously been wet with glycerin, and gently warmed. The 
area of the box will evidently vary according to the position given to 
the pieces, but the height can be varied only by using different sets 
of pieces. 


Orientation of Small Objects.{—Orientation becomes difficult 
only with objects so small that their position can be controlled only 
by the aid of a Microscope. Spherical objects, less than 1 mm. in 
diameter, e.g., many ova and embryos, are the most difficult to 
manage. Such objects may usually be successfully oriented in the 
following manner, as given by Dr. C. O. Whitman :— 

1. Prepare the box ; for this it will be necessary to use the two 
triangular pieces of metal, a rectangular glass plate (2 in. by 23 in.). 
The plate should be cleaned and then smeared with glycerin, and 
the pieces of metal so adjusted that the arms are parallel with the 
edges of the plate. 

2. Having warmed the box over a spirit-lamp, lift the object from 
the basin of paraffin by the aid of a small, flat, thin spatula (first 
starting it from the bottom by shaking the paraffin a little), and allow 
it to flow with the paraffin carried on the spatula into the box. 

8. Then fill the box, 5-6 mm. deep, with the melted paraffin, and 
warm it a little over a spirit-lamp, just enough to keep all of the 
paraffin in a liquid condition for a few moments. Now place the box 
on a warm table of a dissecting Microscope, and by the aid of a hot 
needle proceed to place the object in the desired position. As the 
object is illuminated from below, it can be easily seen, turned over, 
and moved about at pleasure. If the paraffin sets before orienta- 
tion is effected, it should be melted again as before, and the needle 
must be kept hot by repeatedly holding it in the flame of the lamp. 

The difficulty of finding very small objects in a basin of paraffin 
will be very much lessened by keeping the paraffin free from dust, 
and the bottom of the basin (tin) scoured bright, A piece of emery 
cloth serves for polishing. 

The necessity of re-warming the box of paraffin, which often arises 


* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 1247-8. 
+ Cf. this Journal, ii. (1882) p, 881. 
t+ Amer, Natural., xix. (1885) p. 1248, 


166 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


in the above method, may be removed by using a hot bath on the 
table of the Microscope. This bath should be a box of convenient 
size (not over 2 em. high), with top and bottom of glass, with an 
opening at one end for filling with hot water, and another at the 
opposite end provided with a rubber tube and clamp, for drawing off 
the water as soon as the object has been arranged. 


Prevention of Bubbles.*—After the imbedding process has been 
carried thus far, there is still another danger to be carefully guarded 
against. Uf the box is left to cool slowly in the air, bubbles are very 
likely to appear in the paraffin, which will prove a serious obstacle 
in cutting. Profiting by Caldwell’s suggestion, to cool the box in 
water, one may avoid all such inconveniences. As soon as the 
paraffin cools around the object, so that its position is secured, the 
box should be held in a vessel of cold water, first at the surface (until 
the paraffin has set), then fully submerged. In this way the 
paraffin is quickly cooled sufficiently for removal from the box, 
which may then be used for imbedding a second object. A dozen 
objects may be thus imbedded in a very short time. If the box is_ 
plunged below the surface of the water before the paraffin has become 
rigid, holes will arise in the mass and fill with water. 


Bulloch’s Combination Microtome.—Since the description of 
this microtome was published, it has been further improved. The 
attachment for holding the knife consists of two discs, and when 
placed in position at zero, which is indicated by a spring stop, 
are 4/10 in. thick. Each disc is 2 in. in diameter and in the 
form of a wedge. The lower dise is divided into 25 parts, and 
by the proper position of each wedge any inclination or adjustment 
can be given to the knife. The periphery of the elevating wheel 
has a rachet with feeding attachment, but the adjustment for gradu- 
ating the amount of elevation is on the block which carries the 
knife, and is worked by means of a sliding arm-piece, and can be 
gauged from one to twenty teeth, or 0:005 to 0-1 mm. By this 
arrangement the knife-carrier can be used on the full length of the 
bed at any adjustment of the feeding attachment. A ribbon carrier 
has also been attached. 


Improved Roy Microtome.j—Figs. 42 and 43 show the Roy 
microtome as improved by M. C. Vérick, from suggestions by Prof. 
L. Malassez. 

The special advantages presented by this instrument are that it 
cuts under water or spirit, and that the sections can be made of 
almost any desired thickness and in any direction. It is specially 
adapted for freezing, but can of course be used in the ordinary manner. 
In facility of management, rapidity of movement and sureness, it is 
claimed to be superior to all microtomes, and only yields to the 
Rivet microtome for extreme delicacy of sections. 

The object to be cut is fixed in a metal tube fitted with a special 
but simple arrangement (not shown in the fig.), or if too soft to be 

* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 1248-9. 
+ Trav. Laborat. d’Histol. College de France, 1884 (1885) pp. 191-206 © figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 167 


thus compressed, is first imbedded in carrot, pith, collodion, &c., or 
better still, fixed with liquid glue on a piece of wood. 


— \i \ 
BRAY ERY 
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WHI 
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Any kind of razor may be used, and the knife may be placed in 
any position, and by the aid of thin metal blocks, any desired 


168 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


inclination may be imparted. The sections are made automatically 
and are of a definite thickness. By working to and fro the handle, ~ 
which is in connection with the microtome screw, and having pre- 
viously put the spring in action, the machine works automatically, 
cutting, at each complete turn, a section 1/100 of a millimetre in 
thickness. Thicker sections are made by stopping short just before 
cutting and reversing the action of the handle, &c. ; thus two descents 
of the knife-carrier produce a section VU: 02 mm. in thickness, and so on. 

In cutting under water or alcohol the instrument is placed, as will 
be seen from fig. 43, in a position at right angles to that of fig. 42. 

A trough full of water or alcohol receives the object-carrier, and the 
sections fall off into the fluid. 

When used for freezing, the object-grip or tube is replaced by a 
plate (fig. 42) beneath which is a reservoir for saving the superfluous 
ether. In place of ether Prof. Malassez advises the use of methyl 
chloride, which being volatile at the ordinary temperature and 
pressure, does not necessitate the use of a spray apparatus. A tin 
tube covered with caoutchoue and fitted with a stopcock is attached 
to the siphon which contains the methyl chloride. One jet of vapour 
is nearly always sufficient to freeze the object, and when this is 
effected it is advisable to place the machine in the vertical position 
and allow the sections to drop into a basin of water recently boiled. 
or slightly alcoholized, in order to get rid of air-bubbles. 


Sharpening Microtome Knives.*—Dr. C. O. Whitman considers 
that microtome knives can be properly sharpened only by those who 
understand their chief peculiarities, and who have trained them- 
selves in this special work. The difficulties in acquiring the art 
are not, however, insurmountable ; for with 
the proper means and a little perseverance 
they can be mastered in a short time. The 
first important step is to provide oneself 
either with a good razor-strop, or with a 
long and wide oilstone of the finest quality. 
Strops made of a leather band, unsupported by a solid base, and kept 
tense by the aid of a screw working in a frame, should never be 
employed in sharpening these knives, for they invariably give a bi- 
convex edge, with which it is impossible to do fine work. To secure 
a plane bevel of the cutting edge the surface of the strop must be 
perfectly smooth, flat, and hard. In using the strop the knife is 
drawn back and forth, back foremost, without pressure, until the edge 
appears sharp when tested in the manner before mentioned. 

In using an oil-stone it is well to cover the surface of the stone 
with a mixture of glycerin (two parts) and water (one part). The 
blade is laid flat on the stone and pushed forward, edge foremost, in 
such a manner that the free end of the knife finishes by resting on 
the more distant end of the stone. Here the blade is turned on its 
back and returned, edge in advance as before, to the place of starting. 
In drawing the blade the utmost care should be taken never to raise 


* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 831-2 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 169 


in the slightest degree the back from the stone ; and further the knife 
must not be pressed on the stone, but held lightly by the finger-tips, 
and the necessary friction be left to capillary adhesion. After draw- 
ing the knife fifteen to twenty times it should be tested as before. 

The knives furnished with the Thoma microtome should be pro- 
vided with a wire support (fig. 44 w) for the back of the knife during 
the process of sharpening. 

Chrome Mucilage as a Fixative.*—Dr. J. Frenzel recommends 
the following process :—Make a thin solution of gum arabic in water 
and add to this an aqueous solution of chrome alum. An excess of 
the latter does no harm. A little glycerin is added to the mixture to 
prevent it from drying too rapidly when painted on the slide. 

After painting the slide with a small brush the sections are 
placed in order and the slide left for a few minutes (not over 
fifteen minutes) in the oven of a water-bath kept at 30-45° C. 
The gum is thus rendered insoluble. The paraffin is next removed 
in the ordinary way, and the sections stained according to desire. 
Fuchsin and safranin are the only anilin dyes which cannot be used, 
as they stain the film of gum deeply, and thus injure the preparation. 


Fixing Serial Sections on the Slide.t—For this purpose gutta- 
percha dissolved in benzol and chloroform ; caoutchouc dissolved in 
benzol ; gum arabic ; gum arabic dissolved in absolute alcohol ; and 
collodion one part with three parts oil of cloves; have been used. 

Dr. H. Leboucq’s modification consists in combining the last two 
methods. He covers a warmed slide first with gum, and then with 
collodion. Sections still retaining their paraffin are placed upon the 
slide and the latter upon a glass plate warmed by a lamp. As soon 
as the paraffin is melted it is removed by means of turpentine oil or 
benzol, and finally the sections are mounted in Canada balsam. 


Treatment of Sections with Osmic Acid. t—Herr F. Stuhlmann 
has devised a method of treating tissues with osmic acid after they 
have been cut (by the paraffin method) and placed on a slide smeared 
with Mayer’s solution of albumen and glycerin. 

A few drops of the acid are placed in a watch-glass and the slide 
laid across it with the sections downwards; the whole is covered with 
a bell-glass to avoid undue evaporation, and kept for half an hour to 
an hour and a half. They are then stained a pale yellow, which 
is sufficient, but it is sometimes useful to stain them further with a 
watery solution of hematoxylin. The method is particularly useful 
for nerve-tissues. 


Staining Nerve-fibres of Retina.s—Dr. S. Bernheimer colours 
pale nerve-fibres, especially those of the retina, with hematoxylin in 
the following manner. 


* Amer, Natural. xix. (1885) p. 1246. From Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxv. 
(1885) p. 52. 

+ Ann. Soc. Méd. Gand, 1884, pp. 167-8. Cf. Virchow and Hirsch’s 
Jahresbericht (for 1884) 1885, p. 41. 

t Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 643-4. 

§ SB. K. Akad. Wiss, Wien, xe. (1884) 6 pp. Cf. Virchow and Hirsch’s 
Jahresbericht (for 1884) 1885, p. 40. 


170 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The preparations previously stained by Miiller’s fluid are 
thoroughly washed for twenty-four hours in distilled water, and then 
steeped for twenty-four hours in a concentrated alcoholic solution of 
hematoxylin, prepared fresh every time. To the latter (the exact 
quantity not given) are added four to five drops of an alum solution 
(1-800), and five to six drops of dilute ammonia. After twenty-four 
hours the solution is thoroughly washed and left in distilled water for 
twenty-four hours, and is then placed in glycerin. 


Picroborate of Carmine.*-—M. G. Dutilleul describes an alcoholic 
reagent which has all the advantages of picrocarmine without its 
disadvantages. It has great penetrating force and gives a double 
stain (yellow and red). 

Mix, warm, equal volumes of borax-carmine and a saturated 
solution of picric acid, and add to the mixture one volume of 95 per 
cent. alcohol. Filter when cold. It can be kept indefinitely without 
leaving any deposit. 

Staining with Iodine Vapour.,—Many of the micro-fungi, when 
mounted permanently in Canada balsam, become so transparent as to 
be nearly invisible. Mr. B. Piffard finds that if previously exposed 
to the action of iodine vapour, they assume, when mounted, a clear 
yellowish-brown colour by which their structure is beautifully 
defined. 

Cold Mass Injection for Anatomical Preparations.t — The 
materials for this mass, which has been suggested by Herr A. K. 
Bjeloussow, are only two, viz. borax and finely powdered gum arabic. 
A solution of these substances is made separately, and the two 
solutions afterwards mixed in the proportion of one part by weight of 
gum to a half-part by weight of borax. The resulting mass resembles 
gelatin in its physical properties, and is almost insoluble in water. 
The gelatinous mass is next rubbed up with ordinary water, and then 
forcibly strained through a piece of linen. The last two steps are 
repeated once more, and then a solution, miscible with water in all 
proportions, is obtained. 

Any pigments, except cobalt or cadmium colours, may be used to 
stain the injection mass. Carmine is perhaps the most useful, 
especially for fine capillary injection. Any injection apparatus may 
be employed to introduce the injection mass into the blood or lymph 
vessels. After injection, the object is placed in spirit, and this 
“sets” the injection mass. Should it be necessary to remove the 
mass from any part, this may be effected by dropping over it a little 
dilute acetic acid. 

Mounting in Gelatin.s—Dr. L. Gerlach dissolves 40 grm. gelatin 
in 200 c.cm. of a saturated solution of arsenious acid, adds 120 c.cm. 
glycerin, and clears with albumen. The solution is yellowish. The 


* Bull. Sci. Dép. Nord, xvi. (1885) pp. 371-2. 
* + Sci.-Gossip, 1886, p. 17. 

+ Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Anat. Abtheil.), 1885, pp. 379-84. 

§ Cf. Virchow and Hirschi’s Jabresbericht (for 1884) 1885, p. 68. From 
Gerlach’s Beitr. zur Morphologie u. Morphogenie, pp. 118-20. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 171 


specimen is placed in a watch-glass with the solution, and then covered 
with a circular glass plate, at the edge of which is an evenly ground 
ring 1 em. broad. The aperture is hermetically sealed first with 
melted wax, and on the following day with amberlac. Later on they 
are firmly fixed with a mixture of equal parts of guttapercha and 
tallow. 


Styrax for Mounting.*—Professor A. B. Aubert, referring to 
Mr. Deby’s statement (Vol. V. 1885, p. 745) that styrax never dries 
completely, states that his experience with the styrax of commerce 
has been the same; but that the southern sweet gum (the exudation 
of Liquidambar styraciflua), when treated as indicated by him,f gives 
a chloroform solution which hardens as thoroughly as the balsam 
solution, and has the advantage over it of rendering fine details more 
visible. As far as he had heard from persons using genuine American 
styrax (or storax), it has been satisfactory as a mounting medium, 
hardening thoroughly, and giving clear and in every way excellent 
mounts. 


Meates’s Mounting Medium.—Mr. W. C. Meates writes:—“I 
make this medium by taking one part of powdered metallic arsenic 
and six parts of pure sulphur, rub them together in a mortar, and put 
the mixture in a small test-tube, then apply heat by means of a spirit- 
lamp; the ingredients soon unite, and the sulphur turns a deep red. 
You must go on until the mixture has boiled for a minute or so, then 
pour it out on to a clean piece of glass, and let it cool. I am in the 
habit of forming drops on the glass about the size of a large pea, and, 
before the mixture is cold, keeping another piece of glass upon them 
so as to flatten them very much, then when cold break them up into 
small pieces. 

It is very easily used, and it is not even necessary to finish them 
off with a pretty border, as the sulphide gets so hard when cold. I 
take a clean cover and place it ona very flat brass mounting table, 
then place the diatoms on it, and thoroughly dry it; then put a small 
piece of the sulphide on the centre, make it hot with a spirit-lamp 
until it melts and becomes of a deep red colour and on the point of 
flaming, then place the cleaned side centrally upon it, and with a piece 
of wood or lead pencil press them well together. The sulphide will 
extend all round, and on cooling will turn of a canary yellow colour. 
You can now immediately put the slide under the Microscope. 

With this medium Amphipleura pellucida can be resolved as easily 
as in Smith’s medium. With a Powell oil-immersion 1/8 and oil- 
immersion condenser I can distinctly see the markings in squares.” 


Limpid Solution of Dammar.{—Dr. F. L. James finds no diffi- 
culty in getting a perfectly limpid solution of dammar if one will only 
use benzol sufficient to make a solution which will readily pass through 
filter paper. If the solution be too thin for immediate use, the surplus 
benzol is easily driven off by evaporation. If the amount be sufficient 


* Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., vi. (1885) p. 219. 
t See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 744-5. 
t St. Louis National Druggist, vii. (1885) p. 245. 


172 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


to warrant the trouble, it can, of course, be recovered by distillation. 
The same result may be obtained by shaking up a thin solution of 
dammar with zinc oxide. The latter should be dropped into a bottle 
dry, and allowed to settle spontaneously. It carries down with it 
the suspended particles of dust upon which the turbidity of the 
solution ‘depends. 


Repairing Balsam Preparations.*—When balsam preparations 
have been made with a very thin solution, or with a small amount of. 
fluid, evaporation sometimes causes the balsam to be invaded by air- 
spaces which it is difficult to refill, even with a thin solution of balsam. 
Such spaces Prof, H. L. Mark finds may readily be filled with the 
solvent of the balsam (benzol), and then a drop of thin balsam placed 
at the edge of the cover-glass will gradually replace the benzol as 
it evaporates, without leaving air-spaces. ‘T'o prevent a too rapid 
introduction of the benzole, it is desirable to transfer it with a glass 
tube drawn to capillary fineness at one end, rather than with a glass 
rod. If the tube is not too large—5 or 10 mm.—and is drawn out 
quite gradually, enough benzole may be sucked into it to serve for 
repairing a large number of slides without danger of loss by its 
running out or by evaporation when the tube is laid down. The 
application of the capillary end of the tube to the edge of the cover- 
glass induces a steady and even flow of the fluid, until the space 
beneath the cover-glass is completely filled. 


Arranged Diatoms.j — Mr. C. Febinger, who has made some 
excellent arranged mounts, uses as an adhesive material to hold the 
diatoms when placed in position, gelatin (the best photographer’s) 
dissolved in six times its weight of glacial acetic acid. This should be 
done in a porcelain capsule with a water-bath. When the solution is 
complete, add one part of alcohol to every fourteen parts of the solution 
and filter. It is spread on the slide with a glass tube or needle. 


Gold-plated Diatoms.—Mr. A. Y. Moore has now gold-plated some 
diatoms, but we have not heard whether they show any practical 
advantage over the slides of silvered diatoms which he recently 
produced. 

Test Diatoms.—Amphipleura pellucida and A. Lindheimerii.— 
Mr. J. Deby sends the following note:—“ Don Alfredo Truan y 
Luard, in his, very interesting and well illustrated ‘ Ensayo sobre 
la Synopsis de las Diatomeas de Asturias,’ gives full instructions 
for collecting, selecting, and mounting diatoms, and much original 
matter relating to the microscopical examination and study of the 
Diatomacew. The fact to which I wish, however, particularly to draw 
attention is his having discovered in the north of Spain, abundantly, 
as he states, Amphipleura Lindheimerti, a species hitherto known 
only from South America. In a footnote, the author states that 
Herr Moller of Wedel has asked him for a number of these diatoms, 
to be mounted by him as test objects. Now A. Lindheimerii is larger 
and has very much coarser striz, easy of resolution, yet non-specialists 


* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) p. 1137. 
+ St. Louis National Druggist, viii. (1885) p. 196. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 173 


would have trouble to distinguish it from the commoner European 
species. I do not suspect for one minute that Herr Méller himself 
would knowingly offer for sale test slides of the coarser diatom under 
the name of A. pellucida; but others might be found not quite so 
scrupulous. 

Special slides, it is well known, are often kept of A. pellucida, of 
P. angulatum, of F. saxonica, of Surirella gemma, and others, for the 
best exhibition of high-power objectives ; and these pet‘ coarse’ slides 
are in general not willingly parted with by their fortunate owners. 
My advice is,‘ Make sure in future that the A. pellucida you resolve 
with ease is not one of Don Truan y Luard’s A. Lindheimerii, 

This last diatom is figured in Grunow, 1862, pl. XI. fig. 11, and 
was distributed by Prof. H. L. Smith, in his ‘Species Typice,’ No. 17. 
A careful examination of either of these will prevent any confounding 
of the two species.” 


Bevel-edge Slips.*—The Palmer Slide Company, of Geneva, N.Y., 
have recently introduced slips with bevel edges. These are said to 
be “certainly very attractive in appearance, and well adapted for 
ornamental preparations.” Some are plain glass, very colourless and 
free from defects, others are flashed with a colour on the under sur- 
face, which modifies the light, or adapts them very well for opaque 
mounting. Careless handling may, however, result in chipped corners. 

Mr. G. 8. Woolman, in further recommendation of the slips, says, 
* Aside from the great beauty of the finished object, making them 
the most elegant slide yet introduced, their bevel edge allows them 
to slide smoothly under spring clips on the stage of the Microscope. 
They are made of Chance’s crystal plate and Chance’s flat crown, and 
with ground edges, or ground and polished edges.” 


Adhesiveness of Cements.*—Prof. A. B. Aubert has made com- 
parative tests of various cements, using metallic cells, and leaving the 
cement to harden for 103 days. 

Starting with Miller’s cement = 1000, the following table 
represents the comparative adhesiveness of the cements tested :— 


Miller’s caoutchouc cement .. .. .. .. « 1000 
Bell’s cement (shellac in alcohol?) ..  .. .. 735 
Carnie Daleant ooo SS ced f6:) Bhs)? weep Eel ge OE 
Lovett’s cement (this Journal, III. 1883, p. 786) 626 


American styrax 575 
Weiner Cerone rls hy vain HS cee Pes ak | ea eee 
Go ee ae te Ga ee ee” 35) see 
Dissolved marine glue cal Ten Mlaten! Cts 5A eve 
Zine white cement co. TP eee dele eee 


The gold size was not sufficiently hardened or it would have been 
higher in place. 


Strong Cements{.—The following formule are given anonymously 
for cementing brass cells to glass slides :— 


-{* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., xi. (1885) p. 239. + Ibid., vi. (1885) pp. 227-9. 
} Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), ii. (1885) p. 45. 


174 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


1. Carbonate of lead, 1/2 0z.; red oxide of lead, 1/2 oz.: litharge, 
14 0z. Grind thorvughly together in a mortar. Stir some of this 
into enough gold size to make it work stiffly. If too much adheres to 
the work, turn it off on turntable when a little set. 

2. Best quality gum arabic, dissolve in cider vinegar; add a 
little sugar. A very strong cement, but not tested for durability. 


Test for Preservative Fluids.*—Dr. C. O. Whitman considers 
that one of the best objects for testing methods is found in Phronima 
sedentaria. Here the cells and nuclei are so sharply defined that they 
can be seen in the living animal, and so the effect of a preservative 
fluid can be easily studied. 


Molybdic Acid Test for Protoplasm.t—If a section of some 
living endosperm is treated with a solution of molybdic acid in strong 
sulphuric acid, the cell-wall will swell up, and the threads which 
traverse it will soon assume a blue colour, while the main mass of 
protoplasm becomes intensely blue. The cell-wall itself remains 
uncoloured. This very delicate reaction demonstrates the protoplasmic 
nature of the threads. 


Butter and Fats.t—Dr. T. Taylor in a further paper on this 
subject, in which he repeats the results already recorded,§ says that | 
he has examined a number of other fats, vegetable and animal, and 
finds thus far, that animals and vegetables of distinctly different 
genera and even species, yield fats which give typical fatty crystals 
characteristic of the animals and plants which yield them, and he is 
confident that this new discovery will prove highly useful to micro- 
scopists and chemists, when investigating adulterated substances used 
as food or in medical preparations. 


Micro-organisms in Potable Water.||—Dr. T. Leone’s researches 
tend to show that water which contains carbonic acid is detrimental 
to the existence of micro-organisms. His experiments were made 
with a typically pure potable water (Maugfall of Munich), in order 
to ascertain the number of micro-organisms which could be developed 
in a given time. 

After repeated examinations it was found that on the fifth day 
this water contained more than half a million of micro-organisms to 
every cubic centimetre. It was further demonstrated that there was 
no practical difference between the number of micro-organisms de- 
veloped in water kept at rest, or constantly agitated for a given 
period of time. . 

When, however, carbonic acid gas was passed for a period of half 
an hour through flasks filled with this Maugfall water, the number of 


* Methods in Microscopical Anatomy and Embryology,’ 1885, p. 16. 

+ Ibid., p. 212. 

+ The Microscope, v. (1885) pp. 212-4 (8 figs.). Cf. also Amer. Mon. Micr. 
Journ., vi. (1885) pp. 163-4 (8 figs.). 

§ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 918. 

| Atti R. Accad, Lincei—Rend., i. (1885) pp. 726-32. Cf. transl. in Chem. 
News, lii. (1885) pp. 275-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 175 


micro-organisms actually diminished. After being kept fifteen days 
the water thus treated was found to contain only two micro-organisms 
to 1 c.cm. Hence the results of these experiments leave no doubt 
that carbonic acid is an impediment to the existence of micro-organisms 
in potable water. The practical importance of this of course is 
obvious, and needs no comment for those who are accustomed to 
drink waters “aerated” with carbonic acid, for according to Dr. 
Leone, the longer these aerated waters are kept the less chance there 
is of their being contaminated with bacterial impurities. 


Microscopical Structure of Iron and Steel.*—Dr. H. C. Sorby 
has dealt with this subject in a paper read before the Iron and 
Steel Institute, and from which we extract the parts which refer to 
the preparation of the objects and their illumination. 

The microscopical study of fractured surfaces is, he considers, 
unsatisfactory, not only on account of the optical difficulties, but 
because a fracture shows the line of weakness between the crystals, 
and not their internal structure. All his results were therefore based 
on the examination of flat sections. These should be finished by 
grinding with Water of Ayr stone, and polished so as not to alter the 
true structure of the extreme surface. Anything approaching to a 
burnished surface or polished scratches is fatal to good results. In 
general, after having been polished with the finest rouge and water, 
so as to show few or no scratches, the surface was acted on by very 
dilute nitric acid, and repeatedly examined in a small trough of water, 
until it was found that the acid had properly developed the structure. 
In some cases it is, however, best to polish with dry rouge on parch- 
ment, and not to use acid. Thin glass covers were afterwards mounted 
over the surface with Canada balsam. Some of his preparations 
have kept perfectly well for above twenty years, but others have 
deteriorated considerably. 

Objects thus prepared must be examined by means of two special 
kinds of surface illumination, viz. first, the side parabolic reflector 
now common, but the author believes originally made for this purpose, 
which gives oblique light, and secondly, a small silver reflector, 
covering half the object-glass, which throws the light directly down 
on the object, and from this it is reflected back through the other half 
of the lens (see supra p. 180, fig. 14). With the oblique illumination, 
a polished surface looks black, but with the direct illumination it 
looks bright and metallic. A truly black substance appears black in 
both cases. A magnifying power of about sixty linear is most 
generally suitable, but the sections will bear a higher perfectly well. 

In commenting on a paper on the properties of malleable iron by 
Dr. H. Wedding, Dr. Sorby wrote t :—“ As far as I can judge the 
reason why his (Dr. Wedding’s) conclusions differ so much from mine 
is that his sections were not ground down with soft stone before 
final polishing. It was not till I adopted this method that I was 
able to see the ultimate structure properly. This explains why he 


* Sorby, H. C., ‘On the Microscopical Structure of Iron and Steel,’ 8vo, 
Tron and Steel Institute, 1885, 8 pp. 
+ Colliery Guardian, xlix. (1885) p. 908. 


176 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


has not been able to detect the ultimate crystals in bar iron. My 
sections of these show it splendidly, as will be seen when I exhibit 
the microscopical photographs taken from the objects themselves. 
What strikes me as so strange is that he has not appreciated the 
total and complete difference between the intensely hard constituents 
of blister steel and white iron, and soft iron of a malleable bar. 
Possibly this may be in part due to the illuminative employed. The 
direct illuminative contrived by me is so indispensable, that I feel 
sure that no one can arrive at sound conclusions without it, and I feel 
almost sure he did not use it.” 


Microscopical Chemical Reactions.*—Herr A. Streng, from the 
frequent application of chemical methods in the examination of rocks, 
is enabled to improve and simplify the methods of microscopical 
chemical research. He gives microscopical reagents for potassium, 
sodium, lithium, calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium, aluminium, 
and phosphoric anhydride. 


Hussak’s Guide to the Determination of Rock-forming Minerals.t 
—The first part of this book deals with methods of research, describ- 
ing Microscopes and apparatus, and giving directions for making pre- 
parations. Optical methods and chemical methods of investigation 
are detailed, as well as the mechanical separation of the minerals by 
biniodide of potassium and mercury, biniodide of barium and mercury, 
Klein’s solution, acids, and the electro-magnet. 

The second and principal part (pp. 81-191) of the book consists 
of well-arranged tables, in which the properties of the various minerals 
are placed in columns (in some cases as many as seventeen), showing 
at a glance the various points required to be known for their identifi- 
cation. 

Whitman’s ‘Methods in Microscopic Anatomy and Embryology. t 
—Dr. C. O. Whitman, of Boston, U.S.A.,is well known to the readers 
of this Journal as an able writer on all branches of microscopical 
technique, and in this book he has brought together not only the 
results of his own practical experience, but the principal methods in 
use at the present time. The result is a well-arranged and very 
useful work for the practical microscopist, and the more useful as it 
has not been limited to histological requirements only, but includes 
to a large extent embryological also. 

The book is divided into two principal parts, (1) general methods 
and (2) special methods. The former includes methods of killing, 
hardening, preserving, bleaching, macerating, decalcifying, desilici- 
fying, staining, and imbedding, with a description of microtomes, and 
chapters on fixatives for serial sections, mounting media, and the uses 
of collodion. The special part is subdivided into embryological 
methods, times and places of ovulation, nuclei, (karyokinetic figures, 
&c.), preparation of nervous-tissue, histological methods, and recon- 


* Jahrb. f. Mineral., 1885, i. Mem. pp. 21-42. 

+ Hussak, E., ‘ Anleitung zum Bestimmen der Gesteinbildenden Mineralien,’ 
iv. and 196 pp. and 103 figs. 8vo, Leipzig, 1885. 

{ Whitman, C. O., Methods of Research in Microscopical Anatomy and 
Embryology,’ ix. and 255 pp. and 37 figs., 8vo, Boston, 1885. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. Vee 


struction from sections. An appendix describes methods of in- 
jection and museum methods, and gives formule for most of the 
important reagents, &c.” 

Examination of Blood. —If we did not fear to disturb the 
exceptional harmony which has always existed between English 
microscopists and their American colleagues, we should be tempted 
to preface the extract here given by the stereotyped formula of the 
newspapers, “ The following is from an American source” :— 

«A man was found shot in his bedroom, while his wife was lying 
wounded in another part of the room. She said that her husband had 
come home in a rage, hit her on the head with the butt of his revolver 
while her head was on the pillow, and spattered blood over the linen ; 
that she jumped.up, and he shot her. She then rushed at him, and, 
snatching the revolver, shot him through the heart. He reeled to the 
corner where he was found, and died. The prosecution did not 
believe her story, and set up the theory that she shot him when he 
was asleep, and dragged him to the corner, and then inflicted the 
wound upon herself. The carpet where the dead man lay was 
saturated with blood. According to the theory of the prosecution, 
the blood on the pillow was his also. 

Dr. Piper put the section of the pillow with blood upon it under 
the Microscope, and drew the shape of the corpuscles, enlarged about 
2000 diameters. He then put the blood on the carpet under the 
Microscope in the same way. The comparison settled the question 
at once. The blood-corpuscles were as different as day and night, 
and sustained the woman’s account of the shooting. She was acquitted 
on that and other evidence.” * 

Dr. C. H. Stowell, amongst other sarcastic comments on this story, 
suggests | that “perhaps when a man is on a pillow his blood- 
corpuscles are softer and rounder than when on a hard flat carpet.” 


Microscopical Jurisprudence.{—Dr. H. J. Detmers cites a case 
recently on trial in Illinois, where a murder was committed in an old 
ice-house. The murdered man was found lying on a pile of pine saw- 
dust. .A man was arrested for the murder upon whose boots and 
pantaloons small particles of sawdust were found clinging. He 
exclaimed that he had not been near the ice-house where the murder 
was committed, but had been sleeping in another ice-house several 
yards away. It was conclusively shown that all the sawdust in the 
house where he claimed to have been was from hard wood. There 
was no hard wood sawdust in the house where the murder was com- 
mitted. Particles of sawdust from the prisoner’s boots and clothes 
were placed under the Microscope by an expert, who conclusively 
proved that it was pine sawdust exactly like that found at the scene of 
the murder. The microscopist’s evidence led to the conviction of the 
prisoner. 


* The Microscope, v. (1885) pp. 234-5. From ‘Scientific American.’ 
+ Ibid, p. 230. t Amer, Mon. Micr. Journ., vi. (1885) p. 199. 
Ser 2.—Vo.. VI. N 


178 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ARTHUR, J. C.—Some Botanical Laboratories of the United States. 

[Describes twelve laboratories, with the Microscopes, &e., used. ‘The 
number of compound Microscopes employed is above twenty on the 
average for each Institution, while the number of students who make use 
of the laboratories during the year ranges from fifty to a hundred.’””] 

Bot. Gazette, X. (1885) pp. 395-406  figs.). 
A 5 A Germinating Pan. 
[Found so satisfactory at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station as 


to supersede all others. ] 
Ibid., pp. 425-6 (2 figs.). 
AUBERT, A. B.—Styrax for mounting. [Supra, p. 171.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ,, V1. (1885) p. 219. 
a 55 Results of Experiments upon the adhesiveness of some Micro- 
scopical Cements. [Supra, p. 173.] Ibid., pp. 227-9. 
B. Sc.—See Wood Sections. 
Bausch & Lomb Microtome. 
[Laboratory microtome. See this Journal, V. (1885) p. 1089.] 
Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., V1. (1885) pp. 205-7 (1 fig.). 
Brecker, A.—Neuerung an Mikrotomen. (Improvement in Microtomes.) 
Title only of German Patent, KI. 42, No. 6065. 
Bett, J._{Instrument for making Cells. | 
[A home-made arrangement. | Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) p. 407 (1 fig.). 
BEexuoncti, G.—Del fuso direzionale e della formazione di un globulo polare nell’ 
ovulo ovarico di aleuni mammiferi. (On the strueture and formation of a 
polar globule in the ovule of some mammalia.) 
[Process of preparation, post.) Rend. R. Accad. Lincei, 1. (1885) pp. 285-6. 


BERNHEIMER, S.—Zur Kenntniss der Nervenfaserschicht der menschl. Retina. 
(On the knowledge of the nerve-fibres of the human retina.) [ Supra, p. 169.] 
SB. K, Akad. Wiss. Wien, XC. (1884). 
Biee, J. S.—See Wood Seetions. 
Booru, C. F.—Limpid Solution of Damar. [€f. infra, James, F. L.] 
St. Louis National Druggist, VIL. (1885) p. 245 and 293. 
BotTtonet, §8.—See Wood Sections. 
BuRRixuu, T. J.—Section Cutting. 
[Directions for cutting botanical specimens. “ Nothing new is offered.” } 
Bot. Gazette, X. (1885) pp. 421-4. 
5s = Starch Grains. [Post.] Ibid., pp. 424-5. 
+ 3 Germination of Fungus Spores. [Post.] Ibid., p. 428. 
35 Sp Exhibiting streaming of Protoplasm. [Post.] 
Ibid., pp. 428-9. 
CAMPBELL, D. H.—A Method of Spore Germination. [ Post.] Ibid., p. 428. 
Carmine, Preparation of. 
[Madame Cenette’s and other processes. } 
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 297. 
CARPENTER, J.—Foraminifera to mount in Balsam. [ Post. | 
Journ. of Micr., V. (A886) p. 50. 
Castellarnau, J. M. de—Procédés pour l’examen microscopique et la Conservation 
des Animaux 4 la station zoologique de Naples. (Methods for the microscopical 
examination and preservation of animals at the Zoological Station of Naples.) 
(Transl. by Dr. J. Pelletan of second part of the Report noted Vol. V. (1885) 
. 746. 
: : Journ. de Microgr., UX. (1885) pp. 405-410, 482-7. 
Cf. also pp. 323-4. 
Cement for fixing Wood to Glass. 
[Gelatin dissolved in hot acetic acid in such proportions that it solidifies on 
cooling. 
= Journ. of Micr., V. (1885) p. 67, from Chem. Rev. and 
Echo Forestier. 
Cements, Strong. [Vost.] Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), II, (1885) p. 45. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 179 


Cleaning Glass Slides and Covers. 

[First wash well in a solution of soda or potash; if this does nof suffice, use 
the following :—Bichromate of potash, 2 0z.; sulphuric acid, 3 fluid oz. ; 
water, 25 oz.; and afterwards thoroughly rinse in warm and cold water. } 

The Microscope, V. (1885) p. 215. 


Co.uet, A. C.—Studies in Microscopical Science. Nos. 11 and 12, pp. 41-4, 45-8. 
Sec. 1. (Botanical Histology.) Structure of the Sexual Organs of Repro- 
duction in Angiosperms. No.1. Antherof Lilium. Plate XL Trans. Sect. 
No. 2. Ovary of Lilium. Plate XII. Trans. Sect. of Mature Ovary. 
Sec. 2. (Animal Histology.) On the disposition of the Organs in the In- 
vertebrata and Vertebrata. Plate XI. Earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris). 
Trans. Sect. posterior half of body. Semi-diagrammatic. Plate XII. 
Young Lamprey (Petromyzon fluviatilis). Trans. Sect. through anterior 
abdominal region x 30. 
Sec. 3. (Pathological Histology.) Pleurisy (conc/d.). Pulmonary Carcinoma. 
Plate XI. Lung. Carcinoma x 38. Anthracosis (Collier’s Phthisis). 
Plate XII. A. of Coal Miner’s Lung x 63. : 
Sec. 4. (Popular Studies.) Insectivorous and Carnivorous Plants (conc/d.). 
Trichina spiralis. Plate XI. Long. and Trans. Sect. x 250. The Diatom 
Cestodiscus superbus. Plate XII. x 690. 
Collins’ (C., jun.) “Special” Micro-Slides. 

[Fish scales and skins. Heads of Insects. Parasites. The Silkworm and 
Moth. Anatomy of Blow-fly, Honey Bee, Great Water Beetle, and Oil 
Beetle. Palates in fluid and for Polariscope. ] 

Sci.-Gossip, 1885, p. 259. 


Courter, J. M.—Laboratory Appliances. 
[Microscopes, microtomes, forceps, reagents, &c.] 
Bot. Gazelte, X. (1885) pp. 409-13. 
z * Cultivation of Pollen-spores. [Post.] Ibid. 427, 
CrooxsHANk, E. M.—An Introduction to Practical Bacteriology based upon 
the Methods of Koch. [Supra, p. 121.] 
xxii. and 249 pp., 30 pls. and 42 figs. (8vo, London, 1886). 
Deses, E—Die Herstellung von Diatomaceen-Dauer-praparaten. (Making 
permanent preparations of Diatoms.) 
(Supplementary notice to his original paper on Hamilton L. Smith’s Media, 


Vol. V. (1885) p. 1097.] 
Hedwigia, XXTYV. (1885) pp. 251-2. 
Dimmock, G.—{Separating the Layers of the Wings of Insects. ] 
[ Post.] Psyche, 1884, p. 170. 
Doctor Mrpic1nm—See Wood Sections. 
Draper, E. T,—Graphic Microscopy. XXIV. Eggs of Parasite of Vulture. 
Sci.-Gossip, 1885, p. 265 (1 pl.). 
DvuTILLeUL, G.—Le Carmin Picroborate. (Picroborate of Carmine.) 
[Supra, p. 170.] Bull. Sci. Dép. Nord, XVI. (1885) pp. 371-2. 
ENAL.—Microscopical Examination of Yeast. 
(Directions for examining staining, &c. Recipe for Pasteur’s fluid.] 
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1885) p. 325. 
= Dry Mounting. Zine Cements. [Post.] Lbid., p. 340. 
ErvD6s, J.—Eine Vorrichtung am Thoma’schen Mikrotom zum Schnellschneiden. 
(A contrivance for rapid cutting with the Thoma microtome.) [Post.] 
Internat. Monatsschr. f, Anat, u. Histol., I. (1885) pp. 343-6 (figs.). 
Flemming’s Method of preparing the Retractile Tentacles of Pulmonata. 
Amer. Natural., XIX. (1885) pp. 1246-7, 
from Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., V. (1870) p. 440, and 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., XXII. (1872) p. 366. 
Frenzel’s (J.) Chrome Mucilage as a Fixative. [Supra, p. 169.] 
Amer, Natural., XTX. (1885) p. 1246, 
from Arch, f. Mikr, Anat., XXV. (1885) p. 52. 
5, Method of preparing the Alimentary Canal of Crustacea. 
[ Supra, p. 158.] Amer, Natural., XIX. (1885) p. 1246, 
from Arch. f. Mikr, Anat., XXV. (1885) pp. 141-143. 


N 2 


” 


180 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


GARBINI, A.—Di un nuovo metodo per doppia Colorazione. (On a new method 
of double staining.) [ Post.] Zool, Anzeig., [X. (1886) pp. 26-9. 
GERLACH, L,—Technisehe Notiz. (Note on Technique.) ee p. 170.] 
Beitr. zur Morphol. %. Morphog., 1. (1883) pp. 118-120- 
Gierke, H. — Staining Tissues in Microscopy. V., VI. 

(Transl. from ‘ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr.”} 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., V1. (1885) pp. 210-6, 234-6. 
Gottsche and Grenacher’s methods of isolating the dioptric layers of the Com-‘ 
pound Eye. 

[Gottsche, from ‘Mill. Arch.’ 1852, pp. 488-9. Grenacher, from ‘ Das 
Sehorgan d. Thiere’ (?) p. 148.] | Amer. Natural., XX. (1886) pp. 91-2. 

Grenacher’s Methods of preparing the Arthropod Eye. 

[Hardening Fluids (alcohol 70-90 per cent.) Bleaching (nitric acid 20-25 

per cent., or glycerin, aleohol, and hydrochloric acid.] [Post.} 
Amer. Natural., &X. (4886) pp. 89-90. 
HAazLEewoop, F. T.—Permanent Mounting of Trachee of Insects. 
(Supra, p. 157.] The Microscope, V. (1885) p. 235. 
Hennine, P.—Preserving Plants. 

[For the last three years, certain fruits, flowers, and other portions of plants 
have been preserved in perfect condition at the Berlin University 
(Botanical Museum), by means of a solution consisting of four parts of 
water and one part of alcohol saturated with salicylic acid. 

Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, XX. (4885) p. 121. 
Hickson, 8. J.—The Eye of Insects. 
[Summary of some of the methods in his paper, Vol. V. (1885) p. 633.] 
Amer. Natural., XX. (1886) pp. 88-9. 
{Hircucock, R.|—Smith’s new Mounting Media. 

[The stannous chloride is not the bichloride of pharmacists, but the proto- 

chloride of tin—the ‘ salts of tin’ of dyers. Wax rings should be used. ] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., V1. (4885) p. 297. 
JAMES, F. L.—White Zine Cement. 

ree Vol. V. (1885) p. 1101.) 

St. Louis National Druggist, VIL. (1885) p. 181, 

Amer. Natural., XTX. (1885) pp. 1138-9. 

See also p. 196 as to the difference between benzin and benzol. 
Limpid Solution of Damar. 

” [Methods of securing a limpid solution with much less trouble than that 
of Mr. C. F. Booth, supra. 

St. Louis National Druggist, VIL. (1885) p. 245. 
os #5 Cleaning Slides. [Post.] 
The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 253-4, from St. Louis National Druggist. 


po Separation of Sand from Diatoms and Foraminifera. Cleaning 
Diatoms. Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), U1. (1885) pp. 43 and 45, 
from St. Louis National Druggist. 
- See Stowell, C. H. and L. A. 
James's (Dr. F. L.) Cements. St. Louis National Druggist, VIL. (14885), p. 307. 


JENKINS, A. E.—Methods of Study. 

(Fixin gand hardening: Picro-sulphuric acid (Kleinenberg’s fluid); eorrosive 
sublimate; perchloride of iron. Hardening: Special methods: Dissociating 
or macerating fluids; Miiller’s fluid; Eau de Javelle; nitric and hydro- 
chloric acid; chalk and baryta waters; potassium hydrate. Decaleifying: 
Chromo-nitric acid; picro-nitric acid. Removing siliea. Iodine. Hot 
water. Acid aleohol. General remarks on killing fluids. ] 

The Microscope, V. (1885) p. 243-50. 
Ke.uuicort, D. S—{Modified Pipette. ] 

[“ The glass tube passes completely through the ball, the end of the tube. 
being closed with a cork or hermetically sealed; holes for suction being 
drilled through that portion of the tube enclosed within the ball. The 
advantages of this contrivance lie in the increased firmness in handling 
the pipette, and consequently greater suction-power.”’} 

Science, VI. (1885). Not paged, 2nd page after p. 524. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 181 


KLEMENT and RENARD.—Réactions Microchimiques basées sur la formation 
de cristaux et leur application a l’analyse qualitative. (Micro-chemical re- 
actions based on the formation of crystals and their application to qualitative 
analysis.) 

[Résumé of paper to appear in the ‘ Annales.’ ] 

Bull. Sec. Bely. Micr., X11. (1885) pp. 11-16, 32-5. 

Krause, W.—Untersuchungsmethoden. (Investigation methods.) 

[For preserving and isolating the retinal elements, a 10 per cent. aqueous 
solution of chloral hydrate is recommended. It is superior in many 
respects to osmic acid. ] 

Internat. Monatsschr. f. Anat. u. Histol., I. (1884) pp. 152-7. 

KUKENTHAL, W.—Vereinfachung der Farbetechnik. (Simplification of Staining 
Technique.) [Post.] Zool, Arzeig., ix (1886) pp. 23-5. 

Lacrorx, A.—Examen optique de quelques minéraux peu connus. (Optical 
examination of some little known minerals.) 

[** The study by the Microscope with parallel and convergent light, of thin 
plates of minerals, gives at the present day to their determination a 
degree of certainty which was wanting when it was not possible to verify 
the purity of the substances submitted to analysis,”—foliowed by descrip- 
tions of Kirwanite and four other minerals. ] 

Comptes Rendus, CI. (1885) pp. 1164-6. 

LatTHAM, V. A.—The Microscope and how to use it. 

[V. Double-staining, &c.] 

Journ. of Micr., V. (1886) pp. 36-438. 

LesBowvca, H.—Un mot sur la Technique des coupés en series. (A word on the 
technique of series sections.) [Supra, p. 169.] 

Ann. Soc. Méd. Gand, 1884, pp. 167-8. 

LEPINAY, Mackr pr—WMethode optique pour la mesure absolue des petites 
longueurs. (Optical method for the absolute measurement of minute lengths.) 

Comptes Rendus, C. (1885) pp. 1377-9. 

Lone.—Test for Beeswax. 

[A few drops of solution in chloroform shows in half an hour characteristic 
dumbbell crystals, the balls of which consist of curved crystal bundles 
instead of solid masses. ] 

St. Louis National Druggist, VII. (1885) p. 293, from Chem. Ztg. 

Lowne, B. T.—Method of Examining the Reflex in the Compound Eye of 
Insects. [Post.] 

Amer. Natural., XX. (1866) pp. 90-1, from Tras. Linn. Soc. Lond. 

MALAssrz, L.—Microtome de Roy perfectionné. (Improved Roy Microtome.) 

[Supra, p. 166.] 

Travaux Laborat. d Histol. du College de France, 1884 (1885) pp. 191-206 (3 figs.) 

Matassez, L., and W. VigNaut—Sur le Micro-organisme de la Tuberculose 
Zoogleique. (On the Micro-organism of Zoogleic Tuberculosis.) 

[ Methods, post. ] 

Ibid., pp. 18-42 (2 pls.) 

Meyer, A.—Mikrochemische Reaction zur Nachweis der reducirenden Zucker- 
arten. (Microchemical Reaction for demonstrating the reducing kinds of 
sugar.) [Post.] Ber. Deutsch, Bot. Gesell., ILI. (1885) p. 332. 

MoELLER, J.—Mikroskopie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus dem Pflanzen- 
reiche. (Microscopy of the nourishing and useful substances of the vegetable 
kingdom.) 

(Introduction, pp. 1-24 (Preparation, Reagents, Measuring, Drawing.)] 

vi. and 394 pp., 308 figs. (Svo, Berlin, 1886). 

Mounting Microscopic Objects. 

[Staining Wood Sections. (Carmine or logwood, but better double stainel. 
To fix the anilin stain, tannic acid is useful.) Orange Peel. (Gum 
method is preferable. After drying between glass slips, soak in turpentine 
aud mount in balsam.) Sponge. (Cut between pieces of cork, or immerse 
in paraffin or mucilage.)] 

The Microscope. V. (1885) pp. 238-9. 


182 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Mucilage for Slide Labels. 

[As used for postage stamps. Dissolve 2 oz. dextrine in 1 oz. acetic acid 

diluted with 5 oz. water; when dissolved add 1 oz. alcohol. 
Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), II. (1885) p. 46. 
Willer, K.—Diatoms and how to collect them. [Supra, p. 153.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr, Journ., VI. (1885) pp. 230-1 (Zransi. of private letter). 
Myutius, C.—See Sypow, P. 
P., J. W.—Glass-covers in the Tropics. 

[Cover-glasses should not be brought into the Tropics bedded in lime 
or chalk. They should be glued together by a little clove oil run in 
between the plates by capillary attraction. | 

Sci. Gossip, 1885, p. 279. 
PEARCEY, FE. G.—Method of Consolidating and Preparing thin sections of friable 
and decomposed Rocks, Sands, Clays, Oozes, and other granulated substances. 

[Supra, p.160.] Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edin., VILL. (1885) pp. 295-300 (1 pl.). 

Preynineton, A. 8.—British Zoophytes: an introduction to the Hydroida, 
enone and Polyzoa, found in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel 
Islands. 
[Zoophyte collecting and preserving, pp. 336-40.] 
Xvi. and 363 pp., 24 pls. (8vo, London, 1885). 
PIFFARD, B.—Staining with Iodine Vapour. [Supra, p. 170.] 
Sci.-Gossip, 1886, p. 17. 
REEVES, J. E.—Staining Urinary Sediment. 
Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), II. (1885) p. 48. 
RENARD.—See Klément. 


Riaees, J. V.—Resorcin and Antipyrine. 

[‘‘ Crystallized from their alcoholic solutions upon the slide make most — 
magnificent specimens of crystals for polarized light.” : 

Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), II. (1885) p. 46. 
Sarcent, F. L.—A Spring Clip. 

[Made of a rather large hairpin with ends bent with pliers. ] 

Bot. Gazette, X. (1885) p. 425 (1 fig.). 
SERRANO Y Faticati, E.—Precipitacion de cristales en el campo del Micro- 
scopio. (Precipitation of crystals in the field of the Microscope.) 

[Post. Cf. also “ Fatigati, E. G.—Recherches sur les réactions chimiques 
dans le champ du Microscope.” ‘Title only of paper read at Stockholm 
Academy of Sciences, Nov. llth. Nature, XX XIII. (1885) p. 216. ] 

Anal. Soc. Espun. Hist. Nat., XIV. (1885), Actas, pp. 58-60. 
Suack, H. J.—Pleasant Hours with the Microscope. 
[Sclerogen cells of pear. ] Knowledge, 1X. (1885) p. 48 @ figs.). 
Suitu, H. L.—Directions for using the Stannous Chloride medium in mounting 
Diatomacez. 

[Similar to that given Vol. V. (1885) pp. 1097-8.] . 

Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), IT. (1885) p. 46. 

Staining, double. The Microscope, VY. (1885) p. 214-5. 

STEIN, 8S. v.—Einfache Vorrichtung fiir das Microtom zur Einbettung der 

Praparate. (Simple arrangement for the Microtome in imbedding preparations.) 

[Supra, p. 163. ] Centralbl. f. d. Med. Wiss., 1884, p. 100. 
STOWELL, C. H. and L. R.—White Zine Cement. 

[Extract from letter of Dr. F. L. James, as to the necessity for all the ingre- 
dients being of the best quality.] 

The Microscope, V.(1885) pp. 230-1. 
Striz of Diatoms on the Moller Probe-Platte. [Post.] 

Amer, Mon. Micr. Journ.. VI. (1885) p. 234. 
Sypow, P., and C. Myui1us.—Verzeichniss der bekannteren Reagentien und 
Stoffe, die bei mikroskopischen Pflanzenuntersuchungen gebraucht werden. 
Mit kurzen Notizen iiber Bereitung, Anwendung, Wirkung, &ec. (List of the 
more ordinary reagents and substances used in microscopical researches on 

plants, with short notes on their preparation, use, action, &c.) 
Botaniker-Kalender, 8vo, Berlin, 1886, pp. 79-89. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 183 


Taytor, T.—Butter and Fats. [Post] 
The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 212-4 (8 figs.). 
Threlfall’s Method of Fixing arranged Diatoms and Sections. 
(Cf. Vol. III. (1883) p. 600, and Vol. IV. (1884) p. 308.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr, Journ., VI. (1885) p. 233. 
TRELEASE, W.—A convenient Laboratory Plant. 
[A JJucor of the Rhizopus section, which springs up spontaneously and can 
be kept growing almost indefinitely on bread. 
Bot. Gazette, X. (1885) pp. 426-7 (1 fig). 
Tscouirou, A.—UVeber eine Methode den griinen Farbstoff der Blatter aus. . 
Rohlaugen zu entfernen. (On a method of removing the green colouring 
matter from leaves.) 
[Post.] Bot. Centralbl., XXIV. (1885) pp. 314-5. 
Chlorophyll-praparate. (Preparations of chlorophyll.) 
"(The ordinary preparations are more or less yellow-green, not emerald- 
green. Schiitz of Vienna supplies a pure emerald-green preparation 


after a method of the author. ] 
Bot. Centralbl., XXIV. (1885) p. 315. 
VIGgNAL, W.—See Malassez, L. 
W aut, O. A.—The Microscopical Examination of Drugs. 

[A large number may be satisfactorily examined with a Coddington lens 
magnifying 10 or 12 times. Pharmacopceial requirements. Objects to 
be examined by low power. Value of characteristic marks. Sections 
by reflected light. Chemical treatment of simple sections. Objects to 
be examined. Importance of studying sections. Preparing drugs for 
examination “ without making regular mounted sections.” ] 

St. Louis Nation. Druggist, VII. (1885) pp. 257 and 269, 293 and 367. 
A Proper Thinness of Sections. 

[Criticism of an article by Dr. E. C. Mann in ‘ Medical Bulletin,’ that the 

“best test of a fine section is the ease with which it floats in a glass of 


water !”] 
Lbid., p. 320. 
W arveEN, C. J. H.—The Biological examination of Water. 

[On examining potable water for micro-organisms. 1. Description of 
bacteriological apparatus. 2. Preparation of reagents. 3. Collection of 
samples. 4. Analytical process. 5. Inferences to be drawn from the 
results. 

Chem. News, LI. (1885) pp. 52-4 (9 figs.), 66-8 (8 figs.), 73-6 (2 figs.), 89, 101-4. 
Werigurt.—nNn owy Mikrotom do duzych skrawkow. (New microtome for 
large sections.) 
Hirsch’s Jahresbericht Anat. u. Physiol. (for 1884) 1885, p. 38, 
from Gazeta Lekarska, 1884, No. 51. 
W u1Te, T. C.—Aids in Photo-micrography. 

[Bleaching brown chitin of insects—Braxton Hicks’ bleach. Keeping 
Infusoria quiet—Sternberg’s fluid, Vol. V. (1885) p. 912.] 

Year-book of Photography, 1886, pp. 103-4. 
Wuitman, C. O.—(1) Imbedding in Paraffin. (2) Orientation with small objects. 
(3) Prevention of Bubbles. 

[(1) Clarifying media. Lee, supra, p. 163. Holl, ef. Vol. V. (1885) p. 541. 

Imbedding box, supra, p. 165. (2) Supra, p. 165. (3) Supra, p. 166.] 
Amer. Natural., XIX. (1885) pp. "1947-9 (1 fig.). 
Wood Sections. 

[Directions for cutting by B.Sc., J. S. Bigg, S. Bottone, and Doctor 
Medicine, and drawing of Microtome. } 

Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) pp. 391 and 411 (1 fig.). 
Zeiss’s New Catalogue. Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VI. (1885) p. 218. 


(47184 2p) 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Meeting or 9tH Decemszr, 1885, at Kine’s Cottece, Stranp, W.C., 
Mr, A. D. MicHaszt, ELS., Vick-PRESIDENT, IN THE Gan. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 11th November last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) re- 
ceived since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the 
Society given to the donors. 


Curiosities of Animal Life, with the recent discoveries of the From 
Microscope. viii. and 192 pp., 66 figs. (8vo, London, 
1859) Mr. Crisp. 


Wrisberg, H. A., Observationum de Animaleulis “Infusoriis 
Satura. 110 pp. and 14 figs. (8vo, Goettinge, 1765) . 
Whitman, C. O., Methods of Research in Microscopical 

Anatomy and Embryology. viii. and 255 pp., 37 i ies: 

(8vo, Boston, 1885) 46 The Publishers. 
Slides (29) of A. pellucida mounted i in various media ee Dr. Morris. 
Slides (2) Retina of Pig, and v.s. pieaaip cornea of aE of Ox Ur. A. C. Cole. 
Slide of Russian Diatoms .. Dr. Stolterforth. 
Photograph of the late Dr. Carpenter | Foes Do on 5 lS IIE JO Ee 


ol 


A letter was read from Dr. P. Herbert Carpenter acknowledging, 


on behalf of Mrs. Carpenter, the resolution passed at the meeting of 
the 11th ult. 


Mr. Crisp called attention to some slides presented by Dr. Morris, 
which were mounted in a highly refractive medium, which by some 
misconception was imagined to have the effect of increasing the 
aperture of the objective in proportion to the increase of refractive 


index, so as to make objectives of low aperture resolve as easily as 
wide-angled homogeneous lenses. 


Mr, Swift's large photo-micrograph of the tongue of the blow-fly, 
which had obtained the prize medal at the recent Exhibition of the 
Photographic Society, was exhibited. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said that this photograph was made on a plan 
for which he was partly responsible, having suggested it to Mr. Swift 
as more likely to produce good results than the ordinary method, in 
which the increase of size was obtained by increasing the distance of 
the plate from the eye-piece. The plan adopted in this case was to 
make an enlarged photograph from a small negative obtained by a 
paraffin lamp; by this process and by chemically intensifying the 
enlarged negative, the specimen before the meeting had been pro- 
duced, and it was one of the best, if not the very best, he had ever 
seen. Mr. Swift was, of course, entirely responsible for the success 
with which the process had been carried out. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 185 


Mr. Crisp exhibited Klein’s Heating Microscope for observing 
crystals at high temperatures; Kunckel d’Herculais’ compressor, and 
Vérick’s apparatus for enabling four photographs to be taken of the 
same object. 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., said that the intention of the latter apparatus 
was to enable four different plates to be used, so as to give a different 
length of exposure to each, or to photograph different parts of the 
same object without loss of time. 


Dr. Maddox said that at the request of his friend Dr. Mercer, of 
Syracuse, he had brought to the meeting for exhibition a series of 
photographs of inked surfaces covering pencil lines. A note descrip- 
tive of the photographs was read, and the specimens in illustration 
handed round for inspection. 

Mr. Crisp said that a somewhat similar case was recorded last 
year, in which a person wanted to add some words to a bond which 
had been originally written with very pale ink; as the added words 
were written in much darker ink, he had to go over the original 
writing to make it look alike. Examination with the Microscope, 
however, at once showed where this had been done. 

The Chairman said that any one who examined Dr. Maddox’s 
photographs would see that the marks of the graphite were perfectly 
plain, and there could be no doubt about them; but, as a rule, he 
confessed that he was not a great believer in the evidence afforded by 
the Microscope in cases of forgery. So far as his experience went, 
he thought that the results obtained in this way were by no means so 
reliable as could be desired. 

Mr. Bennett said that when he attended the meeting of the 
American Society of Microscopists at Rochester as a deputation from 
their Society, several papers were read on this subject, and he believed 
that the general opinions then expressed agreed with that just given 
by the Chairman. 


Dr. E. Crookshank read a paper “ On the Cultivation of Bacteria,” 
which he illustrated by numerous drawings, and by a series of pre- 
parations exhibited under Microscopes. He also exhibited and 
described a collection of apparatus of the latest and most approved 
construction for the cultivation of bacteria and for the preparation of 
the media employed. (Supra, p. 25.) 

Dr. Maddox felt sure that all present must have listened with 
great pleasure to the very interesting paper which they had just 
heard. With regard to the paper process, Dr. Miquel, of Paris, had 
pointed out that there was a certain objection to Koch’s method in 
the cases of those organisms which required a long time for their 
growth, some of which it was known did not develop for at least twenty 
days, during which time it was most probable they would be over- 
spread by organisms, and consequently the original cultivation would 
be lost. Dr. Hesse’s arrangement for drawing air through a tube was 
one which he thought they would recognize. Many of the Fellows 
would recollect that some time ago he exhibited at one of their 


186 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


meetings an aéroscope or aspirator for this purpose, from which the 
German one differs only in the length of tubes. He thought the 
Germans were rather apt to run away with our ideas in this way; 
but though he did not at all object to any one copying any of his own 
contrivances, he thought it ought not to be done without some kind 
of acknowledgment. He could only express his own thanks to Dr. 
Crookshank for the exhibition of this apparatus, and for the mag- 
nificent drawings with which he had illustrated the subject of his 
aper. 

Mr. F. Cheshire said that reference had been made to Bacillus 
alvei, and it might be interesting to know that even in the case of the 
bee itself the peculiar growth was found in the body of the larva. 
Undoubtedly it did arrange itself in that particular lined way that 
had been mentioned. 

The Chairman said they must all feel greatly indebted to Dr. 
Crookshank for his paper upon what was, perhaps, the microscopical 
subject of the day. It was especially gratifying to them to hear the 
subject dealt with by a gentleman who was not only such a thorough 
master of it, but who also possessed so fine a collection. 

Mr. Crisp mentioned that Dr. Crookshank was embodying his 
ideas on these subjects in a book which would appear shortly. 


Mr. Robertson’s note On a Mode of Preparing Spinal Cord was 
read (supra, p. 156). 


Mr. W. C. Meates’s note On a new Highly Refractive Medium for 
Mounting was read, the substance employed being a mixture of one 
part arsenic to five, six, or seven parts sulphur (supra, p. 171). 


Mr. Cheshire read a note,“On the Pulvillus of the Bee,” illustrating 
the subject by a drawing on the blackboard. He also called attention 
to a notch found upon the leg of the bee, and explained what he con- 
sidered to be its use as opposed to the explanations given by some 
other observers. 

Mr. Bennett said that it had heen stated by some writers that this 
part of the bee was. used for opening the anthers of flowers so as to 
get at the pollen. Could Mr. Cheshire say from his experience 
whether this was so ? 

Mr. Cheshire said that he had no knowledge of the fact from his 
own observations. 

Mr. Bennett said it was quite certain that many of the Diptera 
did feed largely upon pollen, but he did not know if the same 
thing prevailed in the case of Hymenoptera. 

Mr. Cheshire said that in the case of the bee it certainly was so, 
as the stomach was always found to contain pollen. The queen 
also, before mating, fed upon it, but after she had mated she was fed 
with a peculiar glandular secretion by the workers. This was found 
to be a highly nitrogenous food, and under this diet the queen rapidly 
increased in weight from 14 to 34 grains. The workers, however, 
all fed on pollen. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 187 


The Chairman said that the gradual raising of the pulvillus, as 
described by Mr. Cheshire, was a tolerably widespread method amongst 
the Acari; in many instances it was so large in proportion to the 
size of the creature that it would probably be quite impossible to lift 
it off straight. 

Mr. Cheshire asked if the form of pleating was generally observed 
in the case of the Acari ? 

The Chairman said that it was not so in all cases, but in some the 
folding was much the same as in a closed fan, and the opening out 
was similar to the way in which such a fan might be opened out by 
vertical pressure. 


A Circular received from America, explaining the objects and 
scope of the Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund, was read as follows :— 

“This fund, which has been established by Mrs. Elizabeth 
Thompson, of Stamford, Connecticut, ‘for the advancement and 
prosecution of scientific research in its broadest sense,’ now amounts 
to $25,000. As the income is already available, the trustees desire 
to receive applications for appropriations in aid of scientific work. 
This endowment is not for the benefit of any one department of 
science, but it is the intention of the trustees to give the preference 
to those investigations not already otherwise provided for, which have 
for their object the advancement of human knowledge, or the benefit 
of mankind in general, rather than to researches directed to the 
solution of questions of merely local importance. 

Applications for assistance from this fund should be accompanied 
by a full statement of the nature of the investigation, of the conditions 
under which it is to be prosecuted, and of the manner in which the 
appropriation asked for is to be expended. The applications should 
be forwarded to the Secretary of the Board of Trustees, Dr. C. 8S. 
Minot, 25 Mount Vernon Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A. The first 
grant will probably be made early in January 1886,” 


Mr. Crisp mentioned with regard to the new Aperture Table 
Vol. V. (1885) p. 972, that the original table was based on the 
figures 48,200 as representing half the resolving power of numerical 
aperture 1-00, the exact figures being 48,205. The last figure (5) 
being obviously unimportant, it was discarded; but as two new 
columns are now added, Mr. Stephenson had thought it desirable to 
make the corresponding correction throughout the table. 


Mr. J. W. Groves exhibited some mounted sections cut by the 
large Barret microtome, shown at the preceding meeting, and described 
in the last number of the Journal (Vol. V., 1885, p. 1089). The 
sections were not as thin as it was possible to cut them, but were 
exhibited to show how large good sections could be made with the 
instrument. 


188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 

Dr. Beale:—Section of Spinal Cord of Ox, prepared by Mr. 
Robertson’s process. 

Mr. Bolton :—Chirocephalus diaphanus or Branchipus stagnalis. 

Mr. Crisp :—(1) Klein’s Heating Microscope ; (2) Kunckel d’Her- 
culais’ Compressor; (8) Vérick’s apparatus for taking four photo- 
graphs with the Microscope. 

Dr. Crookshank :—Preparations of Bacteria, and a large collec- 
tion of apparatus for cultivating bacteria and preparing media. 

Mr. Groves :—Sections cut with the Barret Microtome. 

Dr. Maddox :—Photographs of inked surfaces covering pencil 
lines. 


Mr. M. J. Swift:—Photo-micrograph of Tongue of Blow-fly. 


New Fellows :—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 

Messrs. J. G. Carswell, E. F. Hodges, M.D., W. Kirkby, Jobn 
Melhuish, J. C. Skelton, F. R. B. Walton, and Edmond Warner. 
Prof. H. de Lacaze-Duthiers was elected an Honorary Fellow. 


Meetine or 131TH January, 1886, ar Kine’s Coutzce, Stranp, W.C. 
THE Presipent (THE Rev. Dr. Dauiinezr, F.R.S.) In THE 
CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 9th December last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) 
received since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the 
Society given to the donors. 


Crookshank, E.M., An Introduction to Practical Bacteriology From 
based upon the Methods of Koch. xxii. and 249 pp., 
30 pls. and 42 woodcuts. (8vo, London, 1886) .. .. .. The Author. 


Forbes, W. A., The collected Scientific Papers of the late. 
Edited by F. E. Beddard, M.A., with preface by P. L. 
Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. xiii. and 496 pp., 25 pls, 
and 142 woodcuts. (8vo, London, 1885) .. .. .. .. Mr. F. Crisp. 

Three Slides, Phyllocactus phyllanthus Po ccs eden oon 5 JUL b OL Mee D is. 


Mr. Crisp called attention to a series of forty very thin sections 
of European woods, each cut in three different ways, which had been 
sent by Mr. M. Wilmersdorffer, for exhibition. 


Mr. E. M. Nelson exhibited a 1 in. aplanatic lens by Zeiss (after 
Steinheil), which was made upon a somewhat new formula—a kind of 
achromatic Coddington ; its great merit being the very large and flat 
field which it gave at a focal distance of about an inch. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 189 


Mr. Michael said he had been afforded an opportunity of examining 
this lens, and it struck him that the large size of the field would be 
found to be of very great advantage. This, together with its long 
focus and excellent definition, made the lens a very useful addition to 
the existing means of casual investigation. 


Mr. Crisp exhibited some of Dr. Zenger’s double-sided slides for 
mounting objects so that both sides could be examined if required. 
The slides had an aperture pierced through the centre so that two 
thin glass covers could be put on with the object between them. 
(Vol. V., 1885, p. 908). 


Messrs. Coxeter and Nehmer exhibited their new silico-carbon 
battery and incandescence lamp for the Microscope. 


Mr. C. Beck exhibited a form of the “ Star” Microscope, which had 
been specially fitted to suit the requirements of petrological investi- 
gation ; also a battery and incandescence lamp for the Microscope. 


Mr. Crisp exhibited Prof. Martius’ stroboscopic apparatus for 
determining by the vibration of a lever on the armature of an electro- 
magnet the rate of ciliary vibration in cells, Rotifers, Infusoria, &c. 
The lever carried a small diaphragm of paper at the end, by which 
means the rays from the illuminator were periodically cut off and 
admitted to the Microscope. 


Mr. Deby’s note on the discovery of Amphipleura lindheimerii in 
Spain, was read. (Supra, p. 172.) 


Mr. A. W. Bennett gave a résumé of his paper ‘On the Fresh- 
water Alge of the English Lake District, illustrated by coloured 
diagrams and drawings on the black-board (supra, p. 1). 

The President said that the paper afforded an excellent illustration 
of the kind of work which was within the reach of all present, and 
which could be carried out with the instruments which they possessed, 
and it showed how it was possible to ultilize a holiday by doing good 
work and at the same time adding to the pleasure derivable from it. 
It had often seemed to him that work of this kind was apt to become 
periodic ; they did certain work, and then there seemed to be years of 
pause in which very little more was done in the same direction, and 
in the case of the Desmids there was still a large field open to those 
who were willing to devote themselves to the study. The literature 
of the subject was not so great as might have been expected, and 
it was quite within the power of any one who would try, to add a 
great deal to their knowledge of these organisms. He felt sure that 
the Fellows of the Society were much obliged to Mr. Bennett, not only 
for his paper, but also for the very concise way in which he had 
presented to them the results which it embodied. 


190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Mr. G. F. Dowdeswell’s paper ‘On the Appearances which some 
Micro-organisms present under different conditions, as exemplified in 
the Microbe of Chicken Cholera,’ was read (supra, p. 32). 

The President said that they were greatly indebted to the author 
of this valuable contribution to a subject of such admitted importance. 
He entirely agreed with the observations it contained as to the 
deceptiveness which many of the processes of staining and preparation 
produced. No doubt they had their special value, and it would be 
quite true to say that a great deal was to be learnt by the employ- 
ment of such means when they were regarded as processes ancilliary 
to the object of the inquiry, and were used as means to an end. But 
to regard such methods as producing results which they could after- 
wards rely upon, was, he thought, only to place confidence in that 
which further experience would be unlikely to sustain. The drying 
of the object, and the staining it, in most cases so entirely changed 
it, that too much stress could not be laid upon the protest now made, 
for he had found that some of the organisms which he had examined 
in the living state, had altered so much during the process of treat- 
ment by reagents, that it would have been impossible to identify 
them as the same. It was only in proportion as they worked with 
the living, or at least unaltered specimens, that they would be able to 
reach conclusions likely to advance their knowledge of what was true 
concerning them. He was glad to find his own experiences so entirely 
confirmed by an observer who had made these more recent obserya- 
tions. 


Dr. Maddox called attention to the death of Dr. John C. Draper, 
of New York, who had for many years devoted himself largely to the 
study of blood-corpuscles, and to photographing them. 


Mr. J. W. Stephenson’s paper “On ‘Central’ Light in Resolution” 
was read, the object of the paper being to call attention to the mis- 
understanding that had arisen by the alleged resolution of Amphipleura 
by central light, that is with half the real aperture (supra, p. 37). 

Mr. E. M. Nelson thought the paper touched upon a very impor- 
tant matter, with regard to the questions of central and oblique light. 
When Prof. Abbe’s theory came out, it was said that every micro- 
scopist should have an apparatus to examine the diffraction spectra, 
on which alone the power of resolution depended. This appeared to 
him to be manifestly wrong, because it was quite certain that the best 
resolution of P. formoswm was obtained when the whole field of the 
Microscope was full of light, and no diffraction spectra were visible. 
This theoretically reduced the power of resolution, but as a fact, the 
resolution itself was enormously increased. He was about to read a 
paper bearing upon the subject, at another place, dealing with an 
object which was immensely more minute than most of the so-called 
tests; this could be seen only with central illumination, and he 
thought the ability to resolve this was of more value than the re- 
solution of lines. What he referred to was a small spicule extending . 
across one of the spaces between the lines on the diatom; taking the 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 191 


distance between two adjoining areolations to be the 1/24,000 in., 
and the interspaces being about equal, or the 1/48,000 in., and esti- 
mating the small marking at even 1/3 of the interspaces, that would 
give it a diameter of the 1/144,000 in. This was a thing that could 
not, anyhow, be resolved under the oblique light system, but could 
only be seen when the objective was full of light. 

Mr. Crisp said that Mr. Nelson was such a well-known expert in 
such matters, that it was, perhaps, a little presumptuous for him to 
point out that he had mixed up two entirely different questions— 
visibility and resolution—which perhaps accounted for the misunder- 
standing to which the paper was directed. In the same way the 
claim to have seen 1/1,000,000 in. was supposed to have disproved 
the limit of resolution depending upon wave-length. It was, however, 
only a question of visibility, whereas the diffraction theory, in this aspect 
of it, referred to resolution. In the last case, put by Mr. Nelson, so far 
from the resolution not being effected by oblique light, it was oblique 
light and nothing else that resolved the object. As to the notion that 
the better the diffraction spectra were seen, the better they could see 
an object, he (Mr. Crisp) now heard it for the first time, he did not 
understand where Mr. Nelson could have found such a statement. 
Again, no theory that he was aware of, suggested that there was such 
a “reduction of the power of resolution” as Mr. Nelson had referred 
to. No such reduction in fact took place. 

Dr. Matthews said he was one of those who had been stumbling 
over this question, and it had seemed to him that resolution and 
visibility meant very much the same thing. Most photographers 
would bear out the statement, that a picture taken at midday was 
never so effective as one taken when the sun’s rays fell upon the 
objects at a greater angle, and when the contrasts of shadows enabled 
the eye to perceive the details in a more effectual manner. Just in 
this way it seemed to him that when a thing was said to be “resolved,” 
it meant that its component parts seemed to be more visible. 

Mr. Crisp said, the difference between visibility and resolution 
would be understood from the fact that though they might be able with 
a dry objective to see a line which measured the 1/1,000,000 in., 
yet they could not separate two or more of such lines. In reference 
toa question from Mr. C. Beck, he further said that there could be no 
manner of doubt as to the difference made by Prof. Abbe between 
resolution and visibility, and read the following quotation from Prof. 
Abbe’s original paper: “ Such objects can be seen however minute they 
may be; this is merely a question of contrast in the distribution of 
light, of good definition in the objective, and of sensibility of the 
retina. In point of fact, neither Prof. Helmholtz nor the author 
have ever spoken (as, however, has so often been supposed) of a limit 
of ‘ visibility ’"—only of a limit of visible ‘separation.’” (Cf. Vol. L., 
1881, pp. 415-6.) 

Mr. Nelson drew a diagram upon the board, showing the appear- 
ance under the Microscope of the spicule to which he had previously 
referred, and which he said he saw perfectly with an immersion 
objective of 1-43 N.A. and a dry achromatic condenser. How was it 


192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOOIETY. 


possible, he asked, that a thing like this, with a diameter of the 
1/144,000 in. only, could be seen ? . 

Mr. Crisp said that was simply a repetition of the difficulty with 
which they had started. The spicule was merely a question of visi- 
bility, and not of resolution, and it could be seen with almost any 
aperture, All that was here required was sufficient power and de- 
finition in the objective, as well as appropriate illumination. A 
series of such objects, however, could not be seen except with large 
aperture. 


Notice was given thatthe next Meeting would be made Special, 
for the purpose of enabling Dr. Dallinger to be elected as President 
for a third year. 


The List of Nominations for Council and Officers for the ensuing 
year was read. Mr. Curties and Mr. Hembry were elected Auditors 
of the Treasurer’s accounts. 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 

Mr. C. Beck :—(1) “Star” Petrological Microscope ; (2) Electric 
Tncandescence Lamp and Battery. 

Mr. Bolton :— Vaginicola ? 

Messrs. Coxeter and Nehmer:-—Silico-carbon Battery and Elec- 
tric Lamp. 

Mr. Crisp :—(1) Martius’ Microscopie Stroboscope ; (2) Zenger’s 

Slides. 

Mr. E. M. Nelson :—Zeiss’s 1 in. Aplanatic Lens. 

Dr. Ondaatje :—Cuticle of Leaf of Talipot Palm, Ceylon. 

Mr. M. Wilmersdorffer :—Album of Forty European Woods. 


New Fellows :—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. Charles Fletcher, R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A., James Morgan, 
and Maitland L. Mallory, M.D. 


JOURN. R.MICR.SOC.SER.II VOL.VILPL.VII, 


eae ages 


W.H.D,del.ad nat. 


West,Newman é& (CO? lith. 


Researches on the Cell-nucleus. : 


JOURN. R.MICR.S0C.SER 11VOLVI.PL Vit. 


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Researches on the Cell-nucleus. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


APRIL 1886. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. 


VII.—The President's Address. 
By the Rev, W. H. Daxurnazr, LL.D., F.B.S. 
(Annual Meeting, 10th February, 1886.) 
Puates VII., VITL., anv IX. 


A COMPREHENSIVE and impartial review of the results of a year of 
work accomplished by a scientific use of the Microscope would be 
no doubt of considerable interest and of some value. But it would 
be a task impossible of accomplishment in an address such as I 
have to-night the honour to give. The mind most familiarized with 
the vast area of activity and research in this direction would be the 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIL, VIII., anp IX. 
Puiate VII. 


Fig. 1.—Heteromita rostrata, showing nucleus n, x 3000. 
2.—Polytoma uvella, showing nucleus n, x 1400. 
3.—Tetramitus rostratus, showing nucleus n, x 1400. 
4.—Dallingeria Drysdali, showing nucleus n, x 3000. 
5-8.—Spore-sacs of the above in the act of emitting spores. 
9.—Ameeboid condition of T. rostratus before genetic fusion (flagella a), 
x 1200. 
10.—Ditto after the blending of two forms just before the union of the 
nuclei, x 1200. 


Puate VIII. 


Fig. 1.—Nucleus of P. wvella when it has attained full size by growth from 
the germ, x 6000. 

2.—Ditto with nuclear wall shown, x 6000. 

3.—Ditto showing internal development or plexus-like structure, x 6000. 

4.—Ditto after complete internal development, giving origin to body- 
sarcode and flagella (a), x 6000. 

5, 6.—Further stages of the development of sarcode (flagella 5 and c), 
x 6000, and 6000 reduced one-half respectively. 


Ser. 2.—Vou. VI. O 


194 Transactions of the Society. 


readiest to shrink from the labour. It must be a relatively ineffi- 
cient sketch, or a plethora of congested details; neither of which 
could, as I venture to think, accomplish in the best way our end. 

On the other hand, a careful study afresh of the work done by 
the Fellows of this Society since our last annual meeting, while 
peculiarly interesting, and capable of awaking a measure of pride, 
purpose, and hope in all of us, would yet, it appears to me, be but 
a work of pleasurable supererogation. It may be true that ex- 
haustive discussion does not follow every paper or monograph 
presented to us: but genial, friendly, and truth-seeking criticism 
is by no means absent; and the incisive and experienced judgment 
of the expert is sought and given. And so wide and diversified 
has the field of research become, that it is to experts chiefly that 
we must look for criticism, interpretation, and suggestion of the 
most lasting value. 

That this is at once a triumph and a peril to modern science 
in all its sections I have, no doubt in-common with most of you, 
long felt. 

Science has progressed with such rapidity, and extended its 
area on so vast a scale, that the autonomy of the expert and the 
specialist is a danger that all who care for the unity and whole- 
ness of the ever-widening stream of human knowledge must be 
alive to. 

Wise and well-timed indeed were the words of Professor Huxley 
in his address, so recently given, on quitting the chair of the 
Royal Society. “Of late years,” he says, “it has struck me with 
constantly increasing force, that those who have toiled for the 
advancement of science are in a fair way of being overwhelmed by 
the realization of their wishes: . . . it has become impossible for 
any man to keep pace with the progress of the whole of any 
important branch of science. . . . It looks as if the scientific, like 


Fig. 7-9.—Different stages in the progress of the fission of the nucleus of 

D. Drysdah, showing that nuclear changes precede somatic changes 
(a, 6, ¢, d, &, f, g, h, see pp. 200-202), x 8000 and 10,000. 

» 10.—The above nucleus after complete division, showing how the plexus 
structure is at once diffused over the hyaloplasm of the nucleus 
again, x 6000. 

»  11.—Nucleus of Polytoma wvella in fission. 

», 12.—Nucleus of T. rostratus before actual division. 

», 13-18.—Fissional phenomena in the nucleus of T. rostratus (a, b, ¢, d, e, 
Ff; J, see pp. 202-203). 

», 19-20.—Phenomena presented by nucleus of T. rostratus in genetic fusion. 


Puate IX. 


Fig. 1-4.—Various conditions of the body of 7. rostratus in the act of fission, 
x 1400, fig. 4 x 1500. 
»  9-7.—The stages of body fission in D. Drysdali x 3000. 
» 8-13.—The stages seen in the genetic blending of D. Drysdali. 


JOURN.R.MICR.SOG. SER .1I.VOL VI. PL. IX 


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W.H.D. del.admnat, ; West. Newman &C° lth. 


Researches on the Cell-nucleus. 


The President's Address. By the Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 195 


other revolutions, meant to devour its own children. . . as if the 
man of science of the future were condemned to diminish into a 
narrower and narrower specialist as time goes on.” 

“T am happy to say,” he continues, “that I do not think any 
such catastrophe a necessary consequence of the growth of science ; 
but I do think it a tendency to be feared, and an evil to be most 
carefully provided against. The man who works away at one 
corner of nature, shutting his eyes to all the rest, diminishes his 
chances of seeing what is to be seen in that corner; . . . that 
which the investigator perceives depends much more on that 
which lies behind his sense-organs than on the object in front of 
them.” 

Now this universal danger in all branches of scientific inquiry 
is certainly emphasized in a Society like this; and the defence 
which Huxley indicates “against this tendency to the degeneration 
of scientific workers” has special reference to such objects and work 
as we delight to be engaged upon: “it lies in the organization 
and extension of scientific education in such a manner as to secure 
breadth of culture without superficiality ; and on the other hand, 
depth and precision of knowledge without narrowness.” In other 
words, and from our own point of view, exact and exhaustive 
research in the narrowest fields must be encouraged and fostered ; 
we must have an increased ambition for it; but at the same time 
we must incite ourselves and all our fellow-workers to keep the 
small and special area closely linked to, and in the strong broad 
light of, the inconceivably vaster realm of which it is not a separated 
fragment, but an essential and inalienable factor. 

It is, then—with this admonition in view—to special work that 
I shall venture to call your attention once more. And I do this 
with the deeper interest and assurance, because of the manifest 
relation of the results to the broader aspects of that branch of 
science to which as work it links itself. 

We all know of the important, if minute, place occupied in 
modern physiology by the cell-nucleus. From the cell-wall to the 
cell-contents, and from these to the nucleus specifically, the atten- 
tion and research of investigators has been directed ; and the results 
are sought with equal eagerness by the students of vegetable and 
animal forms. 

It would be beyond my purpose to attempt to summarize the 
work done in this relatively new field of research. It is, however, 
chiefly German, and has been obtained almost entirely as the result 
of careful and laborious study of nuclei of various cells under the 
influence of reagents; and therefore, of course, when vitality had 
ceased. But the results are so promising, so suggestive of other 
methods, and as I venture to believe so important, that some far- 
reaching issues may arise in the near future from a close, com- 

. 0 2 


196 Transactions of the Society. 


petent, and patient pursuit of the study with our always improving 
optical resources. At least, small as my contribution may be, I 
am glad to add it to what I think so important an investigation. 

Those of our Fellows who can in any way recall my successive 
work on the life-histories of certain monads—more or less relatively 
large septic organisms—will remember that from 1873 and onwards, 
I, in connection with my friend Dr. Drysdale, called attention to and 
described and figured the division of the nucleus belonging to these 
simple living forms. As our work progressed, nuclear division 
became a more and more noticeable and interesting factor. While 
in the two latest forms which I studied alone, the history of the 
former of which was read before the Royal Society in 1878, some 
very suggestive details were observed, which are to some extent 
indicated in the drawings accompanying that paper. But they 
were relegated for future and further examination, and in the well- 
founded hope of the production of finer lenses than we even then 
possessed. And it is to the immensely improved lenses which we 
now possess that my later results are mainly due. One may be fain 
to confess a weariness of reiterated comparisons of lenses based 
upon delicate diatomaceous striation or “dotting.” At best, mani- 
pulation and the “ personal equation” enter largely into the results. 
But it is not thus in the high-power observations with which for 
so many years I have been chiefly concerned. With lenses con- 
structed from fifteen to ten years ago, I worked during those 
years with definite results. The lenses were the best that the 
science and art of the time could produce; and the organisms on 
which the researches were made were thoroughly known, and were 
examined through consecutive years under every variety of con- 
dition, optical and other; while the limits of disclosure were clearly 
known, and can be readily shown with the same lenses on the same 
objects to-day. 

But during the following ten years, bringing us to the present 
time, there have been, as this Society has so efficiently shown, 
splendid improvements in our lenses. 

It would divert our attention needlessly for me to attempt an 
historical account of these steady advances. Hach year has had 
its optical trophy, English, German, or American. The highest 
and latest class of water-immersions, as made by Powell and Lealand, 
proved a large gain over all their predecessors in searching into 
minute living structure, and delicate organic changes; and their 
possession soon convinced me that by a further extension of what 
we now call N.A., much more was to be discovered in relation to 
these simplest and minutest organisms. Then followed the early 
homogeneous lenses of Abbe and Carl Zeiss, which showed great 
advance in the direction needed, and still greater potentiality and 
promise. What was required was the increase in these lenses of 


The President's Address. By the Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 197 


the N.A., and the great gain in delicate results derivable from 
collar-adjustment. 

Mr. T. Powell has constantly and in a con amore and laborious 
way, responded to my thirst for this enlargement of N.A. A 1/25 
and a 1/50 with N.A. 1°38 were a triumph of some three years 
ago, accomplished at my earnest request. But in going over the 
best results attained by all my preceding lenses, I was able to 
see how much they were transcended by these beautiful instru- 
ments; that is to say, how much more clearly and certainly the 
more hidden and delicate results on which I had worked so long 
were attained, and how much more easy it was by their use to 
follow out the unknown and most difficult details which I had at 
this time begun to fairly grapple with, in the nuclear bodies of 
these minute organisms, and once more I used personal and dele- 
gated influence to obtain from Mr. Powell, if possible, a still greater 
N.A. The result is that I have received during the year just 
expired not only the 1/6 with a N.A. of 1°5, but also a 1/12 
and a 1/20 of precisely the same N.A. 

Now all the results I am about to record have been attained by 
these higher class lenses ; and every point of detail, and disclosure 
of structure, has been either more or less largely indebted, or wholly 
due to the latter, and above all to the latest of these object-glasses. 

The larger proportion of the septic organisms whose life- 
history we have thoroughly studied, were distinctly nucleated 
bodies. I know of no clear reason for concluding that they 
are either vegetal or animal; they possess in fact some of the 
characteristics of both, and certainly they represent the lowliest 
organization of either great line of organic life. Since the nuclei 
of such lowly and minute organisms would be likely to present 
nuclear phenomena in their simplest condition, and since from a 
complete knowledge of the history of the forms, there would be no 
difficulty in correlating nuclear with general somatic changes, I 
determined to do to the utmost what I could do in the study of 
any discoverable changes in these nuclei. The four forms selected 
for study are shown by plate VII. figs. 1-4. These are copies of my 
original drawings presented to this and the Royal Society between 
1873 and 1875. The presence of the nucleus is sufficiently 
manifest in each, indicated by the letter n; but the certainty of 
this being such was found in the fact, that in all instances of fission, 
an act constantly repeated by each form and by a long succession 
of them, the nucleus from the first to the last stage in the act of 
cleavage, took part, and was itself entirely divided. That which 
greatly perplexed usin constant observation in the earlier researches 
on these forms was the origin of this nucleus. We were never 
certain when, in the growth of the organism from the germ, it 
actually arose, nor how it first made its appearance. 


198 Transactions of the Society. 


It was not until three years ago that a clear indication on this 
subject arose, and close observation has since completely established 
it. It will be remembered that each of these forms terminates a 
long series of fissions in what is practically a genetic fusion. The 
two last of a long chain of self-divided forms fuse into one, become 
quite still, and at length the investing sac bursts, and a countless 
host of germs are poured forth. Figs. 5-8, on plate VII., show 
the sacs of each of the four forms chosen, in the act of emitting 

erms. 

; Now the study of the behaviour of the minute bodies thus 
emitted was from one aspect by no means difficult, for they were in- 
active, and minute as they are, they are amenable to all our highest 
power lenses. But the only observation our most patient work could 
effect upon them, was as our papers show, simply growth—gradual 
enlargement—the ultimate, but as to time, uncertain appearance of 
the nucleus—the somewhat saltative appearance.of the flagella— 
and the attainment of the adult size and condition. 

It was noticed in every case that the germs when first thrown 
from the sac were semi-opaque. Light was transmitted but feebly, 
if at all, through them. But in from fifteen to thirty minutes they 
had become clearly hyaline and strongly refractive: at the same 
time they had grown most sensibly larger. One thing impressed 
- us from our earliest observations on the growth of these germs, and 
it was that when the minute hyaline globule had grown to from 
the tenth to the eighth of the long diameter of the adult, there was 
a distinct pause, an apparent arrest of growth, suggesting in our 
earlier observations the death of the organism. This lasted some- 
times forty or even fifty minutes. I am now able to fully interpret 
this. It is the nucleus, that grows to its limit of size, and the 
pause in outward action is employed in the internal development of 
the nuclear structure. 

For illustration here I select one of the larger of the true septic 
organisms. It is figured by Ehrenberg, and known as Polytoma 
wvella, and ig seen in plate VII. fig. 2. It is on an average the 
1/1200 of an inch in length, and its germ and nucleus are rela- 
tively large. The germ grows to about the 1/5500 of an inch in 
long diameter in the course of three hours, becoming a beautiful 
long oval, with no discoverable structure, plate VIII. fig. 1. But 
at this point there is a distinct arrest in the outer growth, and 
it lasts from forty to fifty minutes. 

It has been impossible, hitherto, to determine whether or not 
at this stage there is an investing wall to this hyaline globule: and 
by optical methods alone it is difficult at any stage to fully de- 
termine it. But by a one-and-a-half per cent. of acetic acid, to 
which varying quantities of methyl-green are added, it is clearly 
developed, by being run carefully in upon the living organism; or 


The President's Address. By the Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 199 


even most markedly, if the thin film of fluid be allowed to partly 
evaporate while the object is carefully kept in the field and the 
acetic acid methyl-green be then run under. The investing 
membrane or wall is seen in plate VIII. fig. 2. At the same time, 
as well by subsequent similar treatment as by patient study of the 
living form, a distinct granular condition becomes apparent in 
what was the homogeneous hyaloplasm. 

My deep desire was to study this change as it progressed in the 
living organism. Reagents and stainings are invaluable: but on 
minute structures such as these their action is too violent, and cannot 
with our present knowledge be accurately or with strict certainty 
interpreted. At least, if the study can be effected optically in the 
living form it is an additional advantage and control, and leads to 
more delicate and sure results. Fortunately the nucleus is in an 
absolutely inactive state ; hence I could use homogeneous lenses, and 
every variety of illumination, without fear either of losing or injuring 
the object: and after the first twenty minutes of arrest of outward 
growth I was enabled to make out a distinct granulation, merging 
almost into a plexus during the next thirty minutes. Its delicacy 
is extreme, but there is a manifest difference in the refrangibility 
of the granular structure, and the general hyaloplasm of the 
nucleus. I do not for a moment assume that the full form of this 
plexus structure has been made out, but as well as I can represent 
so delicate a condition it is shown in plate VIII. fig. 5. It can be 
emphasized in one sense by the use of acetic methyl-green: but 
it is also distorted by a kind of coagulation, by means of which all 
its true character is gone. But by the use of the full aperture of 
the lens (1/20 1°5 N.A., 1/50 1°37 N.A., and 1/12 1°5 N.A.) 
and the employment of delicate means of illumination, upon which 
so much depends, it is possible to clearly see the growth in the 
living nucleus of the plexus-like or intertwisted structure seen in 
plate VIII. fig. 3. But it is not easy either to figure or describe 
the exact state of the nucleus that is disclosed. It is suggestive, 
however, of a complex weaving or plaiting; and runs throughout 
the contents of the nuclear body. 

Now, it is when this condition of the nucleus is fully attained 
that the growth of the general organism recommences. A cloudy 
white film of extreme delicacy first presents itself outside the 
margin of the nucleus, as seen in plate VIII. fig. 4, and this rapidly 
widens, as in figs. 5 and 6, ibid., taking the normal form of the 
organism in a longer or shorter time, until the adult size is reached 
and motion commences. 

But there was one other point of the deepest interest. It was 
that I was enabled to determine that the flagellum or flagella, in 
each instance, arose in the nucleus; and it was, or they were, 
carried outwards with far greater rapidity than the somatic sarcode, 


200 Transactions of the Society. - 


so that when the time for motion came the flagella had attamed 
their normal length. 

This will be seen in plate VIII. figs. 4, 5, 6, where at a, b, ¢, the 
origin of the flagella in Polytoma wvella will be seen to be in the 
nucleus, and their relative growth will be found to be greater than 
that of the body-sarcode. ‘This is a typical case. In each of the 
four organisms, the same facts were discoverable in the development 
of the nucleus, the origin of the flagella, and the growth of the body. 
They were best seen in Tetramutus rostratus and Polytoma wvella : 
not quite so well in Dallingeria Drysdali,* and least perfectly in 
Heteromita rostrata ; but in all they were seen with sufficient 
clearness to leave no doubt. 

Not less interesting and striking are the minute phenomena 
accompanying fission. In about five minutes after the adult stage 
is reached, on the average, the act of self-division commences, and, 
with about the same interval, each divided organism again divides 
for hours in succession. The first symptom that fission had 
begun was, up to about five years ago, discoverable by us only in 
the general body-substance. But with the lenses we can now 
employ it is clearly demonstrable that the earliest fissional activity 
takes places in the nucleus. In Tetramitus rostratus, for example, 
the first indication we could by any effort discover was an amoeboid 
condition of the general sarcode as seen in plate IX. fig. 1. 
This was followed by a sudden slit at the root of the flagella, 
fig. 2 a, causing the four flagella to be divided into two pairs, 
which rapidly receded from each other; this slit was shared by 
the nucleus as seen at b, fig. 2, and from this time the nuclear 
division went on concurrently with that of the somatic sarcode, as 
seen in figs, 3 and 4, and more fully detailed in the paper read 
before you on this organism. 

In like manner with Dallingeria Drysdali, one of the later, 
and most carefully studied forms, the first definite trace of the act of 
self-division was in the splitting of the beak and flagellum, plate IX. 
fig. 5 a; an incision almost constantly followed by a corresponding 
incision at 0, fig. 6, and this was carried into the nucleus. Almost 
simultaneously with this, a white line appeared right through the 
dividing organism as seen at fig. 7, and as already recorded 
and figured.t| But in all the four cases with which I am dealing, 
it can now be shown by the employment of the new lenses of 
great aperture, that it is the nucleus that is first, and very pro- 
foundly, affected. 

It must be understood that to discover the facts in the living 
form is not by any process easy. All the finer properties of the 

* Of. Kent’s ‘ Infusoria,’ vol. i. p. 310 et seq. 


+ ‘On the Life-history of a Septic Organism,’ by Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 
Proc. Roy. Soc, xxviii. (1878) pp. 332-50 (2 pls.). 


The President's Address. By the Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 201 


lens must be brought into action ; and, as all manipulators and 
experts in the use of high-power lenses know, this is dependent 
upon careful centering and a delicate facility and power in the use 
of light. But exaggerated results that, although not to be relied 
on at all by themselves, are none the less valuable in a high degree 
as ancilliary means, may be obtained by the judicious use of acetic 
methyl-green. 

It will suffice for my present purpose if I give you the details 
in two cases. In none are they more beautiful than in Tetramitus 
rostratus and Dallingerta Drysdalt. I have already pointed out 
that the nuclei of these forms differ considerably in size. In the 
selection of the two I have named we have one of the largest, and 
although not the smallest, still a relatively very small one, if we 
take the group as a whole. The nucleus of Tetramitus rostratus 
averages the 1/10,000 in. in length; that of D. Drysdali ave- 
rages the 1/20,000 in. For several reasons I give the results 
of examination with the same lenses, and the same magnifying 
power. If we examine D. Drysdali first, we shall see the pro- 
blem in its most difficult form, and shall be the better able to 
appreciate the identity of behaviour in the nuclei of both. Indeed, 
in each of the four nucleated forms, if steadily followed from the 
time that they have attained maturity from the germ, it will be 
seen that the plexus-like state of the nucleus is being lost in 
certain parts of it, that is to say, that the plexus-like structure 
which had become diffused over the entire hyaloplasm of the 
nucleus, aggregates in definite parts, leaving other parts absolutely 
clear and transparent. In the case of D. Drysdali, it is the lower 
part of the nucleus that becomes thus hyaline. 

On close examination and with carefully managed light, it 
may be seen with the 1/20 of 1:5 N.A., and with the 1/50 of 
1°38 N.A., as drawn in plate VIII. fig. 7, where ata, a,a,a portion 
of the general somatic sarcode is seen, and at b the nucleus. Instead 
of the plexus-like structure being found everywhere in the nucleus, 
as it was in fig. 3 ibid., it is wholly wanting in that part of the 
nuclear body marked ¢, and is much denser than before in the 
part marked b. In this condition not a trace of fissional action is 
to be seen in the general substance of the body, nor any of its 
parts: but if the observation be continued it will be seen that 
there rapidly appears in the long axis of the nucleus, at first 
faintly then more clearly, a bead-like line seen at d, fig. 8, and two 
or three finer threads run from the plexus-mass e to this middle 
line. At this point it is that a minute disparting of the nucleus 
occurs at the point d, so slight as to require great care in observa- 
tion, and this is immediately followed by a slight white line d e, 
resulting in the first incision of the body-substance as at f. The 
white line now widens, and extends the whole length of the body 


202. Transactions of the Society. 


of the organism as shown in fig. 9, h,g, and in plate IX. fig. 7, and 
ig accompanied by an almost complete severance of the halves of 
the nucleus as at h, fig. 9, plate VIII, which is then quickly effected ; 
and the whole organism separates into two perfect forms as we 
have before described.* When, however the fission is complete 
the congested condition of the plexus-like structure at one end of 
the nucleus is broken up by its diffusion, equally again, throughout 
the entire hyaloplasm of the nuclear body as seen in plate VIII. 
fiz. 10, and in the next fission the same process is repeated. 

Now it is only in minute particulars that any of the four forms 
before us differ from the mode of self-division here described. The 
differences indeed are determined only by the peculiar way in 
which the body-sarcode as a whole divides. In every case there is 
a loss in one part of the nucleus of the plexus-like structure, and a 
manifest thickening of it at other points of the nuclear body. 
There is also either a beaded or otherwise irregular line—really I 
believe a plate or dise—running along the entire line of cleavage of 
the nucleus, and an opening of the two halves of the nucleus to 
some small extent before the act of fission is participated in by the 
sarcode of the general organism. In Polytoma uvella, for example, 
the mode of fission differs from the above, by the fact that the 
sarcode divides into two, four, eight, and sixteen separate forms 
within the body-wall of the original organism.{ In this instance 
it is the middle of the nucleus that becomes homogeneous, and 
the opposite ends that receive the plexus; and the white line of 
cleavage is exactly midway between them, as seen in plate VIII. 
fig. 11. But in all important details, in describing the phenomena 
in one, we have in effect described the behaviour of all these septic 
nuclei in the act of fission. 

This will be instructively manifest in studying the larger 
nucleus of Tetramitus rostratus. In plate VIII. fig. 12 we have a 
drawing of this nucleus in the state in which it is arrested in 
growth for the development of its internal structure. It is mag- 
nified 8000 diameters, and the nuclear membrane or wall-like 
investment is made manifest. In fig. 13 the plexus-like structure 
of the whole interior of the nucleus is palpable ; and this ig the 
state in which it remains until just before the first indication of 
the commencement of the fissional state has displayed itself in the 
general substance of the body-sarcode. 

It will be remembered that the first sign that fission was about 
to happen in the body was shown in the amceboid condition of the 
whole body of the monad,t as seen in plate IX. fig. 1. But by close 
study of the nucleus this state is now seen to supervene upon an 

* Proc. Roy. Soc., ibid. 


t+ Monthly Micr. Journ., xii. (1874) p. 261 et seq. 
t Ibid., x. (1878) p. 53 ef seq. 


The President's Address. By the Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 203 


earlier activity in the nucleus. That is to say, that the pleaus-like 
structure condenses or congregates at one end of the nucleus, so 
that there is a rapid transition from the condition of the nucleus 
seen in fig. 13 to the condition seen in fig. 14, where at a the 
hyaloplasm is clear, while at c d there is a thick gathering of what 
had before filled the whole nuclear contents, as at fig. 13. At the 
same time a faint division appears in the long axis of the nucleus, 
as at a b, fig. 14. And now it is that the amceboid condition of 
the whole body-sarcode begins and the process of fission rapidly 
proceeds. 

With the splitting of the four flagella into two pairs (plate IX. 
fig. 2 a) there is a visible incision in the nucleus J, ibid.; this 
condition of the nucleus is shown at fig. 15, where the faint axial 
line seen at a ), fig. 14, has become strong and beaded; and two 
delicate beaded cords proceed from the plexus on each side to 
this strong line of cleavage, as seen at e e In fig. 16 the 
process of division is more than half accomplished, and the fine 
beaded lines still retain their relative positions, as at f fg. At 
this point the division of the body of the organism is about half 
accomplished, and the nuclear fission is complete before the body 
divides. In plate VIII. fig. 17 we see the two nuclei a moment 
prior to actual separation; and in fig. 18 we have the nucleus a 
moment or two after total separation, in which it is plain that the 
plexus-like structure is again diffusing itself evenly over the nuclear 
contents. 

The rapidity and continuity with which these fissions take 
place are remarkable. In a thoroughly healthy, vigorous field of 
Tetramitus rostratus from ten to twelve fissions will be effected in 
one hour if we steadily follow one of the two divided organisms 
successively in continuous divisions. There is but little interval 
between the complete separation of one divided organism from its 
fellow and the appearance in it of the earliest stages of the next 
fissional process. And this will continue for hours without cessa- 
tion, causing a prodigious increase of the organism. It was ex- 
tremely difficult indeed in some of these organisms to follow to 
the end this terminal act of fission and to demonstrate the relation 
borne by the last segmented forms to the genetic fusion and pro- 
duction of germs, which has been proved to characterize each of the 
specific organisms when exhaustively studied. They all divide 
rapidly by fission, and in the same field, without the slightest change 
or addition, there arise at given intervals forms that slightly differ 
from the prevailing form, and these go into a state of conjugation 
resulting in a still sac that ultimately pours out myriads of germs. 
But I have in three cases been able to see with completeness at 
what point the process of fission ceased and the genetic state arose. 

I select two instances, both being nucleated forms. The first 


204 Transactions of the Society. 


of these is Tetramitus rostratus. When followed into the mature 
state from the germ it speedily exhibits the early nuclear symptoms 
of fission, and the process of division goes on in the one of the 
divided forms that we can follow, after each successive division, for 
from six to eight hours. In each act of fission an amceboid condi- 
tion is set up, as we have seen, in the body-sarcode. But the 
organism retains its power to swim. When, however, the last link 
in the chain of fission has been reached, the organism that consti- 
tutes that lnk becomes an amceba almost entirely, as seen in plate 
VII. fig. 9, retaining only the characteristic forepart of the body, 
with the four flagella a. But it does not swim; precisely like an 
amoeba, it progresses by pseudopodia.* There are always several 
such in a field of some age, and they are, apparently by accident, 
constantly coming in contact with each other as they creep, with 
the peculiar result that their respective sarcodes almost directly fuse 
into each other, until nucieus reaches nucleus and the two nuclei 
melt “either into other,” and the whole of the blended bodies become 
a globular sac, which ultimately emits an enormous mass of germs. 

For years we had been struck with the enlargement of the 
nucleus in forms that had entered this stage (plate VII. fig. 9) 
previous to blending. But I have now made out that the final 
fission form may be known and identified, before the strong amceba- 
like change arises, by a close study of the nucleus; which instead 
of passing from the stage seen in plate VIII. fig. 17, to that seen in 
fig. 18, ibid., gradually loses all trace of plexus-like structure every- 
where, and becomes greatly enlarged, with a milky aspect, and in 
this condition it is unaffected by the acetic methyl-green. It 
is in this state of the nucleus that the organism ceases to swim, 
and if brought into contact with another in the same state fuses 
the general sarcode with it, almost as though two globules of 
mercury had touched. A figure of the act of blending is given at 
plate VII. fig. 10, where the nuclei are almost in contact; directly 
such contact is effected there is a distinct fusion, but no trace of 
structure can be seen anywhere throughout the blending nuclear 
bodies. Every artifice and device that could be tried, every method 
of illumination, and the employment of reagents, failed to reveal 
anything but the almost dazzling white substance as a whole of the 
nuclear bodies. Beale’s carmine evenly and delicately tinted the 
nuclei, but that was all. 

The blending is effected with varying rapidity, but is always 
quickened directly the two nuclear bodies are in actual contact 
with each other, and from that time the amoeboid condition becomes 
less and less marked, until it wholly ceases, and we have a relatively 
large oval sac, extremely white, and although diaphanous, still not 


* Monthly Micr. Journ., x. (1873) p. 53 ct seq. 


The President's Address. By the Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 205 


hyaline, and with just one point a, fig. 19, plate VIII., which is the 
last trace of the fusion. The nucleus, however, can be seen, as the 
figure shows; but with no discoverable structure, and only made 
visible with careful handling of light and lens. 

Now if this blended nucleus be carefully watched in the living 
state, it will be seen to diffuse itself radially through the body- 
sarcode of the blended organism as seen in plate VIII. fig. 20, until 
every trace of the nucleus is gone; and the still globule of living 
matter becomes tight and glossy, but no trace of structure can be 
anywhere found in if. It remains in this condition for six hours, 
and as detailed in my former papers, bursts, pouring out immense 
numbers of minute germs (plate VII. fig. 7). 

The other nucleated form of these organisms that I have suc- 
cessfully followed through the whole succession of continuous 
fissions into conjugation, is D. Drysdalz.. It is in this respect an 
extremely remarkable form. 

In my account of this organism before the Royal Society,* I 
recorded that nine separate forms were followed at different times, 
from the first fission after maturity had been attained, through all 
successive fissions, to what was in each case the last. There were 
from seven to eight acts of fission in an hour, for the first four 
hours, and about five per hour during the next two hours, and then 
longer intervals ensued. But when the segmented organism was 
followed, as of course it could only be, in one division of each 
fission, and every link in the chain was thus completed, the one 
which was the product of the last act of fission dzed in six cases, 
but underwent metamorphosis preliminary to conjugation in three 
cases. 

In the latter, almost immediately after the fissional act was 
completed, an amceboid condition, which is quite unknown in any 
other stage of its life-history, supervened. The aspect of the 
organism in this condition is seen in plate IX. fig. 8, where it will 
be seen that this organism, shown in nearly its normal state at 
fig. 5, ibid., is curiously amceboid throughout its sarcode, and that 
the trailing flagella a a have become “clubbed,” and are fusing with 
the body ; while the nucleus b has greatly increased in size and has 
become white. The changes are now very rapid; not more than 
seventy seconds elapse before the trailing flagella are wholly fused 
with the body-substance, and while the head-and-neck-like pro- 
tuberance characteristic of this organism is retained, the body, 
having lost its trailing or lateral flagella, becomes oval, with an 
immensely developed nucleus, as seen in plate IX. fig. 9. In this 
state it swims with ease; and now a band of granules is formed as 
shown at fig. 9 a, and it swims into the midst of the closely 


* Proc. Roy. Soc., xxvii. (1878) p. 336. 


206 Transactions of the Society. 


crowded gatherings of this organism which are “anchored” and 
springing upon, in order to break up, specks of decomposing 
matter.* It there firmly attaches itself to one of these active. 
springing forms, which at once unanchors itself; and both together 
swim freely and vigorously about as seen in fig. 10. In the - 
course of from thirty-five to forty-five minutes they become inert ; 
the lateral flagella of the lower iorm fall upon and become fused with — 
the mass of the body-sarcode; the front flagella become entangled. 
and melt together, and during the whole time the two bodies are 
dissolving into each other. But there is a visible difference in the 
nuclei. ‘The nucleus of the metamorphosed one remains large and — 
retains its whiteness, as at b, fig. 10. ‘That of the lower and ordinary 
one is small and highly refractive with a slightly brown colour, as — 
seen at a, ibid. 

When the uniting organisms reach the state shown in fig. 1, 
they are absolutely still, and the two nuclei coming into contact, 
fuse together : but the lower and smaller one becomes lost i in, and 
takes the optical character of the larger, as it melts into it; but to 
the last.that part of it which is not absorbed, as seen at a, ‘fig. fie 
retains its own character. But very soon the two nuclei become 
one—a pale white oval body—and the body-sarcode unites wholly 
together in a spindle or long oval form, as seen in fig. 12. The 
nucleus becomes fainter and fainter to every reagent and every form — 
of illumination ; but it can be seen, as in fig. 12, to be diffusing 
itself in a star-like or radial manner through the sarcode until it 
is no longer traceable, and we have a tight, glossy, whitish, 
spindle-shaped body, seen in fig. 13, from which, at the end of from 
three to four hours, the germs are emitted, from which a fresh 
host of this organism arises ; shown in fig. 8, plate VII. 

Now by my latest investigations I was able to demonstrate that 
in this case, as in the preceding, all the changes that arose in the 
last product of fission began in the nucleus. ‘The first vital 
divergence from the normal form previous to fission was not the 
ameceboid state shown in plate IX. fig. 8, but a change from the 
highly refractive and plexus-like condition of the interior of the 
nucleus, into the white, structureless, and much enlarged nuclear 
body seen at 6, ibid. : and then follow all the changes I have described. 

That we have in this union of the nuclei of two separate forms 
of the same organism, followed by a union of both body-sarcodes, 
a distinct act of fertilization, it would be almost idle to doubt. It 
is a curious fact that whilst in each of the earlier activities of the 
nucleus there was a discoverable structural condition, in this most 
important action in the life of the nucleus there is a loss of 
all differentiation. The whiteness is very striking, and the 


* Proc. Roy. Soc. ibid. 


The President’s Address. By the Rev. W. H. Dallinger. 207 


diffusion of the nuclear substance, after nuclear fusion through the 
sarcode of the united organisms, is also full of interest. 

One thing appears clear: the nucleus is the centre of all the 
higher activities in these organisms. The germ itself appears but 
an undeveloped nucleus; and when that nucleus has attained its 
full dimensions in size, there is a pause in growth in order that its 
internal development may be accomplished. When this is the case 
it becomes manifest that the body-sarcode is, so to speak, a vital 
product of the nucleus. Moreover, it is from it that the flagella 
originally arise. In the same way it is by a complex and beautiful 
series of delicate activities in the nucleus that the wonderful act 
of fission is initiated, and in all probability carried to the end. 
So too, all the involved changes that go with fertilization and the 
production of germs, are a series of correlated activities due, at the 
beginning at least, wholly to the nucleus. 

We are, as I believe, by such an investigation as this, brought 
into close relation to the behaviour of the nucleus in the simplest 
condition in which it is at present possible to discover it. The 
phenomena made manifest are doubtless only the coarser and more 
amenable activities and changes. No doubt far profounder and 
subtiler changes are concurrently proceeding : but it is something to 
find ourselves on the way to the observation of living changes in 
the nucleus as they progress in the living form. 

If our lenses are improved in the next ten years, as they have 
been in the last, in optical properties, I am convinced that remarkable 
advances in this problem of the nucleus may be made. 

In thus coming closer to the delicate phenomena of nuclear 
activity we of course come no nearer to the solution of what life 2s. 
That is no part of the question. But to come any distance nearer 
to a knowledge of how the most living part of the minutest 
organisms in nature acts in detail, has for me, and for most biologists, 
an increasing fascination. 

I had intended appending some practical remarks on the several 
and, so far as my experience goes, best modes of centering and 
illuminating these high-power lenses of great aperture; but I find 
it needful to delay this for some future occasion. 


208 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


SUMMARY 


OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ZOOLOGY AND BOL 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 


MICROSCOPY, &c., 


INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS.* 


ZOOLOGY. 
A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 


a. Embryology.t+ 


Special Physiology of the Embryo.—Prof. W. Preyer’s { most 
important general results on this subject are that mobility appears 
long before sensibility, and that the sense-organs and the parts of the 
nervous system connected with them are capable of functioning before 
it is at all likely that in normal embryonic life they have any proper 
functions to perform. By “mobility” is to be understood more 
especially the power of making spontaneous or “impulsive” move- 
ments. The presence of sensibility can only be proved by the exist- 
ence of what is really a kind of mobility—that is, reflex mobility. 
When the appropriate reflex movements are obtained on stimulating 
the sense-organs, it is inferred that the corresponding kind of 
sensibility is present. Reflex movements are not only later in 
appearing, but can also be made to disappear more easily than 
impulsive movements. The movements that indicate sensibility can 
be suppressed (in the artificially extracted embryo of the rabbit) by 
applying chloroform to the skin; with more difficulty by causing 
chloroform to be breathed. In either case the anesthesia passes 
off very rapidly. It is supposed that the chloroform in the first 
case acts directly, in the second case indirectly, on the nerves of 
the skin; that it only secondarily affects the spinal cord, and that it 
does not act at all on the brain. The movement of sensibility in the 
embryo gradually rises from its first appearance up to birth. In the 
embryo of the rabbit, the skin being irritated, two seconds may pass 


* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they 
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers 
noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of 
this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, 
and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new 
or have not been previously described in this country. 

+ This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so — 
called, but also those dealing with processes of Hvolution, Development, and 
Reproduction, and with allied subjects. 

} xii. and 644 pp., 8vo, Leipzig, 1885. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 209 


from the contact to the reaction. The occurrence of respiratory 
movements is dependent on the power already present of reflex move- 
ment in response to stimuli on the skin, not the power of reflex 
movements on respiration. 

Little has been ascertained with regard to the sense of temperature 
and the muscular sense; the fact that mobility is increased by warmth, 
and diminished by cold, of course proves nothing as to the sense of 
temperature properly so-called. The human foetus gives signs of 
having feelings of taste two months before birth. The whole complex 
of parts belonging to the ear is functionless before birth, as are also 
the parts of the eye; but the power of raising the eyelid is present ; 
the eyes are not closed in the human embryo after the sixth month. 
The conditions for the organic feelings are present several weeks 
before birth; pleasure and pain can be distinguished. 

The author finally puts the question, What is the actual state of 
the embryo normally? He arrives by a series of arguments that 
seem pretty conclusive when taken together, at the result, that its 
state is normally like dreamless sleep or like the state of hibernating 
animals; it does not wake up from this state before birth except 
momentarily, and then only when strongly stimulated.* 


Tail in Human Embryo.}—Referring to his previous communi- 
cation as to the presence of supernumerary vertebra in a human 
embryo,t Prof. H. Fol announces that by anatomical reconstruction 
of an embryo 8-1 mm. he has ascertained the existence of a back- 
ward prolongation of the intestine from the point where the anus 
will be formed. A similar condition has been found by Kélliker in 
the embryo of the rabbit. In man it is especially interesting, since 
the already distinctly marked position of the anus prevents any 
mistake as to the fact that this “caudal intestine” is a transitory 
structure. 


Spermatogenesis in Mammals.§—Herr Benda reports the exist- 
ence of Ebner’s spermatoblasts in all the mammals (rat, dog, guinea- 
pig, rabbit, &c.) which he has examined. 

The lobate spermatogenetic elements are connected with a cell 
which lies in the wall of the seminal tubule; this condition appears 
to be preceded by one in which elements whose nuclei are marginal 
are connected with a “ foot-cell,” and this by a stage in which round 
cells formed by cell-division lie on the processes of the “ foot-cell.” 
Herr Benda differs from Merkel and Sertoli, who regard the “ foot- 
cell” as a fixed supporting cell, for he finds between the phase in 
which the elements are separated from the “ foot-cell,” and that in 
which new elements lie on these cells, a period in which the generative 
columns derived from the wall-cells are alone developed. The processes 
can only arise at the commencement of every spermatogenetic period. 
In opposition to Merkel he finds that the essence of the change consists 


* Cf. Amer. Natural., xx. (1886) pp. 80-1, from Mind, No. xxxvii. p. 152. 
t+ Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xiv. (1885) p. 566. 

t See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 781. 

§ Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Physiol. Abth.) 1886, pp. 186-7. 


Ser. 2.—Vot, VI. P 


210 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


in the active division of the “ foot-cell,” which is perhaps a kind of 
nutrient organ for the seminiferous elements, if these lose their 
cell-individuality by the metamorphosis of their nucleus. The active 
life of the “foot-cell” is spoken to by the retraction of its processes. 
This will alone explain the protrusion of the conical pole of the 
seminal cells towards tbe wall of the tubule. 


Ovary of Echidna.*—Mr. F. E. Beddard gives a short sketch of 
previous papers on this subject, and after mentioning Mr. Poulton’s f 
observations on the ovum of Ornithorhynchus in greater detail, gives his 
own results, with figures, of work on the ovary of Hchidna. 

He summarizes these results, which agree in the main with 
Poulton’s, as follows:—(1) the follicular epithelium remains as a 
single layer of cells round the ovum, till it leaves the Graafian follicle, 
as is the case with lower Vertebrata; (2) the ovum completely fills 
the follicle; (3) the ovum is very much larger than in other mammals ; 
(4) the ovum is invested only by the vitelline membrane, which 
becomes very thin or atrophies on maturity ; (5) the ovum consists of 
a central mass of yolk, surrounded by a finer granular layer; (6) the 
nucleus lies excentrically, just below the peripheral layer of proto-— 
plasm. 


Influence of Shocks on the Germs of the Fowl’s Egg.{— 
M. C. Dareste has made some observations on the contradictory results 
obtained in some experiments on the eggs of fowls. He directs again 
attention to what he calls the individuality of the germ, which is the 
dominant fact in teratogeny ; this will explain why some embryos are 
normal and others monstrous, after having been submitted to the same 
shocks. The nature and mode of action of the shocks is also an 
important element, and they affect the egg differently according to its 
position. In other words, experiments may be largely varied. He 
has operated with an instrument which gives 1620 shocks a minute, 
and he has thus been able to give from 24,800 to 97,200 shocks; as 
a result he finds that the number of shocks is of no influence; an 
effect once produced is not increased by further action. On the other 
hand it is quite possible to alter the position of the eggs acted on, and 
this has been found to ke of very great importance. Eggs affected 
when the position of the long axis was vertical and the more acute 
pole superior, generally gave rise to monstrous forms, while when 
the axis was turned upside down, or set transversely, the embryos 
were ordinarily normal, and in some cases chicks appeared. 


Peptone in Hens’ Eggs during Incubation.s—Dr. W. Fischel, 
as the result of the examination of forty-two eggs at various periods 
of incubation (2nd to 19th day), found peptones in eight cases, both in 
the embryonic tissues and in the yolk, in one embryo as much as 
54 mgrm. being present. Peptones were never found before the 
15th day, and in some cases not even after that date. 


* Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, 1885, pp. 354-62. 

t+ Quart. Journ. Mier. Sei., xxiv. (1884) pp. 118-28 (1 pl.). 
{ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 834-6. 

§ Zeitschr. f. Physiol. Chem., x. (1885) pp. 11-3. 


“ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 211 


Spawning of Bufo vulgaris.*—M. Heéron-Royer refers to 
Van Bambeke’s five layers which surround the egg of a Batrachian. 
These are (1) the thin vitelline membrane ; (2) the chorion; (3) the 
internal transparent capsule; (4) the external capsule; and (5) the 
thick, jelly-like envelope by means of which the eggs are fastened 
together, and fixed to submerged objects. He then describes the 
passage of the eggs through the oviduct, and the changes that take 
place therein, their expulsion from the cloaca, and their fertilization 
by the male. The attitude of the male during fertilization, and the 
arrangement of the eggs in their envelopes in various Anura, are 
figured. 

In Pelobates fuscus the eggs are scattered in the jelly without any 
definite arrangement. P. cultripes rolls its string of eggs round 
plants. -In Bufo vulgaris the external and internal capsules form a 
tube, inclosing a number of eggs in a common chamber. These two 
layers are spherical in Ranidw and Hylide, as well as in Disco- 
glosside. They appear to be absent in Pelobates. In Aaolotl two or 
more eggs are laid in a common external capsule, each egg having its 
own internal capsule ; the groups of eggs are placed end to end, and 
surrounded by the jelly-like layer. During the development of the 
embryo, these various layers, in all these forms, fuse with one 
another. The author supposes that the external capsule of these 
eggs is more apparent than real; that the very short part played by 
it is simply to prevent a mixture of the neighbouring layers; and 
that its disappearance precedes the free-swimming stage. 


Yolk-globules in the intracapsular fluid of Fish Ova.t—After 
discussing the various opinions which have been held in regard to the 
passage of water through the porous capsule of fish ova, Prof. B. 
Solger maintains that the process occurs independent of fertilization, 
before or after, or contemporaneously. 

By the entrance of water, the capsule in Leuciscus ova was seen 
to be stretched and tense thirty hours after fertilization, and remained 
so till, shortly before the liberation of the embryo, a large intracapsular 
space was formed. In studying the contents of this space, Solger 
found that the colourless internal fluid is at first (from the second to the 
ninth day after fertilization) very readily affected by water, becoming 
at once white and turbid, acting just like the yolk-substance of the 
ovum. In examining the intracapsular fluid, formed elements were 
discovered which closely resembled yolk-globules, though apparently 
in process of breaking up. Precautions were of course taken to 
prevent any injury to the wall of the yolk-sac. Professor Solger 
points out the two possibilities—either the globules originate from 
outside, just as His derives the yolk-globules themselves from the 
granulosa, or, which seems to him the more probable, they originate 
from the yolk before it is completely surrounded. He notes Eimer’s 
interesting observation that the further entrance of water is prevented 
at a definite period by the development outside the porous capsule 


* Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belge, x. (1885) pp. 597-607 (1 pl.). 
+ Arch. f, Mikr, Anat., xxvi. (1885) pp. 321-33 (1 pl.). 


P 2 


22; SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of villous-like processes (“ Zéttchen,”) which Eimer derived from 
extruded yolk-material. 


Formation of Mesoblast and Persistence of Blastopore in the 
Lamprey.*—Mr. A. E. Shipley finds that the mesenteron of the 
lamprey is present from the first sign of invagination, and that so 
far it resembles Amphioxus and differs from the frog. The mesoblast 
first appears by the differentiation of two bands of those yolk-cells 
which lie in the angles formed by the invaginated mesenteron and 
the epiblast; at a very much later stage it is completed ventrally by 
the down-growth on each side of the mesoblastic plates, which 
proliferate cells at their edge. 

The author agrees with Schultze and Calberla that the blastopore 
persists as the anus; as the same phenomenon has been demonstrated 
for various Amphibia by Miss Johnson (newt), Gasser (Alytes), and 
Spenser (frog), its persistence in the Cyclostomata leads to the view 
that it is a primitive feature retained in those eggs which have not 
become much modified by the presence of a large mass of yolk; a re- 
examination of Amphiowus as to this point would be very instructive. 
Behind the anus, and at a point corresponding to the front lip of the 
blastopore, there is a mass of indifferent tissue, into which there pass 
representatives of all three germinal layers, and which appears to 
represent the primitive streak. 


Breeding of Salmon from Parents which have never visited 
the Sea.t—Dr. F. Day reports on experiments made at Howietoun, 
from which he concludes that (1) male parr and smolts may afford 
milt competent to fertilize ova, but when from fish of the second 
season, or up to thirty-two months old, it is (? always) of insufficient 
strength for strong and vigorous fry to be raised. (2) Female smolts 
or grilse may give eggs at thirty-two months of age, but those which 
are a season older are better capable of producing vigorous fry ; for 
the purpose of developing ova a visit to the sea is not a physiological 
necessity. (3) Young male Salmonid are more matured for breeding 
purposes than are young females of the same age. (4) Although 
females under twenty-four months of age may give ova, such are of 
little use for breeding purposes, as the embryos do not become well 
developed or vigorous, and the young when hatched are frequently 
malformed. (5) Older Salmonide, as a rule, give larger ova than 
younger or smaller ones; but the size of the egg varies with age and 
condition. (6) Among the produce of every female fish there may be 
found variations in the size of the eggs. (7) From larger ova finer 
and more rapidly growing fry are produced ; consequently races may 
be improved by the selection of the breeders. 


Hatching the Eggs of Cod.t—Mr. J. A. Ryder, after describing 
a new apparatus for hatching cod’s eggs (allowing of a slow up and 
down movement of the water, which seems to aerate the eggs and give 
better results than the usual rapid motion), observes that the larval 


* Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxix. (1885) pp. 244-8. 
+ Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., ii. (1885) pp. 447-68 (2 pls.). 
t Science, vii. (1886) pp. 26-9 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 213 


integument becomes raised above the head, forming a serous cavity— 
the “ supra-cephalic sinus’—which appears to serve as a float, so as 
to keep the embryos at the surface of the water. The embryos swim 
horizontally, but when at rest have an oblique position, the tail 
pointing backwards and downwards. It is found that if the sea-water 
becomes less dense than normally, the eggs sink and die, showing 
that the cod’s eggs, in order to live and develope, float at the surface. 


Conditions of Bastard Fertilization.*—Profs. O. and R. Hertwig 
find that the success or non-success of bastardation does not ex- 
clusively depend on the degree of systematic relationship between the 
crossing species; this has also been observed by Prof. Pfliiger for 
Amphibia. There does not seem to be reciprocity in the cross-fertili- 
zation of two species of Echinoids, any more than of Amphibians; 
there are also possible grades ; thus, while ova of Evhinus microtuber- 
culatusare almost always fertilized by spermatozoa of Strongylocentrotus 
lividus, the reverse is hardly ever successful. Ova of S. lividus are 
not to be fertilized by spermatozoa of Arbacia pustulosa, but the eggs 
of the latter are often fertilized by the sperm of the former. The 
condition of the products is of importance, fresh ova being often less 
successfully bastardated than those whose vital energy has been 
lowered by some means ; there is, in fact, a minimum and an optimum 
of capacity for bastardation ; this was well seen by dividing the ova 
into groups, and fertilizing them under different conditions. In 
Kchinoids there is no visible difference in the form of spermatozoa, 
and the causes of failure or success must be looked for elsewhere; it 
depends on the constitution of the genital products ; compleie fertility 
or sexual affinity only obtains between products of one and the same 
species ; there reside in the egg-cell regulative forces, which guarantee 
the normal course of fertilization; these diminish in power with the 
vital energy of the cell. 


Continuity of the Germ-plasma considered as the basis of a 
theory of Heredity.|—Prof. A. Weismann’s essay ¢{ on germ-plasma 
is reported on by Prof. H. N. Moseley ; it deals with the fundamental 
question, “ How is it that a single cell of the body unites within itself 
the entire tendencies of inheritance of the whole organism.” Prof. 
Weismann answers this question by supposing that the germ-cells 
arise as far as their essential and characteristic substance is con- 
cerned, not at all out of the body of the individual, but direct from 
the parent germ-cell. The germ-plasma is regarded as a substance 
of peculiar chemical or even more special molecular composition 
which passes over from one generation to another; at every onto- 
genesis a portion of the specific germ-plasma which the parent egg- 
cell contains is not used up in producing the offspring, but is reserved 
unchanged to produce the germ-cells of the following generation ; in 
fact the germ-cells are regarded as separate from the entirety of cells 
composing the body, and are related to one another as are a series of 


* Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xix. (1885) pp. 121-65; and Supp., i. 
(1885) pp. 72-6. 
+ Nature, xxxiii. (1885) pp. 154-7. t 8vo, Jena, 1885, 122 pp. 


214 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


generations of unicellular organisms derived from one another by a 
continuous course of simple division into two. 

The author divides his essay into three chapters, the first of 
which deals with the germ-plasma. Fecundation is regarded as the 
union of the nuclear substance of the maternal and paternal individual 
but this substance is not the same as Niageli’s idioplasm, for it does 
not extend through the whole body. The view is discussed and 
support for it drawn both from the animal and the vegetable kingdom. 

In the second chapter a new theory of the meaning of the polar 
vesicles is advanced ; their extrusion is regarded as the getting rid of 
histogenetic plasma, in order to leave the germ-plasma free to act; 
it is, in fact, the removal of ovogenous nucleo-plasma. The third 
chapter treats of parthenogenesis, and in a postscript to it the dis- 
covery of a polar vesicle in the parthenogenetic summer eggs of 
Daphnide is announced ; this strikes at the root of Balfour’s theory, 
and an explanation of parthenogenesis must be looked for in the 
quantity of contained germ-plasma; when there is a certain mass the 
segmentation nucleus proceeds to the process of ontogenesis; in the 
ordinary sexual process it is the increase of the nucleus which gives 
the stimulus to segmentation, the disposition to which was there 
already. ‘“Sperm-nucleus and ege-nucleus do not differ in their 
nature,’ and in certain algze Von Berthold has discovered not only a 
“female, but also a male parthenogenesis” (Ectocarpus, Scytosiphon). 
It can hardly be doubted that conjugation is the sexual reproduction 
of unicellular organisms. 


Attack and Defence as Agents in Animal Evolution.*—Mr. C. 
Morris thinks he perceives four successive ideas emerging into 
prominence in the development of the animal kingdom. In the 
primeval epoch it is probable that only soft-bodied animals existed, 
when the weapons of assault were the tentacles, the thread-cell, the 
sucking-disc, and other unindurated weapons. At a later period 
armour became generally adopted for defence, and the tooth became 
the most efficient weapon of attack. Still later, armour was discarded 
and flight or concealment became the main method of escape, and 
swift pursuit that of attack, while claws were added to teeth as 
assailing weapons. Finally, mentality came into play, intelligence 
became the most efficient agent in both attack and defence, and a 
special development of the mind began; this has found its culmina- 
tion in man, side by side with whom we have in existing conditions 
of life an epitome of the whole long course of evolution. 


B. Histology.t 


Cells of the Epidermis of Batrachian Larvee.{—Prof. F. Leydig 
thinks that the cells lately described by Kolliker § as being provided 
at their free end with fine processes, are the same as what are already 


* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1885, pp. 385-92. 

7 This section is limited to papers relating to Cells and Fibres. 
t Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 749-51. 

§ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 977. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 215 


known as glandular cells. It is pointed out that each cell consists of 
a lower portion from which a short stalk or process is given off, and 
of an upper or neck-like portion; in frogs and toads this upper end 
is filled with a soft finely granular matter, but in the land salamander 
there is a body which looks like a cork to the tube. These organs 
are not distributed over the whole of the body, but are specially 
developed on the ventral side of the larva. They vary somewhat in 
size, and are pyriform in shape; their protoplasm is rather more 
coarsely granulated than that of the surrounding cells, and around 
the nucleus there is a cavity; in larve 25 mm. long there were no 
filaments, but only a slightly conical process, which has the appearance 
of a soft substance, and exhibits longitudinal striation. As the legs 
begin to appear the cone becomes reduced, the orifice diminishes in 
size and a rounded soft “cork” appears. Prof. Leydig again insists 
on the relation of sensory to glandular cells, and concludes by 
recommending a special study of the structure and metamorphoses of 
the epidermis of the tadpole and the frog. 


Cells of the Vitreous Body.*—Herr H. Virchow finds in the merino 
sheep that there are richly branched cells with one or several nuclei 
on the surfaces of the vitreous body; they are regularly distributed 
over the whole surface, and form a single layer. In the fowl there are 
delicate cells which are either fibrillar or spindle-shaped ; some have 
several processes and form a single layer over a large part of the surface 
of the vitreous body ; these were found in two fowls, but were absent 
from a third and from three ducks. In the frog there are (1) cells 
with a wide delicate body, as a rule connecting two vessels; they 
are cells which are formed adventitiously on the outer side of the 
vessels ; (2) granulated cells which are either rounded or elongated ; 
(3) round cells with a round nucleus and a small quantity of proto- 
plasm (? leucocytes); and (4) polymorphous cells (? also leucocytes) 
which are either broadened out into thin irregular plates, or produced 
into thin processes. 


Nuclei of Secreting Milk-gland Cells.j—Since according to Ham- 
marsten, casein is a nucleo-albuminate, and since nuclein is, as far 
as is yet known, confined to the nuclei, Herr F. Nissen was led at 
Heidenhain’s suggestion to investigate the behaviour of the nuclei 
during milk-secretion. His research has revealed the interesting fact of 
the degeneration and disruption of the nuclei, which, therefore, in all 
probability go to form the casein of the secretion. Within the milk- 
cells the nuclei are observed to multiply, perhaps indirectly, since, 
in hundreds of preparations, no mitosis was seen. The nuclei towards 
the inner end of the cell separate themselves off, surrounded by a 
portion of the protoplasm, and, in the lumen of the alveoli, or less 
frequently in the cells themselves, undergo degeneration. The 
normal nuclear structure disappears, the chromatin collects in 
separate segments at the periphery, and the segments break up into a 
coagulation. The result is probably the casein of the milk. Herr 


* Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Physiol. Abth.), 1885, p. 563. 
+ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxvi. (1886) pp. 337-42 (1 pl.). 


216 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Nissen compares the milk-gland, and colostrum gland; in the latter 
there is no such wealth of nuclei, nor degeneration of the same. He 
also reports the independent observation of a disruption of the 
nucleus in the granulosa-cells of the rabbit ovum, which has also 
been noted by Flemming. 


Accessory Nuclear Body.*—Herr G. Platner describes the origin 
and history of the recently much discussed accessory body or 
‘** Nebenkern,” which has been discovered in the protoplasm of various 
cells. His material consisted of the hermaphrodite glands of Helix, 
which, in various stages of development, were fixed, according to 
Flemming’s method, in chrom-osmium-acetic acid for at least half 
an hour, afterwards hardened in alcohol, imbedded in celloidin, and 
stained with hematoxylin or safranin. He emphasizes the importance 
of not using animals which have been kept in captivity. 

(a) The sex-cells at first exhibit homogeneous nuclei within the 
protoplasmic meshwork; clear, round, intranuclear clefts and cavities 
appear, and the contents become divided, from the centre outwards, 
into granules. The resulting chromatin-granules are to some extent 
connected by fine threads. The nucleus becomes gradually surrounded 
by a narrow fringe of finely granular protoplasm, which is broader — 
at one portion. (b) At this point the “ Nebenkern” appears as a 
peculiar, distinct element, resulting from a roundish protrusion of the 
nucleus, and possibly preformed within it. It at first consists of a 
simple loop, but becomes more coiled and complicated. (c) Increas- 
ing to about half the size of the nucleus, it separates from it as an 
apparently closed coil. The spermatogonium then consists of a 
membraneless, amceboid cell, whose nucleus exhibits chromatin- 
granules, filamentous meshwork, and hyaloplasma, and is surrounded 
by a special protoplasmic envelope. The protoplasm exhibits a 
network structure, and contains the accessory body. 

(f) The process of division is introduced by the disappearance 
of the nuclear network ; the chromatin-granules unite in round balls, 
most of which lie peripherally; these balls divide repeatedly, and 
form the microsomata. From these, persisting nucleolar elements 
are readily distinguished by their larger size and more intense 
staining. (g) The microsomata arrange themselves in definite rows, 
in returning curves round an excentric pole, defined by the accessory 
body, which has now approached and wnited with the nucleus. The 
nuclear loops exhibit for a while a half-moon disposition, with the 
concavity turned away from the “ Nebenkern.” (h) The latter soon 
decreases in size, and along with the nucleolar remnants utterly 
disappears, being apparently used up in the formation of the nuclear 
coil, which soon afterwards loses its excentric polar position, and 
occupies the centre. 

(:) The nuclear coil assumes the appearance of a many-rayed 
star; this is succeeded by the formation of an equatorial plate with 
large granules, and by two poles with fine radiating filaments. These 
spindle filaments extend to the equator, and without discontinuity 


* Arch. f, Mikr. Anat., xxvi. (1886) pp. 343-69 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 217 


in the other direction, beyond the pole, into the protoplasm, where 
they divide and end in the fine protoplasmic network. (j) The 
chromophilous balls of the equatorial plate divide in the plane of 
the spindle axis, and the daughter segments again divide. The 
results of this longitudinal division recede towards the poles, de- 
scribing in so doing a turn round the transverse axis, and finally fuse 
together to form the polar plates. (k) The spindle filaments, at first 
somewhat convex, are stretched as the polar plates recede. The 
protoplasm of the cell constricts, the cylindrical form is replaced 
by that of an hour-glass, and at length complete division occurs. 

(2) In the half-moon-shaped new nucleus, rows of microsomata 
become gradually distinct. Finally a regular coil is formed, whose 
loops all start from one excentric point. At this point a new “ ac- 
cessory body” is rapidly budded out into the protoplasm. As it 
becomes more defined, the coil breaks up, and is replaced by a 
rounded off nucleus with protoplasmic membrane, nuclear network, 
and chromatin-granules. (m) Herr Platner follows the history of 
the “ Nebenkern” still further, through the spermatocytes, to the 
Spermatides, or undifferentiated sperms. A large portion of the 
nucleus of the spermatide goes to form the last “ Nebenkern,” which 
is an irregular polygonal body like a ring compressed from various 
sides. It persists fora time along with the spermatide remnant, which 
clings to the side of the developing axial filament, and probably helps 
to form the spiral membrane which envelopes the latter. 

The relative observations of other investigators are briefly 
reviewed, and those of Gaule criticized, in regard to which Herr 
Platner communicates the results of some further observations on the 
“accessory bodies” of the pancreatic cells of Anguis fragilis. 


Ameboid Movement of Cell-Nucleus.*—Messrs. S. H. and S. P. 
Gage, in studying the blood of Necturus, find that the nucleus of the 
white corpuscle executes distinct and vigorous movements, quite 
independently of those of the corpuscle. The white corpuscles are 
very large in this animal, and the observers hope, by studying these, 
to elucidate various questions as to the membrane and division of nuclei. 


Unicellular Glands in the Epithelium of Bladder of Am- 
phibians.j—Dr. J. H. List finds unicellular glands (goblet-cells) in 
the epithelium of the bladder of various Amphibians (Triton, Rana, 
Bufo, Bombinator, Hyla) ; they contain two different substances, one 
in the form of a network which fills the theca, which may be called 
the filar mass, and an interfilar mass which lies between the cords 
and is apparently homogeneous. The filar mass consists of thin 
apparently homogeneous cords, which form polygonal or rounded 
meshes; the nucleus is always found at the base of the cell, and 
appears to be in no case directly connected with the filar mass. The 
interfilar, unlike the filar, takes up staining reagents with great 
difficulty. The secretion from these cells depends on a process of 
swelling, which gradually extends downwards; they are not confined 
to secreting once only. The goblet-cells are independent structures, 


* Science, vii. (1886) p. 35. + Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) pp. 499-502. 


218 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


presenting many analogies to the gland-cells of mucous glands. The 
smallest kinds are found in the cystic epithelium of Triton cristatus ; 
ageregates, such as are seen in Rana, and especially in Bufo, do not 
seem to be there present. In Bufo vulgaris and Bombinator igneus 
they are very abundant; in Hyla arborea they are also numerous, 
but more scattered than in toads. 


Nerve-terminations in the Cutaneous Epithelium of the Tad- 
pole.*—Mr. A. B. Macallum summarizes the results of his research 
thus:—Certain fibres of the nerve-network, situated below the 
corium, and known as the fundamental plexus, give origin to fibrils 
which enter the epithelium and terminate in comparatively large beadlike 
bodies between the cells. From a network of fine fibrils below the epi- 
thelium and forming meshes, each narrower than the surface covered by 
an epithelial cell, arise other excessively fine fibrils, which end either 
within or between the cells, or after branching, in both fashions. One, 
commonly two, often three or more, nerve-fibrils terminate in the 
interior of each epithelial cell, near its nucleus. The so-called 
figures of Eberth, which are found during larval life only, which are 
easily isolated from the cells containing them, and which were 
regarded by their discoverer as intracellular nerve-terminations, 
appear to Mr. Macullum to be sheaths for such terminations. The 
epithelium was hardened with Erlicki’s fluid, or solutions of chromic 
acid of different strengths; for staining, nigrosin and safranin, as 
well as, of course, gold chloride were used. 


Phenomena of Muscular Contraction in Primitive Striated 
Fibres.j—M. F. Laulanié has studied the hyoid muscles of the frog 
with the aid of the myoscope, and finds that the contraction of the 
primitive fibres of the hyoid muscles of the frog produce no change 
either in the character of the striation or in the relative situation 
of the parts of the contractile segment. The author thinks that this 
result justifies us in rejecting all theories as yet proposed to explain 
the muscular contraction, all of which imply a change either in the 
distribution of the parts, or in the situation. It is further found that 
the disc and the clear bands flatten and enlarge without altering in 
volume, and it is concluded that the contraction of the fibrils of the 
primitive bundle is the summation of the changes of form (flattening) 
undergone by the thick discs and the clear bands. The heterogeneity 
of the fibril can as yet be only explained by the theory of M. Ranvier 
that the fragmentation of the contractile substance offers a very large 
surface for chemical changes, and so insures their rapidity. 


vy. General.f 


Organs of Flight.5—M. P. C. Amans sums up an extensive 
survey of the organs of flight of the animal kingdom by distinguish- 
ing two principal types of the machine—the insect and the vertebrate. 


* Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xxvi. (1885) pp. 53-70 (1 pl.). 

+ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 705-7. ) 

}~ This section is limited to papers which, while relating to Vertebrata, 
have a direct or indirect bearing on Invertebrata also. 

§ Ann. Sci. Nat.—Zool., xix. (1885) pp. 9-222 (8 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 219 


In the former the principal part is formed by the meso- and 
meta-thorax; in each segment the endosternum forms the longi- 
tudinal axis of the floor; the flanks are sustained by three vertical 
pieces, and the upper edge by two; the roof of each segment 
is formed by two parts, which are concave below, and its lateral 
edges form an obtuse angle, open below and without. The frame- 
work of the wing is formed by six primary nervures and their rami- 
fications, which are alternately related to the sides or the roof; the 
general form of the wing is that of a biplanar triangle, with the base 
centripetal and the apex centrifugal. The base is formed of an 
anterior and a posterior plane, the latter being the more developed ; 
the base of the wing is united to the flanks and to the roof of each 
segment by as many articular pieces as there are nervures. The 
apparatus of formation is constant, and may be considered as con- 
sisting of an anterior piece, which forms a movable pivot, separated 
by an articular cavity from the fixed pivot. The wing is able to 
undergo torsion, thanks to the articulations of the anterior and sub- 
anterior nervures with their basal terminations. ‘The line of torsion 
is a curve which passes through the basal head of the posterior 
nervure by a special commissure, and through the basal extremity 
of the proanterior process when it is stretched. The centrifugal 
extremity of the wing follows in air, and during ascent, the course 
of a sinuous line. The wing is never comparable to a simple lever; 
it is most nearly so in the Pseudo-Neuroptera; the basilar pieces 
. (including the roof) may be grouped under three sides of a cone of 
revolution, and the muscles are grouped according to these; the 
muscles vary greatly in direction, and it is not correct to speak of 
exclusively vertical or horizontal muscles. 

The bat and the bird are the types of the vertebrate machine; in 
them the hard pieces are internal, the motors external, and this is the 
fundamental difference between the two types. The general form of 
the machine, and of the wing, and the distribution of consistency to 
the surface, as well as the rotation of the anterior edge, is comparable 
to what is seen in insects. 

Influence of Galvanic Currents on Organisms.* — Herr L. 
Hermann has made some experiments on fourteen-day-old larve of 
frogs; a current being passed through the water in which they were 
placed, it was found that they moved, and all took up a position in 
which the head was directed towards the anode and the tail towards 
the cathode; in other words, with sufficiently strong currents these 
animals place themselves in the lines of the current, and against it. 
If they are forced to lie with their heads towards the cathode they 
appear to be restless. These phenomena are not observed with dead 
larve, and they are therefore vital phenomena. 

If the spermatozoa of frogs or mammals are placed on a slide and 
a strong current sent through them, the head of the spermatozoon 
turns towards the anode, but this is to be explained by purely 
physical laws. The author makes some suggestions as to further 
experiments on this subject. 


* Arch. f, d. Gesammt. Physiol. (Pfliiger), xxxvii. (1885) pp. 457-60. 


22.0 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Blue Colour of Animals.*—Prof. F. Leydig says that a blue 
granular pigment is rarely found in animals; in the crayfish, for 
example, there are blue crystals. The blue colour is more often due 
to interference, owing to the presence of lamelle, or to the fibrils 
of connective tissue, as in the tapetum fibrosum of the eye of 
Ruminants; the corium of the living larva of Pelobates fuscus is 
similarly blue. A dull material overlying black pigment produces 
blue, as in the case of blue eyes, which are due to the uvea shining 
through the non-pigmented iris, and in some frogs. Dark chromato- 
phores have a like effect, as has too the swelling of the corium 
consequent on the filling of the lymph-spaces. 

In conclusion, the author discusses the tegumentary secretions, 
which are of various colours, and which can be washed away; an 
example is to be seen in the celestial blue colour of the abdomen of 
Inbellula depressa, and, perhaps, the “bloom” of the pupa of the 
Apollo butterfly. On the other hand, the colouring matter may be 
in cells of the epidermis, as is the case with the rosy colour of Tetrao 
urogallus, and can then, of course, only be removed after the destruc- 
tion of the tissue which contains it. 


Perception of Brightness and Colour by Marine Animals.;— — 
Herr V. Graber has made some further experiments on marine 
animals with the divided box already used by him. He finds that the 
common star-fish is an eminently leucophilous or light-loving animal, 
for the bright division of the box always contained 2:2 as many 
individuals as the dark; they avoid red, or are erythophobes, three 
times as many secking a dark-blue compartment. The common 
jelly-fish (Medusa aurita) was neither specially sensitive to bright- 
ness or to colour; but it is possible that the results might be different 
with larger aquaria. Idotea tricuspidata is very sensitive to light at 
the maximum differences in brightness, for 6°3 as many individuals 
sought the white as the dark compartment; but they are quite in- 
sensitive to less marked differences. They object to red and like 
blue. Gammarus locusta does not seem to be affected by light or 
shade; Rissoa octona dislikes the dark, and is sensitive to less 
marked distinctions; it again, in the proportion of 108 to 2, liked 
blue and avoided red. Gasterosteus spinachia, like fresh-water fishes, 
prefers darkness in the proportion of 78 to 6, and Syngnathus acus 
gave somewhat similar results. 


B. INVERTEBRATA. 


Colouring Matters of the Integument.{—M. P. Girod has in- 
vestigated the chlorophyll-pigment of Hydra viridis, the pigment of 
the skin of Cephalopods, and the ink-bag of these molluscs. 

The author is of opinion that the chlorophyll of green Hydrx 
plays an important part in their economy, by furnishing them with 


* Zool. Anzeig., vill. (1885) pp. 752-8. 

+ SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xci. (1885) p. 129. See Naturforscher, xviii. 
(1885) pp. 486-7. : 

{ Comptes Rendus, ci, (1885) pp. 1371 4 (Report on Prize Essay). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 221 


the necessary carbon; this carbon may be utilized solely by the 
chlorophyll-corpuscles themselves. 

M. Girod agrees with those zoologists who describe a membrane 
around the chromatophores of the Cephalopoda, and he assigns to its 
elasticity the function of reducing the extent of these structures; he 
gives a full acconnt of the structure and development of the ink- 
gland, and shows that its secretion must be ranged with cuticular 
formations; he has not been able to find copper in the ink, although 
it is present in the blood, but there is iron, as in mammalian pig- 
ments; the “ink” is nothing more than slightly modified hemo- 
cyanin; he doubts whether these pigments are derived from the 
colouring matter of the blood. 


Physiological Action of the Salts of Lithium, Potassium, and 
Rubidium.*—M. ©. Richet has experimented with the chlorides 
of lithium, potassium, and rubidium on various animals. A weak 
dose kills crayfishes, because an injection is always intra-venous and 
not only subcutaneous; the large doses required to kill a slug are 
explained as due to the extreme vitality of the tissues; for most 
animals, however, the toxic dose is much the same, and the mean is 
for lithium 0:10, for potash 0°50, and for rubidium 1-00; this 
relation the author regards as pretty much the same as the atomic 
weights of these three metals, 7, 39, and 85. By dividing the 
numbers obtained in his experiments by the atomic weights he gets 
a mean of 0:0128, and he proposes the following formula. If P be 
the atomic weight of an alkaline metal, the quantity necessary to kill 
an animal weighing one kilogramme will be P x 0°0128. It is 
concluded that the toxic is identical with a chemical action, and that 
a molecule of the salt is necessary to poison the same weight of a 
living animal. 

Tactile Organs of Insects and Crustacea.t—The Grand Prix 
des Sciences Physiques has been awarded to Dr. J. Chatin for his 
essay on the Tactile Organs of Insecta and Crustacea; he has ex- 
amined all the parts of the mouth-organs, and has compared their 
homologous regions; the antenne have likewise been investigated, 
and the structure of the nerve-filaments and the constitution of the 
subcutancous plexus is described. The percipient hairs have been 
studied, and the function of the so-called soft cones is reconsidered. 


Mollusca. 


Development of Genital Organs of Hermaphrodite Gastropoda.t 
—M. H. Rouzaud has studied the development of the genital organs 
of some hermaphrodite Gastropods; he finds that, in the Pulmonata, 
however complex its constitution may be in the adult, the apparatus 
always arises from a homogeneous and massive cellular bud, which 
may be called the primitive bud; it ordinarily appears just before the 


* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 707-10. + Ibid., pp. 1368-71. 

{t ‘Recherches sur le développement des organes génitaux de quelques 
Gastéropodes hermaphrodites,’ 8yo, Paris, 1885. Cf. Rey. Sci. Nat., iv. (1885) 
pp. 517-24. 


222 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


embryo becomes free; it is at first of the shape of a rounded bottle 
with a very short neck, but in a few days it has the form of a club 
with a long handle; the point of attachment of the handle to the 
body-wall represents the seat of origin of the primitive bud, and it is 
just here that later on there is developed the common external orifice 
of the genital apparatus (Helicide), or the opening of the female 
ducts (Lymneide); the swollen part of the club-like organ is free, 
and separates more and more from its point of attachment, in such a 
way that the primitive bud soon becomes filiform, and has its superior 
end hidden in the lobes of the liver; this end forms, later on, the 
site of the sexual elements. On the basal or peripheral part a 
secondary bud—the penial bud—appears, and at the same time the 
surface of the primitive bud presents a peripheral muscular differentia- 
tion, the elements of which are all arranged along the long axis of the 
bud; a similar differentiation soon appears on the penial bud. Clefts 
appear in the median part of the primitive bud; one, which extends 
towards the base and reaches the penial bud, has been called the 
utero-deferent cleft, and it separates the two cords, one of which 
becomes the oviduct and the other the efferent canal. Another 
extends towards the apex, and, as it separates off the copulatory — 
pouch, it may be called the utero-copulatory cleft. Further pro- 
liferations of the primitive bud give rise to the albuminiparous gland 
and the diverticulum. The free tip then proliferates and begins to 
give rise to the hermaphrodite gland. A fresh bud now appears on 
the primitive one, which may be called the sagittal bud; this will 
ultimately form the dart sac. 

The observations of the author demonstrate the continuity of all 
the parts of the genital apparatus from the first stages-of development, 
and utterly oppose the doctrine of fusion promulgated by Hisig; the 
genital apparatus of the Helicide arises, as a whole, from a single 
primitive outgrowth. 

The further development of the parts is described, and in conclusion 
there is an account of the male and female products; the ovules have 
a degenerated and transitory follicle which goes to aid the store of 
nutriment of the egg, and its elements arise from the perinuclear 
protoplasm; the male ovules give rise to proto- and then to deuto- 
spermatoblasts, the latter forming each a packet of spermatozoa. 


Post-embryonic development of Najades.*—By infecting fishes 
with the parasitic larvee of Anodonta, Herr F. Schmidt was able to 
study the as yet but little known post-embryonic development of 
these forms. 

In regard (I.) to the anatomical structure of the ripe embryo, Herr 
Schmidt (a) corroborates the statement of Forel and Schierholz, 
opposed by Rabl and Flemming, that the posterior end of the young 
mussel is that at which the two lateral pits, the “ Mittelschildtasche ” 
of Flemming, and the ciliated patch are situated. (b) Between the 
two laterally placed pits lies the foot-pad, in front of this Flemming’s 
“Mittelschildtasche,” and behind it the ciliated patch. In cross 


* Arch. f. Naturgesch., li. (1885) pp. 201-34 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 223 


sections the enteric cavity is seen, with two flat lateral dilatations 
representing the liver, and surrounded by a thick mass of indifferent 
mesoderm-cells, from which, on each side, a strand of cells extends 
backwards almost to the posterior margin of the shell. These 
strands, probably identical with those described by Flemming as the 
lateral wings of the anterior pad, and regarded by Schierholz as 
ganglionic rudiments, are shown by Schmidt to have no connection 
with the nervous system, but to represent the rudiment of the future 
organ of Bojanus. (c) He describes a pair of peculiar, large, flat 
muscle-cells, stretching, one on each side, across the body-cavity, 
connected at the one end with the middle of the shell by means of 
numerous fine processes, and at the other with the large cells of the 
so-called embryonic mantle. These two flat mesoderm-cells lie 
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the embryo, exhibit a fine longi- 
tudinal striping, and undoubtedly serve, in closing the shell, to draw 
inwards the hooked processes, and thereby to secure the firmer 
attachment of the larve. 

II. The development of the parasitic embryo—(a) As Schierholz 
has shown, the rudimentary foot increases greatly in size, assuming 
a blunt conical form, and gradually presses the “ Mittelschildtasche ” 
and the oral invagination ever further forwards; while by this growth 
of the foot, the external margins of the two lateral pits (the rudi- 
mentary branchie) are drawn out longitudinally and separate into 
several knob-like elevations. (b) The often noted early disappearance 
of the byssus organ is accompanied also by that of the sensory cells, 
the embryonic shell-shutting muscle, the great part of the embryonic 
mantle, and the above described muscle-cells. The adult adductors 
are entirely new structures. (c) He confirms Braun’s interesting 
observation that the large conical cells of the mantle gradually 
contract into a “mushroom-shaped” body, which lies in close 
proximity to the fin-ray, and is concerned with the dissolving and 
absorbing of the lime-salts required by the young mussel for the 
growth of the shell. (d) The endodermic archenteric sac enlarges 
along the middle line of the body, and comes into communication 
with the now anterior oral invagination, while posteriorly, an anal 
opening is formed by rupture and not by invagination. From the 
*“* Mittelschildtasche,” not only the mouth-opening, but the whole 
fore-gut arises, and is therefore, unlike the other portions of the canal, 
of ectodermic origin. The comparatively inconspicuous diverticula 
of the archenteron, which represented the liver, increase greatly in 
size, and grow out into two cylindrical sacs, lying parallel to, and 
afterwards enveloping the alimentary canal. (e) The whole nervous 
system is developed from the ectoderm; the ganglia arise inde- 
pendently, and at different epochs, as solid thickenings of the 
epithelium ; the pedal are at first in connection with an invagination 
which forms the byssus-gland. Herr Schmidt first observed the 
auditory sacs on the ninth or tenth day of parasitic life as invaginations 
of the external epithelium on each side of the foot, afterwards sinking 
inwards to the pedal ganglia as round masses, in which a distinct 
lumen is, at a later stage, recognizable. (f) The origin of the gills 


224 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


and of the organ of Bojanus has been already indicated. A number 
of cells arranged round the rectum in vesicular form, afforded at the 
end of the parasitic life an indication of the future heart. (g) The 
single-layered embryonic mantle passes at the margin of the shell 
into a zone of several layers of small cells which form the future 
mantle. The compression of the large, cylindrical or conical, mantle- 
cells into the mushroom-shaped body has been already referred to. 
He confirms Braun’s description of the origin of the permanent 
shell. 

III. Comparison with other Mollusca.—In comparing his results 
with the ontogeny of other molluscs, Herr Schmidt notes the im- 
possibility of homologizing the so-called byssus-gland of the 
Glochidium with the similarly named organ in many Lamellibranchs. 
The former is a special larval organ, adapted to the mode of life, and 
might, Herr Schmidt suggests, be conveniently designated “ Kleb- 
fadendriise.” He observed what Braun had previously recorded, that 
in the absence of fishes, the mature embryos may remain for weeks, 
or even months, in the branchie of the mother mussel. He emphasizes 
Schierholz’s demonstration that the posterior ciliated patch could not 
be the rudiment of the velum, and attributes the peculiar posterior 
situation of the gills, the foot, and the alimentary canal to the great 
development of the embryonic adductor. In summarizing the 
peculiarities of Najad development, e. g. in the mantle, he lays special 
emphasis on the completely ectodermic origin of the nervous system, 
which does not readily harmonize with Hertwig’s theory. 


Development of Vermetus.*—Prof. W. Salensky reports the 
result of his study of the development of Vermetus. In the young 
unfertilized ova a small “ protoplasmic” and larger “ deutoplasmic ” 
portion are readily distinguished; the segmentation resembles that 
of other molluscs, the “micromeres” appearing at the formative pole 
by separation of the ‘“‘ protoplasmic” portion of the “macromeres.” 
When sixteen of these have thus been formed the epibolic gastrula 
formation begins; after about two-thirds of the egg has been surrounded 
by the slow multiplication of these cells a small hollow, representing 
the archenteron, is formed on the ventral surface. The round blasto- 
pore, at first in the centre of the ventral surface, gets shunted 
gradually backwards,. becoming oval, and ultimately forming the 
mouth-opening. Meanwhile the macromeres are dividing, at first 
posteriorly, and the small cells thus resulting form the future endo- 
derm, and displace the undivided macromeres which go to form yolk. 
The mesoderm appears much later, at first as a single layer of cells, 
arising from the ectoderm round the rim of the blastopore, but 
subsequently exhibiting several layers, splitting to form the body- 
cavity, &c. 

The rudiment of the foot is seen at the time of mesoderm formation, 
as an axial row of ciliated cells stretching from the blastopore back- 
wards, and with slightly larger ectoderm cells on each side. A 
similar ciliated ridge occurs at the cephalic portion of the embryo 


* Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) pp. 564-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 225 


between the two lobes of the velum, which also appear as two ridged 
ares of large ciliated cells. 

The cephalic ganglia appear independent of and long before the 
pedal, in the form of two ectoderm plates in front of the velum, and 
separated by the above-mentioned anterior ciliated ridge. These 
thicken and sink in to form at once the ganglia and the eyes, which 
remain always in close association. The ganglia consist at a median 
stage of two blind rods, with a narrow lumen and external opening ; the 
blind ends form processes which meet and grow together, and mean- 
while the cerebral rods have become solid. The separation of the 
ganglia occurs at'a late stage. 

The auditory sacs appear before the pedal ganglia as small ecto- 
dermal pits on the margin of the foot, becoming afterwards constricted 
off into sacs. Soon afterwards, at each side of the ciliated ridge of 
the foot, two ectoderm thickenings appear; they are slowly modified, 
and at length become neural plates of several layers, which are after- 
wards separated from the ectoderm and grown round by mesoderm. 

Two distinct large glands are formed in the foot; the posterior, 
formerly described by Lacaze-Duthiers in the adult Vermetus, 
appears as a sac-like deepening of the ectoderm, and occupies the 
whole posterior portion of the foot, the anterior consisting of a com- 
pact cell-mass with a cylindrical duct of some length. Its history is 
uncertain. 

The mesoderm remains partly unsplit behind the foot and this 
portion forms the rudiment of the musculus columellaris, while « con- 
tinuation of it seems to form the rudiment of the pericardium which 
appears at an early stage, on the right side of the embryo, as a 
thin mesoderm sheath, which soon splits to form a cavity obviously 
homologous with the body-cavity. In the posterior corner of the 
cavity the splanchnic layer becomes raised from the endoderm, and 
the cavity of the heart is thus formed between the two layers. The 
cesophagus and radula-sac are formed from the inbent margins of the 
blastopore ; the hind-gut appears as an ectodermal plate, which projects 
conically, becomes hollow, and acquires an anal opening. 

Prof. Salensky notes how the development demonstrates the 
homology existing between certain portions of molluscan and annelid 
nervous systems, thus the molluscan cephalic and pedal ganglia are 
the equivalents respectively of the annelid supra-cesophageal and first 
ventral ganglia. 


Anatomy of the Marine Rhipidoglossata.*—In his second essay 
on these Mollusca, Dr. B. Haller deals with the texture of the 
central nervous system and its investments. The methods of ex- 
amination adopted were to remove the nervous system from the living 
animal, and to harden it in pure alcohol, chromic acid solution, or 
hyperosmic acid ; these suited various tissues in different degrees ; for 
isolation a mixture of glycerin, acetic acid, and distilled water was 
used. 

1. The ganglionic cells; the author finds that the process ariscs 


* Morphol. Jahrb., xi. (1885) pp. 321-430 (8 pls.). 
Ser. 2.—Vo.. VI. Q 


226 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


either from the cell-body or its nuclei; in many cases from both. 
The process may be a connecting process, directly uniting one cell 
with another, or a plexiform process, when it breaks up in the nervous 
plexus in the central part of the central nervous system, or a trunk- 
process when it is directly continuous with a nerve-fibre. The large 
cells found in the ganglionic masses are called triangular; their 
form is best seen in the Haliotide and Trochide; the two upper 
processes of-the cells are always directly united with cortically placed 
smaller cells; the lower one is either a plexiform or a trunk-process. 
Another well-marked form of cell, which is especially found in the 
Trochide, is small, pyriform, and always unipolar. The giant-cells 
which are seen in the Pulmonata and the Opisthobranchiata are, like 
the extremely small cells, always wanting in the Rhipidoglossata. 
Others, which are known as central cells, have no processes. The 
nucleus is, when fresh, always rounded and never, as in the Pul- 
monata, reniform in shape; the nucleolus is also round, is coloured 
very intensely, and is highly refractive; it is very rare for more than 
one nucleolus to be present. : 

2. The connective tissue in and around the central nervous system ‘ 
the ganglionic cells of the central nervous system always have true 
cell-membranes ; these form a thin layer, consisting of a homogeneous 
membrane, in which there are scattered oval nuclei, surrounded by a 
finely granular protoplasm. Between the protoplasmic particles 
there is a yellowish-brown pigment, which, like that of the ganglionic 
cells, is extracted by alcohol. In satisfactory examples it is possible 
to see that the membrane is a saccular process of the nerve-covering, 
in which the cell lies embedded. The author comes to the conclusion 
that the nervous investment forms a single envelope around the whole 
central nervous system, which is continued from the neurilemma. It 
is attached to the central system and serves as a certain support for 
it, inasmuch as it sends processes into the nervous tissue. This 
relation of the connective to the nervous tissue is regarded as being 
a primitive one, uncomplicated by the relations which obtain in 
higher forms. 

After describing the differences which obtain in different forms, 
the author remarks that the tissue has a different structure in various 
parts of the central nervous system of one and the same species; and 
he looks upon this as enforcing the views of Brock as to the great 
variability of the connective tissue of molluscs. 

3. The central nerve-plexus: the author here enters upon a close 
inquiry into the views of preceding writers, and concludes that in 
the nuclear portion of the central nervous system of the Rhipido- 
glossata we find neither the so-called dotted substance, nor neuroglia, 
but that the whole is filled by a delicate (“ subtile”’) nervous plexus, 
which has its origin in the ganglionic cells. 

4. Topography of the pedal cords, and the origin of their nerves : 
in all the forms examined the pedal cord of either side was seen to 
have a lateral groove which extends throughout its whole length ; it 
is shallow in Fissurella, deep in the Haliotide and Trochidx; by the 
aid of this groove each cord may be divided into an upper and a 


ZOOLOGY AND. BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 227 


lower half; it is only a useful mark, and has no morphological 
significance. The cords are formed of an inner nuclear, and an 
outer cortical layer ; the peripheral nerve-fibres arise either separately 
or in bundles. This part of the subject is entered into with great 
detail, and is illustrated by diagrams. 

5. The cerebral ganglia: in Fissurella these have undergone, during 
evolution, a concentration, which has not, however, affected the 
texture of the cerebral ganglia throughout the Rhipidoglossata 
generally. The large pyriform and triangular cells which were seen 
in the pedal cords, and especially in their pleurocerebral portion, are 
here absent, and the largest cells are not larger than those of medium 
size in the pedal cords. 

Speaking generally it may be said that this paper demonstrates 
that the central nervous system and the peripheral ganglia of the 
Rhipidoglossata consist of marginal ganglion-cells and of a central 
plexus, which is formed from the processes of the ganglion-cells, and 
in which the neurilemma takes no part. The peripheral nerves arise 
from the cells and from the nerve-plexus. What changes may obtain in 
more complicated nervous systems, which are phylogenetically younger 
and in which there is great concentration and consequent elongation 
of the trunks, does not seem to really oppose the view that the nerves 
have everywhere a double mode of origin. Where the ganglia are 
more compressed a process seems to have been going on by which the 
larger cells have become grouped in outer cell-layers; their continua- 
tions have been pushed downwards, and they have anastomosed partly 
with one another, and partly with smaller cells. 


Constitution of the Egg and its Envelopes in the Chitonide.*— 
Prof. A. Sabatier disagrees with the views put forward by Dr. Ihering 
in 1878, in which the shell was regarded as being formed by the 
structureless membrane which the earlier writer called the follicular 
membrane, believing rather that the structureless membrane belongs 
to the walls of the ovary and that the nuclei which Ihering regarded 
as part of it are merely nuclei formed directly by the protoplasm 
of the ovule, and eliminated peripherally. The author’s observations 
confirm the ideas of Fol, Roule, Balbiani, and himself as to the 
general origin of the cellular elements which form a follicle for the 
egg; and they seem also to confirm his special views as to the intra- 
vitelline genesis of these elements, which he regards as being formed 
by a kind of crystallization or condensation in the protoplasm of the 
egg, and not as arising by direct expulsion from the contents of the 
germinal vesicle. , 

In the egg of Chiton polit, Sabatier observed a large number of 
germinal vesicles, each of which had a single large refractive nucleolus, 
which was homogeneous and very strongly coloured ; it was more or 
less excentric in position, and the central part of the vesicle was 
occupied by a more or less voluminous aggregation of chromatin- 
grains which belonged to the nuclear plexus. A more or less large 
number of rays were given off from this mass, and ended in the 


* Rev. Sci. Nat., iv. (1885) pp. 429-44 (2 pls.). 
Q 2 


228 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


superficial layers of the vesicle where they spread out into small 
cones; in rarer cases the rays do not reach the surface, and in others 
they are wanting, when the central mass has an irregular spherical 
form. Prof. Sabatier says that he has not been able to make out a 
distinct relation between the form of this chromatic plexus and the 
genesis of the vitelline corpuscles; but he concludes that the 
nucleolus and the nuclear plexus are not composed of identical 
substances, and that the latter, even when in a spherical condition, is 
still distinguished from the nucleolus, which cannot, therefore, be 
considered as an agglomeration of the substance of the plexus. 


Odontophore of Limnea.*—Dr. W. Dybowski, who has already 
reported on the dentition of Ancyclus, Physa, Amphipeplea, and 
Planorbis, now gives the fifth type represented in the fresh-water 
pulmonate gastropods—the formula is 1-19-15-15. The species 
examined was LD. stagnalis var. vulgaris; the radula is 4 mm. long, 
and 2°2 mm. wide; there are from 100-102 rows. 


Notes on Gymnosomatous Pteropoda.j—Dr. J. HE. V. Boas, in 
anticipation of his monograph on the Pteropoda, notes that d’Orbigny’s 
genus Spongiobranchza contained two species, S. elongata and S. aus- 
tralis, which are by no meansallied ; the former is a Clione, the latter’ 
the type of a very well-marked genus, which is most closely allied to 
Pneumodermon, and to Deaiobranchea. The latter is a new genus 
which differs more from Pnewmodermon than does Spongiobrancheea 
and is characterized by its lateral gill, and by the complicated 
sucking apparatus; it contains four species, one of which was called 
Pnewmodermon ciliatum by Gegenbaur, while the others are new. 

The author recognizes six well-marked genera in thé group of the 
Gymnosomata ; these are Pneumodermon, Clione, Haplosyche, Cliopsis, 
and the two already mentioned; the genus Cirrifer of Pfeffer is 
founded on an injured Pnewmodermon, and all the rest are either so 
badly described as not to be recognizable, or are formed on species 
which belong to one of the six recognized genera. 


Molluscoida. 
B. Polyzoa. 


Fresh-water Polyzoa of Bohemia.{—Herr J. Kafka gives an 
account of the five species of fresh-water Polyzoa already known from 
Bohemia, and describes eight others, amongst which Plumatella 
hyalina and P. lophopsidea are new. The first of them is allied to 
P. vesicularis by the transparency of its tubules, which arise radially 
from a centre, and branch dichotomously at some distance from it; 
the second has at first some resemblance to Lophopus, but the gela- 
tinous investing mass is an ectoblast-membrane, while the organiza- 
tion of the cells and polypides is that of Plumatella. Contrary to 
what ordinarily obtains on the continent of Europe, and like what 
is seen in England, Fredericella sultana is common in Bohemian 


* Bull. Soc. Impér. Moscou, 1x. (1885) pp. 256-62 (1 pl.). 
+ Zool. Anzeig., vili. (1885) pp. 687-91. 
¢ SB. K. Bohm. Gesell. Wiss. Prag, 1884 (1885) pp. 229-40 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETO. 229 


waters, where two varieties are found, one of which forms tuft-like 
colonies, while the other branches but little. For a long time the 
author was unable to convince himself of the locomotor powers of 
Cristatella mucedo ; Alcyonella fungosa, like some other Polyzoa, has 
two kinds of statoblasts. One of the commonest species in Bohemia 
is Plumatella repens; a third variety of this well-known form is 
noticed. 


Monograph of Fresh-water Polyzoa.*—Dr. J. Jullien has an 
extended paper on the Polyzoa of fresh-water illustrated by 250 
woodcuts intercalated in the text. 

He recognizes two sub-classes, the first of which is that of 
B. lophopoda (Dumortier), in which there are two tribes; the first is 
B. loph. caduca, with the two families Pedicellinide and Loxosomide ; 
the second B. loph. perstita, with the families Plumabellide, Lopho- 
puside, and Rhabdopleuride ; the second sub-tribe, R. infundibulata, 
(P. Gervais), contains the two families Paludicellide and Hislopide. 
The author gives definitions of the families, genera, and species. A 
new genus, Hyalinella, is instituted for Plumatella vesicularis Leidy. 
A full description is given of the woodcuts, but the manner in which 
the author has given his “synonymy” seriously interferes with the 
usefulness of the work for systematic zoologists. 


y. Brachiopoda. 


New Rhynchonella from Japan.j—Dr. T. Davidson describes 
BRhynchonella déderleint, anew spinose form from Japan, which he 
regards as the most noteworthy of all living Rhynchonellide. The 
spines, which project from each rib, are arranged in regular rows, 
and exhibit, therefore, an interesting survival of a form of shell 
ornamentation which formerly prevailed among the Paleozoic Pro- 
ductide, &c., and the oolitic Spiriferide and Rhynchonellide. No 
spinose Brachiopod is known from the cretaceous or tertiary 
periods, and this is the first example of the kind among living 
species. 


Arthropoda. 


a, Insecta, 


Morphology of Insect Ovaries.{—Prof. A. Sabatier refers to a 
previous paper, wherein he suggests that the nutritive cells in the 
ovary of insects are nothing more than eliminated elements, repre- 
senting true egg-follicle cells. There are three varieties of ovaries 
in insects: (1) where each ovum is surrounded by nutritive cells; 
(2) where all these cells are at the blind end of the ovarian tubule ; 
(3) where these cells are absent. In the present paper he describes 
only the first variety of ovary, which occurs in Lepidoptera, Diptera, 
Hymenoptera, and some few of the other orders, The ovarian tubule 
consists of a structureless membrane, which encloses a cavity filled 


* Bull. Soc. Zooi. France, x. (1885) pp. 91-207 (250 figs.). 
t+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1886) pp. 1-3. 
{~ Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 61-3. 


230 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


with a homogeneous mass of protoplasm, with scattered nuclei. At 
the blind end of the tubule these nuclei multiply by fission. In 
Forficula, where the ovum possesses only a single nutritive cell, the 
process is most easily seen. Ata short distance from the blind end 
a mass of protoplasm arranges itself round each nucleus; from each 
of these ovarian cells thus formed, the “ follicle-cells” are derived by 
groups of granular refringent particles passing out of the protoplasm, 
and arranging themselves around the cell; these follicle-cells then 
increase by division. The “nutritive cell” is formed by a similar 
process ; a mass of granular protoplasm, from the neighbourhood of 
the germinal vesicle, passes towards one end of the oval egg-cell: it 
gets nipped off here, and forms a nutritive cell, which is, together 
with the ovum, surrounded by the follicle-cells. Thus both the 
follicle and nutritive cells are portions eliminated from the egg-cell. 

In a second paper* M. Sabatier describes the second variety of 
ovary—that in which the vitellus remains at the blind end of the 
tubule, as in Coleoptera and Rhynchota. The terminal filament con- 
sists of a mass of pyramidal cells surrounding a lumen, and enclosed 
by a membrane. Beyond this is the ovarian swelling, which consists 
of four layers: (1) a thick layer of large nutritive cells; (2) within 
this a mass of delicate fibres arranged longitudinally, suspending the 
ovules, and connecting them with the nutritive cells; (3) the ovules 
in the lower central region; (4) a network of small (follicle) cells, 
which separate the ovules from one another. The development of this 
ovary was traced in Nepa cinerea. 

At first the ovarian swelling has the same structure as the terminal 
swelling ; at the base of each primitive ovule, nutritive cells are formed 
by endogenous division, and at the same time follicle-cells are also 
formed. As the ovum enlarges, it pushes its way into the central 
lumen, and carries with it a small prolongation or cord of nutritive 
cells; thus, as in the first variety of ovary, both nutritive and follicle 
cells are eliminated elements. The difference between these two 
varieties appears to be that in Lepidoptera, &c., the ovary remains 
solid, and the ova surrounded by their nutritive cells; whereas in 
Coleoptera, &c., a central cavity is present, in which the ovules are 
suspended, and are thus able, by elongation of the suspending cords, 
to be removed from their nutritive cells. 


Gustatory Organs of Insects.,—Herr F. Will, after a short his- 
torical introduction with regard to the gustatory organs of insects, 
as to which our knowledge is still in a very elementary condition, 
gives an account of his own experiments. He commenced with bees, 
wasps, and ants, which he first kept for some time without food so as 
to make them hungry; he soon found that hungry Hymenoptera 
make very little choice, and he was therefore obliged to alter his 
plan of experimentation; he made use of pulverized sugar, alum, and 
crystalline dolomite; the alum was found to be nasty by bees, who 
took it at first when it was put in the place of the sugar, but tried to 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 267-9. 
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlii. (1885) pp. 674-707 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. pay 


wipe it off their tongues. The author came to the conclusion that 
at least the Hymenoptera and Diptera are provided with a gustatory 
sense. The tongue and the neighbouring mouth-parts are fully de- 
scribed, and the conclusion is come to that the pits or goblets on the 
base of the tongue, and on the lower side of the maxilla, are the 
end-organs of the gustatory apparatus. The nerve ends on the 
surface, and is thus accessible to direct chemical stimulation, the parts 
can be washed with saliva, while the supply of hooks and sete partly 
retains the saliva for cleansing purposes, and partly defends the 
delicate ending of the nerves. The terminal sete on the top of the 
tongue may also be regarded as gustatory organs; this is indicated 
by the part played by the tip of the tongue in the carly stages of the 
ingestion of food, by the observation of the mode of feeding adopted 
by these insects, and by the structure of this region. The terminal 
sensory hairs do not project freely, so there is no reason to suppose 
that they are tactile organs; they are rather carefully protected, both 
by the hooks and sete of the tongue, and by the thick circlet of 
supporting hairs. In ants the goblets at the tip of the tongue are 
formed exactly on the plan of those which are found at its base. 

The author’s observations lead him to deny a gustatory function 
to the nerve-end-organs which are found in other parts of the mouth, 
for they all fail in the preliminary condition of being able to 
come into direct contact with the food ; all the numerous pits which 
are found elsewhere have very fine pale hairs, none of which are 
provided with a groove or perforated at their extremity. 


Mid-gut of Insects and Regeneration of Epithelium.*—Dr. J. 
Frenzel follows up his recent research on the histology of the 
crustacean gut, by a detailed study of the mid-gut (“ Mitteldarm ”) of 
insects, and of epithelial regeneration there and elsewhere. His 
material consisted of sixty different species selected from all the seven 
great groups of insects; for hardening purposes, he found that a 
mixture of alcoholic solution of sublimate and nitric acid gave the 
most satisfactory results. The memoir is introduced by a general 
anatomical description of the alimentary canal, and especially of the 
mid-gut in its various modifications. 

General histology.—(a) The innermost layer of the mid-gut is 
composed of an epithelium of large, almost cubical cells, which passes 
out into the diverticula if such exist, and which may, though fre- 
quently quite equal and uniform, exhibit numerous regular internal 
villi, or sometimes pads. (5) Round the epithelium lies a sheath of 
connective tissue, in the form of a loose meshwork of fibres and 
nuclei, filling up the spaces between the villi, or between the 
epithelium and the musculature, or else represented by a distinct 
basement membrane, also without recognizable cellular composition. 
(c) Further out lie the muscular layers, circular internally, and 
longitudinal externally. Their main effect is the shortening of the 
gut ; a narrowing of the lumen can also be effected. The muscles are 


* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxvi. (1885) pp. 229-306 (3 pls.). 
{ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 994. 


Dan SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


almost wholly confined to the canal proper, not passing into the 
villi, sacs, &c. Sometimes the circular muscles are compacted into 
a sort of membrane, while the longitudinal strands have a looser 
course, or the reverse may occur; in Bombus the circular muscles 
seem to lie outermost. In most larve, the circular bands are less 
strongly developed; in the adult forms, the longitudinal. The 
cylindrical elements of the longitudinal muscles frequently enclose 
at intervals a cavity, in which a long nucleus lies. There is no 
special “serous” membrane outside the muscular layer, though the 
external bands are frequently bound together by the loose connective 
tissue. 

The epithelial cells—(1) The internal epithelium may present 
a flat surface, or exhibit villi and other elevations. The crypt-like 
glands first noted by Basch are described, and the various occurrence 
of two distinct kinds of cells—cylindrical and mucous—in the 
apparently homogeneous epithelium of caterpillars is specially 
noted. (2) The secreted material inside the epithelial cells occurs 
in three different forms, in different groups; (a) not definitely 
characterized either in colour or form ; (b) colourless, but of definite 
form ; (c) with a more or less bright colour, and with definite form 
and disposition within the cells. The mid-gut of the bee larva is 
described with reference both to its histology and physiology, and 
the various changes of the epithelium are noted. Epithelial cells 
with colourless, but definitely formed, mostly spherical secreted 
substance, &c., are next discussed, and finally those of the third type. 
The distribution and structure of the mucous cells, characteristic of 
the caterpillar mid-gut are noted, and special attention is directed 
to the “theca” or “secretraum’”’ which occupies so large a part of 
the cell. 

Tie hair-fringe-—The author maintains firmly his previously 
expressed opinion as to the structure of the cell-fringe, which he 
believes to be composed of fine hairs. This he has observed not 
only in these epithelial cells, but in the cells of the so-called liver of 
Crustacea and Mollusca, on a Gregarine and elsewhere. Leydig has 
also observed a similar fringe, but has interpreted it as a cuticle with 
pores, Dr. Frenzel affirms the frequent occurrence of the fine hair- 
fringe, and since he believes that the hairs are mobile, proposes to 
distinguish under the general term Wzumper-zellen, those with cilia 
strictly so-called, and those possessing the hair-fringe. As to their 
physiological import, he suggests that they serve as a protective 
cuticle, in some cases physically, to prevent hard food-particles 
coming into direct contact with the cells; in other cases, perhaps 
chemically, to prevent the injurious influence of other secretions, in 
fact to prevent self-digestion. 

The nuclei of the mid-gut epithelium—An interesting descrip- 
tion is given of the varied nuclear structure of the epithelial cells. 
The typical nuclear network, described especially by Flemming, is 
frequently exhibited ; often complicated however by the presence of 
‘*nucleolids” or-nucleolus-like bodies. The chromophilous sub- 
stance in such nuclei takes the form of granules arranged peri- 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 233 


pherally, united by fine threads with one another, and with the 
more internal granules, the knots of the network, so that the central 
nucleolus is woven round on all sides. In the nuclei of the larva 
and imago of Tenebrio, a crystal-like body is present—a phenomenon 
in animal histology which was till lately unique. In the larve of 
Muscide the typical network is absent, and the roll-vf-money-like 
nuclear bands are observed. In caterpillars, and probably in all 
Hymenopteran larve, the nucleus appears as a vesicle, containing 
a homogeneous fluid, in which true nucleoli, nucleolids, and minute 
granules are imbedded. Fine processes are observed passing from 
the nucleolid bodies, which are therefore perhaps united in a sort of 
network. The minute granules are all of the same size, and are 
perfectly spherical and free, and when they are retracted from the 
periphery of the nucleus, a pale loose network is sometimes revealed. 

The regeneration of the cells—In continuation of his former 
research on the epithelial regeneration in Crustacea, Dr. Frenzel 
describes that in the mid-gut of insects. The epithelial cells, whether 
“cylindrical” or ‘mucous,’ both in the canal itself and in its 
diverticula, reproduce themselves by direct (“amitotische ”) division, 
while the specifically glandular cells of the crypts exhibit in their 
division karyolytic phenomena. The prevalence—indeed the pre- 
dominance—of the direct method of division in epithelial cells is 
maintained, and the extreme position which denies its existence is 
criticized. 

The physiological import of the cells—After pointing out that 
the main work of digestion must be discharged by the mid-gut, and 
that in the absence of pseudopodie processes, intracellular digestion 
is out of the question, the author maintains that in most cases, at 
least, the whole epithelial cell perishes in discharging its secreted 
substance. Except in some cases where the secreted material is not so 
abundant, or definitely and firmly formed, and where consequently 
the substance might be discharged and replaced piece-meal, the 
sacrifice of the whole cell seems the only alternative. The opinion 
that the “secreted substance” might be the result of absorption is 
sharply criticized. The problem of absorption is discussed, but in 
face of such difficulties as that of ascribing the absorptive function 
at once to mid-gut and hind-gut, Dr. Frenzel prefers to confess the 
absence of any definite knowledge of the process. He maintains the 
absence of liver-like organ or bile-like secretion. 


Bees and Bee-keeping.*—Mr. F. R. Cheshire, whose researches 
on bees and their diseases are so well known to the Fellows of the 
Society, has embodied the results of his investigations in a book 
which cannot fail to be highly appreciated by all naturalists who 
are interested in bees, and even more so by those who regard bees less 
from their scientific than from their commercial aspect. 

The first volume now issued deals with the scientific part of the 
subject, and is intended to be followed by a second “ practical” 


* Cheshire, F. R., ‘ Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical,’ vol. i, 
Scientific, 336 pp., 8 pls. and 71 figs. 8vo, London (L. Upeott Gill), 1886. 


234 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


volume, which will include the question of bee diseases. The 
author certifies that a very large part of his matter is in all respects 
absolutely new, being the issue of researches, dissections, and experi- 
ments, which have occupied no inconsiderable fraction of many years 
of a busy life. 

The first volume deals with the anatomy and physiology of the bee 
itself, the peculiarities of the sexes, the principles of comb-structure, 
and the relation of bees to flowering plants. It is divided into 
sixteen chapters, which treat separately of various structural points 
(such as the tongue and mouth-parts, the organs of special sense, 
wings in flight, and organs of the drone), the differences between wild 
and hive bees, the economy of the latter, the relations of bees to 
flowers, and their functions as fertilizers, florists, and fruit producers. 
The illustrations, nearly all of which were drawn by the author, are 
excellent. Those on the plates deal with the digestive system, the 
head and tongue, and details of tongue structure, of the eyes, of the 
legs, of the sting, &c. i 


Geometrical Construction of the Cell of the Honey Bee.*—Prof. 
H. Hennessy gives the following directions for constructing a model 
of the bee’s cell, with the aid of a pair of compasses :— 

1. Inscribe an equilateral triangle in a hexagon; a side of this 
triangle is the long diagonal of the lozenge; bisect this, and the 
diagonal of a square erected on the half is the shorter diagonal of the 
lozenge. 

2. Draw six parallel lines at distances equal to the side of the 
hexagon, and a straight line perpendicular to them from the second 
of the parallel lines; ‘‘ inflect a straight line” equal to a side of the 
lozenge above constructed, and repeat this process until six trapezia 
are formed. 

3. On folding these trapezia a hexagonal prism is formed, into 
which three lozenges equal to that constructed will accurately fit, and 
the entire structure will be completed. 


Labium of Hymenoptera.t—M. J. Chatin shows that the very 
much modified labium of Anthophora can be derived from that of the 
Orthoptera by the comparison of a series of forms, Cimbex, Cynips, 
Acenites, Stizus, and Vespa: this last has a labium more nearly like 
that of the Orthoptera than the former genera. 


Phosphorescence of Luciola italica.{—Prof. C. Emery sup- 
plements his previous research on the luminous organ of Luciola 
atalica by a study of the phenomena in the living insect. When the 
organ is observed in function, under low power, the eye is at first 
dazzled, and only a bright yellowish uniform light is seen. The 
intensity soon diminishes, however, and the luminous area is seen to 
be interrupted by numerous dark circles regularly disposed. As the 
brightness continues to decrease light rings are observed round the 
dark spots, and outside the rings an irregular shade. The bright 


* Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxix. (1885) pp. 252 and 254. 
+ Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 222-4. 
{ Bull. Soc, Entomol. Ital., xviii. (1885) pp. 351-5 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 235 


rings are the last to disappear, and gradually the whole becomes 
dark. Here and there, however, several bright points remain long in 
activity. 

If the separated abdomen of a healthy insect be excited by slight 
pressure a flash of light can likewise be observed. It is, however, 
less intense and the process is slower. The bright rings persist for 
a considerable time round the dark spots, and they often appear 
irregular and interrupted. In the already darkened portion numerous 
luminous points are seen, which sometimes join together and form 
new rings, which again break up and vanish. 

The difficulty of both these modes of observation, owing to the 
movement of the living insect in the one case, and of the mechanical 
excitation in the other, led Prof. Emery to poisoning the insect 
with vapour of osmic acid. In such cases he was able to observe 
round the dark spots of the portion in full light smaller, fainter, 
sometimes unconspicuous spots, arranged with a certain regularity. 

Comparing these observations with preparations stained with 
carmine, or hardened with alcohol and clarified with caustic potash, 
it was seen (1) that the large round spots represented the central 
portion of the “digitiform acini” of T. Tozzetti, or the “ Tracheen- 
endzellen” of M. Schultze ; (2) that the luminous portion represented 
parenchymatous cells, and the smaller dark spots the nuclei of the 
latter. 

The bright portions, i.e. the parenchymatous cells, are observed 
to become discontinuous and to fade gradually, sometimes leaving 
bright persistent points. The contours of the cells and the nucleus 
within are sometimes distinctly visible. Prof. Emery gives figures of 
the various phenomena. He is thus able to affirm with certainty that 
the light of the Luciola originates in the parenchymatous cells, and 
withdraws his previously expressed opinion that the luminosity 
originated mainly in the cells of the cylindrical lobes formed from 
the matrix of the trachese. In full luminosity the dazzled eye cannot 
detect any differences of intensity; the uniformity is perhaps due to 
reflection, or it may be that the cells of the deeper layer have also 
to a less degree the power of luminosity. During medium luminosity, 
at any rate, the combustion is exclusively confined to the parenchy- 
matous cells of the transparent superficial layer of the organ. 


Researches on the Meloide.*—M. H. Beauregard communicates 
the first part of a detailed study of the Meloide. 

In discussing (a) the integument, he maintains the probability that 
its softness is for the most part due to the small quantity of salts in 
proportion to organic matter, as is suggested by the results of 
analyses. The varied and often brilliant colours are due either 
(1) to the phenomena of interference, or (2) the presence of special 
pigments, or (3) to the effect of coloured or uncoloured hairs. 
(1) The brilliant green of the common Cantharid, which has been 
sometimes referred to the presence of a green oil due to the chloro- 
phyll of the leaves eaten by the insects, is, however, visible in young 


* Journ. Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), xxi. (1885) pp. 483-534 (2 pls.). 


236 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


larvee which have not eaten chlorophyll, and is due, as Pocklington 
has also shown, to the fine markings of the elytra and the resulting 
interference. (2) In many forms, however, there is no metallic, but 
only a dull colour, due to non-granular pigment in the cuticular 
layers of the elytra. (8) The hairs may contain oily or granular 
colouring matter, they are generally longitudinally striated, and may 
in various ways modify the colour. The very manifold ornaments of 
the integument are also noted. 

(b) Skeletal system.—T wo different types of head are described— 
triangular and compressed (Cantharis), and more spherical, with 
a thickness measuring almost as much as the transverse diameter 
(Meloe, Mylabrum, Macrobasis). Four types of labrum with an 
anterior margin varying from deeply concave to convex, are figured ; 
the double nature of the epicranium is demonstrated in all the larval 
forms observed and in many adult forms. In general, however, the 
structure of the head resembles that of the Coleoptera generally, and 
the description need not therefore be summarized. The antenne of 
the males in some genera differ markedly in shape and in larger size 

‘from those of the female forms. In describing the various modifica- 
tions of the thorax M. Beauregard notes the correlative reduction of 
the tergal arches and entothorax of Meloe, in proportion to the more 
or less rudimentary state of the wings. 

The hitherto unrecorded structure of the elytra is described at 
length. They are formed of two plates, united at their margins ; 
each plate consists of a cuticle and of a subjacent chitinous dermal 
layer. With few exceptions it is only the cuticle which is coloured. 
The free space between the superior and inferior plate is occupied by 
hypodermic cells, and is traversed by the blood and by the trachee. 
From the superior plate transverse pillars pass down into the dermal 
layer of the lower plate. They consist of a central zone continuous 
with the cuticle, and a peripheral sheath derived from the chitinous 
lower layer. He notes the distribution of nervures and the automatic 
folding mechanism of the wings. In a section through a wing, where 
traversed by a trachea, M. Beauregard distinguishes (1) a thick 
external chitinous layer, ‘with transverse striz, and of a more or less 
distinct brown colour, especially exteriorly ; (2) an endothelium-like 
layer, with ovoid nuclei regularly arranged in longitudinal rows; 
(3) blood, trachez, and nerves. 

The appendages are described in detail, and special attention is 
directed to a small accessory structure situated between the claws of 
the tarsus, and named by Kirby and Spence the plantula. It seems 
constant among the Meloide, and attains in some cases a remarkable 
development. It consists of a pale brown chitinous sac, usually of a 
flask-like shape, with a long thin neck, terminated by one or more 
stiff, sharp, dark-coloured hairs. The body of the flask is contained 
within the last joint of the tarsus; the neck protrudes between the 
claws. In Meloe and Nemognatha it is feebly developed, atrophied, 
and naked; in the Mylabra it is strongly developed, and covered 
with a large number (specifically constant!) of long hairs. The other 
Meloidz possess plantule between the two extremes. M. Beauregard 


~ 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 237 


describes the histology and relations of the structure, and inclines to 
regard it as a superadded joint of the tarsus, perhaps connected with 
the presence of internal claws. 


Meromyza saltatrix and Elachiptera cornuta.*—Prof. K. Linde- 
man gives an account of the life-history of these two destructive 
Diptera. The larva of Meromyza saltatrix is white with green shining 
through ; the supports for the cephalic stigma are short and fungi- 
form; the knob-like end contains seven terminal tracheal tubes which 
open on some low warts; the two cephalic hooks are large, black, 
and armed inferiorly with two large blunt teeth. The pupa is almost 
colourless and distinctly constricted; this stage is only of a fort- 
night’s length, and the whole period of development not more than 
seven weeks. The imago, when it first appears, is almost colourless 
also, but soon becomes completely coloured. The larva of Elachi- 
ptera cornuta has a remarkable resemblance to those of Oscinis, but 
differs in the form of the supports for the cephalic stigmata, while 
the cephalic hooks are markedly serriform. 


Parthenogenesis of Chironomus Grimmii.j—Prof. A. Schneider 
confirms the discovery of Grimm as to the parthenogenesis of a 
species of Chironomus. The larve live as usual in tubes formed 
from the secretion of the spinning gland, plus sand-grains and 
portions of plants. At the periods of skin-casting the tube is shortened 
and closed. In the imago within the larval envelope the sexual 
organs are well developed, and the eggs are laid immediately after, 
and occasionally before liberation, but only by the imago and not by 
the pupa, as Grimm stated. The eggs are laid via the vagina, and 
not, as in Grimm's account, vid two lateral elliptical openings on 
the posterior part of the body. 

Immediately after the eggs are laid, they begin to develope, and 
even in some cases when artificially removed from the ovary. No 
males were to be seen, and the receptaculum seminis was always 
empty. Such parthenogenetic generations succeed one another through 
the whole winter, and on till the middle of June. It is probable that 
males are developed in summer and that fertilization then occurs. 
Schneider differs from Grimm as to the development of the ova and 
ovaries, but a discussion of this is reserved to a future communication. 


New Parasite on Iulus.t—Dr. E. Haase describes a larval 
parasite found by him (in 1880-81) on the head of Iulus fallax. 
The yellowish-white oval egg measured 12 mm., was superficially 
hexagonally marked, and fastened anteriorly very closely to the 
Iulus, while the posterior pole of the lower surface exhibited a 
shallow, round, sucker-like hollow. Two larval forms were observed, 
of an obviously insect character; the first very young, with about 
twelve segments, with much yolk still persisting ; the second derived 
from the first by a skin-casting, covered with the short triangular spines 
characteristic of Diptera, with little persistent yolk and with well 


* Bull. Soc. Impér. Moscou, Ix. (1885) pp. 251-5. 
+ Zool. Beitr. (Schneider), i. (1885) pp. 301-2. 
t Ibid., pp. 252-6 (1 pl.). 


238 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


developed tissues. Dr. Haase describes two superficial sensory pits 
on the head; the strong oral organs and associated musculature ; the 
characters of the eleven segments behind the head; the two stig- 
mata, situated medianly behind the anus on the last segment; the 
trachee traversing the body with simple coils, &e. 

The egg is presumably fixed by a somewhat large mother insect, 
and by means of a rapidly hardening acid secretion; the larva 
probably eats its way with its powerful jaws into the ulus and 
there undergoes further development, since empty egg-envelopes were 
sometimes found without any visible external opening. He was 
unfortunately unable to rear the larva, which was referred by 
Prof. Brauer to the Tachinine or Dexinz, though differing in some 
points from all dipterous larve as yet known. 


Alimentary Tract of Phylloxera.*—M. V. Lemoine describes the 
digestive tract of Phylloxera punctata as a tube, bent upon itself, with 
two dilatations upon it, and numerous glands anteriorly. The mouth, 
placed amongst the buccal appendages, leads into a pharynx supplied 
with chitinous valves, acted upon by muscles: thence the cesophagus 
leads into a large stomach—the first dilatation, from which a short, 
narrow intestine passes to the posterior intestine—the second dilata- 
tion. The fatty, glandular structures on the narrow intestine seem 
to represent Malpighian tubules. Various other glands are present 
which are much more highly developed in the young forms, appearing 
very early in development. In the sexual forms the alimentary tract 
is functionless. 


Tracks of Insects simulating Vegetable Impressions. — M. 
Zeiller describes impressions found in the Oxford clay at Villers- 
sur-mer, scarcely distinguishable from those of plants, but which 
have unquestionably been made by insects. ‘These insects must have 
made galleries in the soil 0:015 m. in diameter, and 0°005 m. deep, 
parallel to the surface and branching repeatedly in a series of 
galleries, which lead off from the main gallery alternately to the right 
and left at an acute angle. The insect producing these was probably 
a mole-cricket, Gryllotalpa vulgaris ; the resemblance is remarkably 
close to the undoubted impressions of conifers belonging to the genus 
Brachyphyllum. 


f. Myriopoda. 


Anatomy of Spherotherium.{ — Mr. G. C. Bourne describes 
several points in the anatomy of this Diplopod, which have been 
overlooked by previous writers. The genus differs from Glomeris in 
the position of the antennz in a deep fossa. Corresponding to each 
of the twenty-one pairs of legs, is a pair of “tracheal plates” placed 
between the attachments of the appendages. The first three pairs 
belong to as many segments, while of the remainder, like the legs, two 
pairs belong to each segment; there is also a nerve-ganglion to each 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 220-2. 

+ Bull. Soc. Geol. France, xii. (1884) pp. 676-80 (1 pl.). See Bull, Soc. Bot. 
France, xxxii. (1885) p. 173. 

{ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xix. (1885) pp. 161-72 (3 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 239 


segment. In the male there are three extra pairs of appendages, 
copulatory in function ; two pairs of these bear stridulating organs, 
which have not been previously noticed in this genus; besides the 
chitinous ridges on these appendages, there are similar ridges on the 
inner surface of the large terminal tergite. 

The tracheal system differs from that of most other Diplopods in 
having very well developed branching tracheew. Each tracheal plate 
carries a stigma, which opens into a “ tracheal sac”; from this sac 
two main tracheal trunks pass out, each of which breaks up into a 
number of smaller branches. The author considers the tracheal sacs 
homologous with those of Peripatus, from which form these branching 
trachee are derived. The antennary sense-organs are conspicuous. 
An error is pointed out in the description of their histology by 
Biitschli, who mistook certain cells, in the connective tissue sur- 
rounding the nerve-bundles, for ganglion-cells. An auditory organ 
is presupposed by the existence of a stridulating organ; the 
cavity opening to the exterior by a small pore below the eye, is 
regarded as such an organ; it is lined bya sensory epithelium, sup- 
plied by nerve-fibres from the cerebral ganglion. 


Anatomy of Myriopoda.*—Mr. T. D. Gibson-Carmichael, after 
referring to Plateau’s paper on the digestive tract of the Chilopoda,t 
describes that of Lithobius, and compares it with that of Geophilus 
longicornis and Himantarium Gabrielis. He finds pure uric acid in 
the two Malpighian tubercles of the first form, but could find no saliva 
in the so-called “ salivary glands.” 


y. Prototracheata, 


Fertilized Ovum of and Formation of Layers in Peripatus.t— 
Mr. A. Sedgwick finds that the fertilized ovum of Peripatus capensis 
has a large nucleus, of which three different stages are described; in 
the first it is a spherical structure (diameter 0:04 mm.) made up of a 
fine spongework of very pale fibrils which are continuous with the 
nuclear membrane, and the septum formed by it; the membrane and 
septum appear to be precisely similar in structure with the strands of 
the external protoplasmic reticulum, and the latter are continued 
directly into the former; in the second form the chromatin of the 
nucleus instead of being, as in the first, aggregated into a number of 
small masses, is diffused through the nuclear reticulum ; in the third 
the nucleus is divided into chambers by a number of septa, which 
are continuous externally with the extra-nuclear protoplasmic reti- 
culum. In the spindle form of the nucleus, the spindle was of 
enormous size and appeared to be composed of the ordinary reticulum. 
Mr. Sedgwick thinks that these observations confirm Dr. Klein’s 
view of the continuity between the reticulum of the nucleus and that 
of the extra-nuclear protoplasm. 

The fully segmented ovum is found to be a syncytium in which 
there are not, and have not been at any stage cell-limits. The at first 

* Proce. R. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, 1885, pp. 377-81. 


+ Mem, Acad. R. Sci. Belge, xlii. (1878) 94 pp. (3 pls.). 
¢ Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxix. (1885) pp. 239-44. 


240 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


solid gastrula is also a syncytium, and the blastopore, until quite late in 
development, is traversed by protoplasmic strands, which anastomose 
with similar strands projecting from the protoplasm lining the large 
central vacuole or gut; the gut arises as a vacuole in a multinucleated 
mass of protoplasm. In describing the origin of the mesoderm, the 
author states that at the commencement of the formation of the 
somites the ovum is still a syncytium. 

Mr. Sedgwick points out that these facts explain, morphologically, 
the connection between the nerve and muscles and sensory epithelial 
cells, for the primitive continuity has never been broken; there is 
no essential difference between ducts with perforated cells and ducts 
with so-called cellular walls. 

“If the protoplasm of the body is ‘really a syncytium, and the 
ovum until maturity in the ovary a part of that syncytium, the 
separation of the generative products does not differ essentially from 
the internal germination of a protozoon, and the inheritance by the 
offspring of peculiarities first appearing in the parent, though not 
explained, is rendered less mysterious, for the protoplasm of the 
whole body being continuous, changes in the molecular constitution 
of any part of it would naturally be expected to spread, in time, 
through the whole mass.” 

“Shortly, these facts, if generally applicable, reduce the adult 
body to a syncytium—to a multinucleated vacuolated protoplasmic 
mass, and embryonic development to a multiplication of nuclei and 
a specialization of tracts in this mass.” 


6. Arachnida. 


Heart in Gamasidee.*—Prof. C. Claus describes the heart of the 
Acaride for the first time. It is best seen in the transparent larva of 
Gamasus fucorum. It is placed in the posterior region of the body, and 
consists of a single chamber with a slit-like valvate aperture on each 
side; anteriorly it gives off an aorta. It is thus similar to the heart 
of Daphnia, and is probably degraded from a multilocular heart, such 
as is found in the other Arachnoidea, just as that of Daphnia is 
degraded amongst the Entomostraca. He considers Limulus and its 
Paleozoic allies to be more nearly related to the Arachnida than to 
the Crustacea, and points out that the aerial respiration of the former 
is not such a stumbling-block as some authors consider it, since 
different forms may have taken to aerial respiration in different ways. 

Both the Crustacea and the Xiphosura, with the Gigantostraca, 
have arisen from an ancestral Protostraca: amongst the Crustacea the 
Nauplius-form and the doubled antenne persist, whilst in the second 
group the anterior pair of antenne has disappeared, and other changes 
have taken place. The third group of the Arthropoda Prof. Claus 
regards as having arisen from some form like Peripatus. The characters 
of the three sections —Sect. I. Crustacea; Sect. II. Arachnida and 
Gigantostraca; Sect. ILI. Peripatus, Hexapoda and Myriapoda—are 
given. 


* Anzeig. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1885, pp. 250-3, Cf. Ann. and Mag, Nat, 
Hist., xvii. (1885) pp. 168-70. ‘ 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 241 


Mexican Species of Argas.*—M. P. Mégnin gives an account of 
three Mexican species of this spider: Argas turicata, A. talaje, A. meg- 
nini ; the first of these does not limit its attacks to pigs, but affects also 
the human subject, where it is found in the auditory meatus, and 
sometimes produces severe illness. A. talaje is likewise very irritating, 
and both species seem to have a secretion analogous to that of the 
Tarantula. A. megnini appears to be a far less troublesome parasite. 


e, Crustacea. 


Blood of Crustacea.t—Dr. W. D. Halliburton’s observations on 
the blood of Crustacea have been made on the more common decapods ; 
it was obtained by making cuts in the soft ventral integuments or in 
the claw; from a large lobster nearly half a pint can ordinarily be 
obtained. It is at first nearly colourless, or of a reddish colour, and 
is milky from the presence of numerous amceboid corpuscles ; but this 
soon disappears owing to the almost instantaneous occurrence of 
coagulation. After a few minutes’ contact with the oxygen of 
the air it gets an indigo-blue tinge, due to the oxygenation of a 
proteid body which is dissolved in the plasma, and has been called 
hemocyanin by Frédéricq. The specific gravity varies between 1025 
and 1030, and the reaction is always faintly alkaline. The author 
describes in detail the phenomena of spontaneous coagulation, and 
finds that it is in nearly all respects similar to that of vertebrate 
blood. 

The proteids of the blood-plasma are the already mentioned 
hemocyanin, and fibrinogen; the serum contains only the former, 
which resembles serum globulin in certain points, but differs from it 
in containing copper, in coagulating at 68° C. or seven degrees lower ; 
it is more difficult of precipitation from its solutions by saturation 
with salts, and it is completely precipitated and coagulated by strong 
acetic acid. 

Crustaceous fibrinogen resembles generally that of vertebrates, 
but differs by coagulating at 65° C. or 9° higher, and in not being 
precipitated by sodium chloride completely, unless the solution be 
saturated with that salt. 

The colouring matters of the blood are the blue hemocyanin, and 
a red tetronerythrin ; the former is the oxygen carrier. Though 
the author thinks that the latter pigment may have respiratory 
functions, he does not base this view on the arguments advanced by 
Merejkowski. 

Dealing with the comparative aspects of crustacean blood, Dr. 
Halliburton reminds us that in some there is hemoglobin, and that 
hemocyanin is found in Cephalopods, Gastropods, and Arachnids. 
In an appendix he gives a useful list of the animals in which these 
two colouring matters, chlorocruorin, hemerythrin, chlorophyll, and 
tetronerythrin have been found. 


* Journ. Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), xxi. (1885) pp. 460-75 (2 pls.). 
+ Journ. of Physiol., vi. (1885) pp. 300-35 (1 pl.). 
Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. R 


242 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Moulting of the Lobster.*—Dr. A. 8. Packard has made some 
observations on the mode of moulting of the lobster. | 

According to the lobster fishermen, the creature moults but once 
a year. Shortly before the moult the parts between the segments are 
much swollen, and have a livid colour. Meanwhile the inner side of 
the flattened basal joints (three to five) of the large claws become soft, 
the lime on the crust partly disappearing, leaving an irregular oval 
solid portion; in this way the contents of the large hand or claw can 
be drawn through the basal portion of the limb. The first step in 
the ecdysis is the splitting or partial separation of the two halves of 
the carapace; it may entirely separate posteriorly, or the two halves 
remain together, and the animal withdraws its body out of the sutures 
between the thorax and first abdominal segment. The integument of 
the legs is moulted last, and when, owing to rough handling, the 
process is delayed, the extremities of the legs slough off. ‘The entire 
integument, with all the appendages of the head, thorax, and the 
abdomen, are moulted as a whole, but the abdominal legs are moulted 
before the thoracic ones. Dr. Packard found all the parts of the 
crust connected, and floating in the “lobster car,” even including the 
lining of the proventricle or stomach, and the apodemes of the head 
and thorax. After the moult the soft and flabby lobster lies nearly 
motionless, occasionally, if disturbed, giving a flap with its “tail.” 
It remains inactive for nearly or quite a week, until the new crust 
becomes hard. He is convinced that the deformities in the big claws 
as well as other parts, occur at the time of moulting, as after disturb- 
ing the symmetry of the claws in a specimen, the deformity persisted. 


Cyrtophium calamicola.j—Mr. G. M. Giles gives a description 
of the structure and habits of Cyrtophium calamicola, a new tubicolous 
amphipod found about the Palmyra shoal and mouth of the Dhamra 
river on the Orissa coast. The tube is considerably longer than the 
animal, is of a deep golden brown colour, banded with zones of dark 
and lighter tint; it consists of coarse, and apparently structureless, 
fibres, beneath which there is a transparent layer. This latter 
consists of a layer of hexagonal thick-walled cells, with an outer 
layer of long quadrilateral cells; and the whole structure leaves no 
doubt as to its vegetable nature; it is apparently part of a grass or 
reed. Inside and out the tube is covered by a hardened secretion, 
and in some cases the vegetable portion is altogether wanting. The 
dactylopodite of the second gnathopod is adapted for cutting purposes, 
and would serve to trim the grass or sever the thread of secretion ; 
the author has been unable to satisfy himself as to the position of the 
secreting gland, but there are glands both in the propodites of the 
gnathopods and at the bases of the thoracic limbs; that on the second 
gnathopod is probably the seat of the membrane-forming secretion. 


Terrestrial Isopods.t—Mr. G. Budde-Lund has written a mono- 
graph of the terrestrial Isopoda which he divides into four families— 


* Amer. Natural., xx. (1886) p. 173. 

+ Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, liv. (1885) pp. 54-9 (1 pl.). 

} ‘Crustacea Isopoda Terrestria per familias et genera et species descripta,’ 
8vo, Haynie, 1885, 319 pp. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 243 


Onisci, Ligis, Tylides, and Syspastide. In the first there are fourteen 
genera, three of which (Hubelum, Cylloma, and Scleropactes) are new ; 
in the second, four are described, and the remaining two contain each 
a genus. The total number of species described is 404 or 410, of 
which 312 or 316 are good species, and 92 or 94 are unknown to the 
author or are reported species. 


Gammarus pulex var. subterraneus.*—Dr. R. Schneider gives 
an account of the subterranean variety of Gammarus pulex which is 
found at Clausthal. The first point of interest is its pale colour, 
pigment being so completely absent from its body that it is milk- 
white and transparent ; even the fat-cells, which are intensely red or 
orange-yellow in the ordinary G. pulex, are quite white. In the 
second place the eye is not normally developed, but is in the first 
stage of reduction ; the crystalline cones show signs of degeneration, 
and the whole eye exhibits that ‘“ megalophthalmy ” or proportionately 
greater size which is so often the first indications of loss, The 
pigment has also begun to be reduced, and is of a dirty black, instead 
of a brownish colour. The anterior pair of antenne exhibit elonga- 
tion, owing to the increase in the number of the joints. 

There is, as compared with the ordinary forms, a considerable 
increase in the amount of calcareous deposits; and there is always a 
considerable amount of iron-oxide in the contents of the intestine, 
whence the iron makes its way to various parts of the body. 


Anatomy of Chloremians.j—Some points in the anatomy of 
Siphonostoma diphochztos are described by M. E. Jourdain. 
_ There are two varieties of peculiar papille in the network of the 
mucous tube, attached to the body by long peduncles. One variety 
consists of a mass of glandular cells. The second kind are fusiform, 
accompany the sete, and consist of ciliated cells; there are tactile 
organs. He considers as a vascular organ the “ problematic organ” 
of Horst.{ This consists of a peculiar dorsal cecum of the alimentary 
tract, the glandular lining of which is continued into it, whilst its walls 
are transformed into a great blood sinus; its rhythmical contractions 
suggested to him its circulatory functions. 


Nervous System of Peltogaster.§s—M. Y. Delage describes the 
central nervous organ of Peltogaster as consisting, like that of 
Sacculina, of a single ganglion; it is placed within the mesentery 
which connects the cloaca with the pedicle, and almost between the 
two cement-glands; it is only separated from the exterior by half the 
thickness of the mantle. It is elongated in form, and about 1/10 mm. 
in size; it is really simple, that is, does not consist of two fused 
halves; it contains small fusiform peripheral and large multipolar 
central cells; it gives off a number of very fine nerves, the distribution 
of some of which is described. 

Peltogaster may be regarded as being derived from Sacculina, and 


* SB. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1885, pp. 1087-1104 (1 pl.). 
+ Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 270-2. 

t See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 457. 

§ Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) pp. 1010-2. 


R 2 


244 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


in the changes which various parts have undergone, the nervous 
system has not remained fixed; it has followed the cloaca and 
mesentery, and particularly the cement-glands; in such a position 
also we must look for the nervous system of other Centrogonida, 
until and unless we find a type in which the cement-glands have 
become widely separated from the mesentery and the cloaca; in such 
a case it will be interesting to discover what the nervous system has 
done. 


Vermes. 


Dorsal Pores of Terricolous Oligocheta.*—Herr H. Ude in- 
vestigated the pores and the histology of the dermo-muscular tube of 
earthworms by the method of sections; the worms were killed in 
dilute (1/2 per cent.) chromic acid, and hardened for eight to ten 
hours, washed in water, and placed in 70 per cent. alcohol; Hamann’s 
neutral acetic acid carmine was used as a colouring agent. This 
method destroys the longitudinal muscles, the relations of which 
must be studied by killing in boiling water, hardening in a mixture 
of one part concentrated picro-sulphuric acid and three parts distilled 
water, then extended on a cork for eight hours. Grenacher’s borax- 
carmine may be used as the staining agent. If the animals are to be 
preserved in absolute alcohol, they must be stupefied by chloroform 
vapour. 

P The diameter of the pores varies from 1/100 to 1/106 of the 
circumference of the body in the six species examined; the pore 
appears to increase with the growth of the body; as a rule, to which 
Allolobophora mucosa is an exception, the pores disappear in the 
clitellar segments, when the clitellum becomes developed. The 
muscular fibres of the circular layer form a special complex around 
the pores, and appear to have the function of closing them; the 
longitudinal muscles, on the other hand, seem to have a duty in 
relation to opening the pores. The author gives a detailed account 
of the histology of the dermo-muscular tube, and enters into a close 
comparison of his results with those of other observers. 

Notwithstanding the abortive results of his predecessors, the author 
thinks he is able to show that the dorsal pores have a definite arrange- 
ment; the first pore may, when a number of species are compared, be 
found to be pushed back gradually from the fourth to the thirteenth 
intersegmental groove; and the species may be arranged in groups in 
which the first pore has.a constant position, and this may be regarded 
as an indication of affinity. The existence of a peritoneal ccelom is 
necessary for the presence of dorsal pores, but, on the other hand, 
there are tracts of the body which possess this ccelom but no pores; 
there does not seem to be any relation between the pores and the 
nephridia. It is doubtful whether the pores are really absent from 
such terricolous Oligochztes as have been said to be without them; 
but they seem to be always wanting in the Limicole. 

At certain times, and under certain conditions, the perivisceral 
fluid and its elements may be passed out by the pores, which, there- 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xliii. (1885) pp. 87-143 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSOOPY, ETC. 245 


fore, may be regarded as the orifices of the peritoneal coelom, which 
itself is perhaps excretory in nature. 

The essay concludes with a classification of earthworms, in which 
the new species Allolobophora longa and hispanica are described. 


Hyodrilus* coccineus.*—Herr A. Stole has a preliminary report 
on this annelid, which is to be regarded as a contribution to the 
anatomy of the Tubificide. There are two kinds of dorsal setz, hair- 
like or forked, and of the latter there are again two forms, some being 
slightly and others strongly curved; the ventral sete are generally 
of the last-mentioned form. The cerebral ganglion has a very 
characteristic form ; it is slightly rounded off anteriorly and hasa small 
process in its middle; posteriorly there are two external and two 
internal lobes; the inner are conical, and are attached to the body- 
wall by cerebroparietal muscles; the outer are larger, and give off 
inferiorly the cesophageal commissures; there are a large number of 
peripheral nerves. The anterior brain-process gives off a few nerve- 
branches which break up on their peripheral course; the ventral cord 
forms a ganglion in each segment, and this is ordinarily marked by 
three constrictions ; the peripheral nerves are given off regularly from 
each ganglion, and there are three pairs in each segment, and a fourth 
which is sent to the dissepiment of the neighbouring segment. 

The vascular system is complicated, and is especially remarkable 
for the well-developed system of tegumentary vessels; the lateral loops 
connecting the dorsal and ventral vessels are not as enlarged as in 
Tubifex or Psammoryctes ; they give off fine branches which traverse 
the integument in all directions, so as to form a delicate plexus, which 
is connected by anastomoses with the tegumentary plexuses. Just in 
front of the hinder dissepiment of every segment a pair of vessels is 
given off from the dorsal trunk; these too make their way into the 
integument and give off capillaries. 

The ciliated infundibulum of the nephridium is considerably 
thickened, and produced into a lobe which is thickly covered by cilia ; 
the duct of the glandular portion is not simple, but broken up into a 
special plexus of canaliculi. The male organs have no penis, cement- 
gland, or spermatophores, but genital sete are present; the ovaries 
are of the type of the Naidomorpha. On these grounds the author 
proposes to form for Idyodrilus a subfamily of Tubificidee—Ilyodrilini ; 
the second subfamily Tubificini may be characterized by the absence 
of genital sete, as well as of the other just-mentioned male organs, 
while the female apparatus is on the type of that of the higher 
Oligocheta; of the third subfamily—Telmatodrilini—we can only 
as yet say, with Hisen, that there are a large number of cement- 
glands. 

Golfingia macintoshii.j—Prof. E. Ray Lankester describes a new 
genus of Sipunculids from the coasts of Scotland ; one specimen alone 
was found; this was five inches long, and cylindrical in form; at 
either end of the cylinder a hard dark brown spout is found; these 


* Zool. Anzeig., vili. (1885) pp. 638-43, 656-62. 
+ Trans. Linn, Soc. Lond., ii. (1885) pp. 469-74 (2 pls.). 


246 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


may be called the scleropyge and the sclerorhynchus; they are 
modifications of peculiar structures found in Aspidosiphon; the 
scleropyge is probably used in burrowing in sand, and has the body- 
cavity continued into it, but is imperforate ; the stout sclerorhynchus 
is open anteriorly to serve as the orifice of invagination of the pro- 
boscis. After some notes on the internal organs, in which the 
continuous nature of the long muscles of the body, the presence of 
four retractor muscles to the introvert (proboscis), and the absence of 
bush-like organs on the rectum are reported, the author gives a 
definition of the Sipunculoidea, slightly altered from H. Selenka, and 
concludes with a key to the genera of the group. Golfingia is not 
far removed from Aspidosiphon, but differs in the form of its sclerites, 
in the disposition of the retractor muscle, and in the character of the 
oral tentacles. 


Polycheta of Dinard.*—M. de Saint Joseph endeavoured, while 
at Dinard, to fix the local fauna, and to describe new or imperfectly 
known species. He has found 186 species of Polycheta, 44 of which 
are as yet known only from that locality, 87 are found in the 
Mediterranean, and 42 in the northern waters. A number, especially 
of the larger forms, were found to be stationary. Among the new 
species found, but here only very briefly indicated, are Paractius 
mutabilis, which preserves the larval form when adult, and though 
only 3°80 mm. long has about 800 denticles on its jaw; Labro- 
rostratus parasiticus g. et sp. n. is a small Lumbrinereid which lives 
parasitically in the body of several Syllidez; Leptonereis vaillanti ; 
Sclerocheilus cecus. 'The author has been able to prove that Hury- 
syllis reproduces by a single stolon, and that Myrianida maculata may 
have fifteen male stolons; the so-called T-shaped glands of Syllidez 
appear to be not glands, but water reservoirs. Autolytus was found 
to reproduce thus: there is first a single male or female stolon 
formed by fission, which has three regions; there then appears a 
second and perhaps other similar stolons, and then others, which 
are shorter, and divisible into two regions, and finally, a chain of 
several stolons, placed end to end. 


Worms in Ice.t—Prof. J. Leidy describes some worms found in 
ice which was full of bubbles of air and water. He considers that the 
worms remain in a torpid condition in the water-drops. When the 
ice was melted, the worms soon died. He gives the name Lumbricus 
glacialis to the worm (though the description indicates some other 
genus, if not a limicolous form). Length 4 to 6 lines. Genital organs 
between the segments four and seven; sete in four bundles of three 
each, in every segment after the first. 


New Mode of Development in Nematodes.{—Dr. O. v. Linstow 
fully describes a new Nematoid which is found in the intestine of 
Triton alpestris, and more rarely T. cristatus ; its life-history may be 
divided into seven stages—the embryonic form, the water-larva, the 


* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 1509-12. 
+ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1885, p. 408. 
t Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlii. (1885) pp. 708-17 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 247 


young lung larva, the half grown lung larva, the fully grown lung 
larva with boring teeth, the same with three lips, and the sexual form. 

The Nematohelminths exhibit no less than fourteen different 
modifications of developmental history :— 

1. The embryos develope, without any larval stage, in one medium ; 
they may live in fresh, salt, or brackish water, in plants, on the 
earth, or in decaying substances (Dorylamius, Enoplus, Plectus, 
Rhabditis, &e.). 

2. The larva lives in earth, the sexual form in plants (Tylenchus 
tritici, &e.). 

3. The larva lives in animals (worms) after the death and decay 
of which they become free and in earth develope into sexual forms 
(Rhabditis pellio). 

4, The worm lives bisexually in earth, the fertilized female 
passes into animals (bees) and there produces descendants (Spheru- 
laria bombi). 

5. The larve live in earth, the sexual forms are developed in a 
vertebrate (Dochmius, Strongylus). 

6. The worm lives as a hermophrodite in an animal, while the 
progeny are developed by alternation of generation sexually in earth 
(Rhabdonema, Angiostomum). 

7. A sexually differentiated fertilizing form developes by alterna- 
tion of generation another bisexual form which lives parasitically 
in a snail (Leptodera appendiculata). 

8. The egg developes in earth into the embryo, and this passes 
into an animal where it becomes sexually differentiated ( Trichocephalus, 
Oxyuris). 

"9 The larva lives in insects, the adult in earth or water (Mermis). 

10. The larva is encapsuled in an animal and passes passively 
into another species where it becomes matured (Ascaris, Filaria, 
Cucullanus). 

11. One form lives for a short time bisexually in the intestine, 
whence it produces larve which bore through the enteric wall, and 
become encapsuled in the muscles (Trichina spiralis). 

12. The sexually mature form lives in the trachea of birds, the 
females produce eggs, which contain the developed embryo; these are 
ejected by the host in coughing; in the earth the embryo becomes 
mobile, and is now taken up by the bird with food; in the stomach 
and cesophagus the embryo loses its investing membrane, to wander 
into the air-sacs and bronchi, whence the grown larva passes into the 
trachea (Syngamus trachealis). 

13. There are two larval forms, the first of which is found in 
mollusca, the second in aquatic beetles and Orthoptera, while the 
sexual form is found in water (Gordius aquaticus). 

14. There are two larval forms, one of which lives in water, and 
the other in the lung of an Amphibian, whence it wanders into the 
intestine to differentiate and develope its sexual organs (Nematoxys 
longicauda). This last, which is new to science, corresponds to the 
mode of development of Polystomum integerrimum among Trematodes. 
The only rule which we can deduce is that Nematoids found in living 


248 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


animals never go through all the phases of their development in one 
and the same organ. : 


Notes on Nematoids.*—Dr. J. G. De Man divides his paper 
under three heads. First, the Netherlands, whence he describes a 
new species Monohystera dintheriana, which is interesting on account 
of its having quite bilaterally symmetrical female organs, an arrange- 
ment not known in any other terrestrial and in only one marine of 
the many species of this genus; there are notes on other forms. The 
second deals with Mid-Germany (the neighbourhood of Weimar), 
where thirty-eight species were found; of these Dorylaimus etters- 
bergensis and oxycephalus are new. ‘The third heading is Russia, 
whence Moscow sends thirty-three species; of these Dorylaimus 
zografi is new ; it is most like D. bastiani. 


Spherularia Bombi.t—Prof. A. Schneider continues his investiga - 
tion of this singular parasite. Contrary to his former opinion that 
the Sphzrularia embryos were liberated on the death of their humble- 
bee host, he now maintains that they find their way into the intestine 
and are expelled along with the feces. They were observed abun- 
dantly not only within the intestine, but in process of passing through 
the wall. The great mortality among the embryos which he tried to 
rear is therefore probably to a large extent due to the fact that only 
those which spontaneously find their way out are able to develope, or 
to resist the attacks of fungi. 

Prof. A. Schneider has at length been able to bring about arti- 
ficially the immigration of female Spherulariz into the bumble-bees. 
Young sexually mature Spherulariz which had been reared were 
deposited in damp flower-pots, on which under cover ten queen Bombi 
were imprisoned. The young Nematodes continued healthy, keeping 
on the surface of the earth or sand; in a short time most of them 
had cast their skins, after which they exhibited a longer and stronger 
prickle. Most of the queen-bees died from Schizomycetes; in the 
sixth four very young Sphxrulariz were found, all with evaginated 
uterus, which had in one case about the thickness of the ripe 
Nematode just before the evagination, and in another one-fourth of 
the thickness of a Sphzxrularia-sheath in spring. In one of the 
remaining humble-bees two parasites were again discovered. 

The life-history, according to Schneider, may be thus summarized. 
The Spherularia lays eggs in spring, which develope in the body- 
cavity of the humble-bee. The ripe embryos wander into the in- 
testine and thence out. They live for five months a free life in the 
ground, without food and without visible change; in the middle of 
September they cast their skins twice, and become differentiated into 
males and females. They remain a while within the sloughs, but 
finally freeing themselves, find their way in the middle of October 
into the queen humble-bees. Immediately after the immigration the 
uterus is protruded, incorporating the ovary and a coil of the 
alimentary canal. 


* Tijdschr. Nederl. Dierk. Vereen., i. (1885) pp. 1-26 (8 pls.). 
+ Zool. Beitr, (Schneider), i. (1885) pp. 247-51. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 249 


Schneider compares this Spherularia, which he proposes to re- 
name cunctatrix, with the Simondsia paradowa described by Cobbold, 
in which a similar protrusion of the uterus occurs. He corrects a 
former description of the tail of the male form, and adds a note in 
reference to a recent communication by Leuckart.* 


New Nematodes and Trematodes.t—Dr. O. v. Linstow com- 
municates a series of notes, chiefly of systematic importance, on 
various Nematodes and Trematodes. He defines the following new 
species :—(a) Ankylostomum perniciosum from the tiger, Ascaris Thy- 
malli, A. Lote, Filaria conouwra in Anguilla, F. Glomeridis, F. Ves- 
peruginis, Agamonematodum Bombinatoris, Oxyuris Glomeridis, Tricho- 
soma filiforme in Triton, Distomum Anguis, and D. Limnee ovate. 
Most of the specific names indicate, as usual, the habitat. Descrip- 
tions of the specific characteristics of more than a dozen previously 
observed forms are given. The skin-casting of the larval Dorylaimus 
stagnalis is briefly noted, and it is, from analogy, maintained that 
Perroncito’s description of a larval encapsuling, and not skin-casting, 
in Anguillula stercoralis and Ankylostomum duodenale is a misinter- 
pretation. 

Von Linstow outlines the embryology of Holostomum cornucopiz. 
(a) The germinal cell or true ovum is inclosed ina yolk-mass, which 
is either merely granular or composed of small nucleated or non- 
nucleated cellular elements. (b) A morula-mass of a few nucleated 
cells is soon formed, inclosed by the now wholly cellular yolk. 
(c) The next stage is that of the blastula-formation, the cells of 
which exhibit a peculiar very lively molecular movement of the 
granules. (d) An epiblast and hypoblast appear, the latter sur- 
rounded by the yolk-cells. (e) The germinal layers increase at the 
expense of the yolk-cells. Within the granular cells of the yolk- 
mass granular nuclei are formed, which become free, acquire almost 
the dimensions of a cell, form a central nucleus and nucleolus, which 
eventually take up an excentric position, and so result in bodies not 
unlike the sperm-cells of many Nematodes. The boundary between 
the epiblast and the unused yolk remainder becomes indistinct. 
(f) From the epiblast granular ciliated cells are formed; the cells 
of the embryo and the two dark eye-spots can be seen within. 
(g) About a month after the first observation the embryo is seen 
moving, lying somewhat bent within the egg; the crescentic eye- 
spots, the four movable ciliated tufts, and the motion of the cuticular 
cilia are soon recognizable. The yolk remnant is reduced by the 
motion of the embryo to a granular mass, and the Tetracotyle-like 
organism is soon liberated. Its further history was described in a 
previous research. 


Post-embryonal Development of Trematoda.{—Herr W. Schwarze 
first deals with Cercaria armata from Lymnzus stagnalis ; he has been 
able to detect the ending of the finest vessels in ciliated infundibula; 


* See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 810. 
+ Arch. f. Naturgesch., li. (1885) pp. 235-55 (3 pls.). 
} Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xliii. (1885) pp. 41-86 (1 pl.). 


250 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


he carefully describes the very peculiar mode of connection of the 
tail with the body; the tail is inserted into a deep pit which is 
placed at the hinder pole of the trunk, but this tail is not attached by 
the whole of its anterior surface, but only by two lateral thin fibrous 
cords; there is a space between the hinder wall of the pit and the 
anterior part of the tail. The sporocysts have a cuticular dermal 
layer, which is, however, really cellular and not cuticular in structure ; 
the fine diagonal muscular bands, which are very regularly arranged 
in young, are completely obliterated in older sporocysts. In de- 
scribing the histological development of the Cercariz the author 
applies the term of primitive parenchymatous or meristem-cells to 
those which first appear on the cleavage of the germinal cells. The 
origin of the muscles from the dermal layer is spoken to by the fact 
that the early formed rhombic scales have a tendency to form local, 
regular protoplasmic thickenings. After describing in detail the 
development of the various organs of the Cercaria, the author sums 
up the first stages in histological differentiation thus; the germ-cell 
by irregular cleavage gives rise to a number of meristem-cells, whence 
all further differentiations arise; the peripheral cells by gradual 
metamorphosis and fusion become the cuticle-like dermal layer. In 
the centre a solid mass of genital cells is formed, from which the 
ovary, testis, and efferent ducts are later developed. At the anterior 
pole of the body the meristem-cells are regularly grouped to form the 
primitively solid rudiment of the fore-gut, the lumen of which arises 
by the absorption of the axial cells. The enteric limbs arise 
secondarily from the fore-gut. The space between the integument 
and the genital mass is filled by meristem-cells, from which the 
excretory organs, nervous system, &c., arise. A comparison of the 
first phenomena in the development of the Cercaria with those of the 
embryo leaves no doubt of their homology. From this it is clear that 
we must not, with v. Siebold, regard the embryo as an ovarian in- 
vestment capable of becoming an animal, but as a Distomum which 
has remained at an early stage of development; the “ germ-cells” of 
the embryo are the “genital cells” of Cercariz; and the mode of 
development is not strict asexual reproduction, but true partheno- 
genesis. The whole cycle of development in the Trematoda has an 
interesting analogy in Cecidomyia among insects. 

The history of Cercaria ornata, which is found in Planorbis 
corneus, is next considered; it is very near to C. armata, differing 
chiefly in the size of the suckers, which instead of being subequal 
are in the proportion of five (oral) to three (ventral); the cyst- 
glands are more sharply defined, the muscular limbs of the central 
vascular system are nearer in size to the true unpaired vesicle, and 
the parenchymatous elements are more delicate in structure. 

Cercaria echinata is found in Lymneus stagnalis, and differs from 
most in that the young are found in May and June, instead of in the 
winter months ; by a little pressure on the living animal the nervous 
system, testes, and ciliated infundibula can be detected; the dermal 
layer and subjacent muscle are only feebly developed, as is also the 
pharynx; the gut has no lumen; the cell-layer around the nervous 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. O58 


mass has more distinctly the character of a nerve-sheath than in the 
other forms described. The body parenchyma is largely represented 
by a special tissue, which forms a very strong layer extending from 
the pharynx along the whole dorsal surface ; the constituent cells are 
greatly elongated in a vertical direction, and their ground-substance 
contains a number of refractive yellowish granules. 

Cercaria spinifera, from Planorbis corneus, stands very close to 
C. echinata. 


_, Entozoa of Sharks and Rays of the Bay of Naples.* — Dr. L. 
Orley reports that the Selachians are generally poor in entozoa, that 
they are ordinarily found only in the intestine, that Cestodes are more 
common than Nematodes, and these than Trematodes. Seven round- 
worms are mentioned, of which Ascaris affinis (from Mustelus levis) 
and Spiropterina elegans (from the rare Hexanchus griseus) are new. 
Distomum megastomum is the only Trematode mentioned. The 
Cestodes are remarkable for their small size, never being more than 
10 cm. in the largest shark. Orygmabothrium dohrni (from Heptanchus 
cinereus) is new; the commonest species is Acanthobothrium coronatum. 


Pelagic Animals from Fresh-water Pools in Alsace and 
Lorraine.}—Dr. O. E. Imhof gives a list of the pelagic animals which 
he has found in various fresh-water pools in Alsace and Lorraine. In 
addition to seven species of rotifers which are already known he has 
found two which appear to be new; these are a species of Brachionus 
which is intermediate between B. bakeri and B. polyacanthus; he 
proposes to call it B. lotharingius ; the generic position of the other 
remains at present undecided, but it approaches Triarthra and 
Polyarthra. 


Tube of Melicerta.{—Mr. T. 8. Smithson describes an unusual 
form of tube made, in two cases which he observed, by Melicerta ringens. 

The young Melicerta began by building half a course in the usual 
way with apparently solid pellets, but instead of continuing to do so, 
it suddenly commenced to heap up, in a most erratic manner, pellets 
of the ordinary shape, but composed of transparent gelatinous matter 
with a few particles of carmine imbedded in it, giving the tube a 
somewhat mottled appearance. The walls of the tube, owing to the 
loose way in which they were made, were about double the thickness 
of those constructed in the usual manner. 

The author suggested that want of material is the primary cause 
of this mode of building, while Mr. A. D. Michael thought there was 
some uncertainty as to whether the variation resulted from the fact 
that the trough did not contain suitable matter for building, but only 
some kind of flocculent matter likely to swell, or whether it was a 
variety as to the building of the tube. It is a matter of frequent 
observation that, in spite of the extreme regularity of the tube under 


a ages Fiizetek, ix. (1885) pp. 97-126 (Hungarian), 216-220 (German) 
pl.). 

+ Zool. Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 720-3. 

¢ Journ. Quekett Micr, Club, ii. (1886) pp. 221 and 244-5. 


252 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ordinary circumstances, it does vary considerably in confinement, 
because the creature is then obliged to use such material as it can get. 


Balanoglossus.*—M. A. F. Marion has a preliminary notice of 
two new species of Balanoglossus, one from Yokohama, which he calls 
B. hachsi, and the other from near Marseilles—B. ialaboti. The 
former has its trunk remarkably flattened, the cartilaginous skeleton 
of the branchial apparatus is simple, and the intestinal portion of the 
digestive tube has no hepatic projection. Horizontal sections of the 
dorsal groove show the presence of a trunk which corresponds to the 
dorsal nervous axis seen in the Balanoglossi of Naples. JB. talaboti 
has the body almost regularly cylindrical, the proboscis is conical 
and short, the branchial skeleton simple, and there are hepatic dorsal 
prolongations; as in some other species, the mucus given off by the 
hypodermis has a penetrating odour. The cartilage of the axis of 
the proboscis is not homogeneous, but contains in its midst cellular 
fusiform bodies, which call to mind the true cartilages of the 
’ Chordata. 


Balanoglossus sarniensis—M. R. Kehler discovered j this new 
species of Balanoglossus on the shore of Herm. Its length is about 
35 em.; it is yellow and orange anteriorly, green in the hepatic 
region, and colourless posteriorly. There is a deep median, dorsal 
groove behind the collar, which extends up to the hepatic region. 
This species secretes a quantity of mucus which has a strong odour 
of iodoform. His study of the proboscis confirms Bateson’s descrip- 
tions. The proboscis-gland is described, and the author concludes 
that it has a very intimate relation to the circulatory system, analogous 
to that of the madreporic gland of Echinids. He was unable to 
find the central canal in the anterior part of the nervous system, such 
as Bateson has described; the nerve-cord, posteriorly, gradually 
approaches the epithelium of the dorsal surface of the body, and the 
canal, which is here present, opens to the surface. The nerve-fibres 
in the ventral part of the cord extend to the anus. He regards the 
pore as the remnant of the invagination by which the nerve-cord is 
formed. Anteriorly, at the junction of the collar with the proboscis, 
the nerve-cells gradually pass into the epidermis, and the fibres form 
a sub-epidermal layer upon the proboscis. The branchial apertures 
are the same as in B. clavigera. 

This is no doubt the same species as that exhibited to the 
Zoological Society of London, on November 17th, by Prof. F. J. Bell. 

M. G. Pouchet considerst that the species of Balanoglossus, 
described by Keebler as new, is probably the same as that studied by 
yarious previous observers. Amongst others, Quatrefages, Lacaze- 
Duthiers, and Bateson. He draws attention to the green phosphor- 
escence of this species, which is caused by the slightest excitement. 


* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 1289-91. 
{ Ibid., cii. (1886) pp. 224-7. t Ibid., p. 272. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 253 


Echinodermata. 


Echinoid covered with Compound Eyes.*—Drs. C. F. and P. B. 
Sarasin have found at Trincomalee an echinoid (probably Diadema 
setosum) covered with rows of blue spots; one of these when examined 
by the Microscope shows on the surface a mosaic of irregular hexa- 
hedra or (more rarely) pentahedra, which are so disposed as to call 
to mind the eye of an arthropod; each polyhedron corresponds to a 
pyramid of very highly refractive substance, the blunt end of which 
is invested in pigment; the pyramid is about 1/8 mm. long, and at 
its base is 1/20 mm. broad; there may be one hundred or as many as 
one or two thousand pyramids in one spot. Over all of them the 
body-epithelium forms a thin ciliated layer, which may be regarded 
as the cornea; each pyramid consists of a number of vesicular cells 
with quite hyaline contents, and in many of them there is a distinct 
nucleus; this region may be regarded as that of the lens and crys- 
talline body. The distal surface and the distal parts of the lateral 
surfaces of the pyramids are invested by a low epithelium, which 
may be regarded as the matrix of the vesicular cells; similar epi- 
thelial cells are to be found at the proximal end, but the latter are 
only found in the best developed eyes or those which lie nearest the 
apical pole. All the pyramids have their lower half covered by a 
layer of pigment, which is composed of pigmented connective-tissue- 
cells; the youngest eyes have, however, no pigment; they are all set 
on the nervous plexus of the skin, where there is a uni- or multi- 
laminate ganglionic investment; the nervous band is broken through 
at various points. 

It is clear that the authors have discovered an optic organ com- 
posed of a number of separate eyes, without indeed an optic nerve, 
but directly placed on a ganglionic plexus; many hundreds of these 
eyes are present. If a hand is directed towards a point where 
these eyes are developed the surrounding spines are seen to turn 
towards the spot ; even if the creature is only able to perceive light 
and shade, it does it so well as to have a very considerable organ of 
defence in these eyes. 

The authors have been able to detect flask-shaped gland-cells in 
the integument, and give a short account also of a system of vessels 
which they have been able to make out. 


Wandering-cells of Echinoderms.t—Herr E. Metschnikoff, in 
the fifth of his studies on comparative embryology, deals with the 
wandering-cells of Echinids and Asterids; they appear to be cells 
which break off from the endoderm or the portion of the blastoderm 
which forms that layer, and to pass into the cleavage-cavity, where 
they fulfil various functions. This mode of development agrees with 
what is seen in adult sponges, and also with the mode of mesoderm- 
formation seen in Acalephz and in Rhopalonema ; it isa comparatively 
low process, which attains a higher grade in Ctenophora (see p. 256). 


* Zool, Anzeig., viii. (1885) pp. 715-20. 
t Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlii. (1885) pp. 656-71 (13 pl.). 


254 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


If we review the facts known about the formation of the meso- 
derm in the lower Metazoa we see that the two-cell theory does not 
apply ; for the higher Metazoa, where it does apply, we must suppose 
that the double-cell-rudiment is the expression of an early differentia- 
tion, but the mode of formation by the wandering of amceboid cells is 
rather a primitive character. This theory agrees with the part 
taken by these cells, which most constantly appear as phagocytes, 
or, in other words, retain the function which they have so prominently 
in the lowest Metazoa—the sponges. 


Influence of Gravity on the Division of Cells.*—Prof. Hertwig 
has selected the ova of Hchinoids for study, as they exhibit equal 
cleavage and consist almost exclusively of protoplasm ; his experi- 
ments led him to conclude that gravity exerts no direct influence on 
the position of the plane of cleavage of animal ova, for in some that 
were in no way affected the first plane was vertical, in others hori- 
zontal, and in others again oblique. He objects to Pfliiger’s conclu- 
sions, inasmuch as in them and the reasoning therefrom the position 
of the fertilized nucleus was not taken into consideration. This 
depends on the external form of the egg-material, and on the way in 
which the formative and nutrient yolks are distributed in the cell: 
When the cell-substance is homogeneous the nucleus oceupies a central 
position in the egg, but when one is richer in protoplasm and another 
in yolk the nucleus tends to pass into the former. The relation of the 
nucleus to the protoplasm is such that the former always tends to 
occupy the centre of the active sphere. This leads us to the law 
which governs the course of the first plane of cleavage; the direction 
of the plane is dependent on the position of the axis of the nucleus 
which sets up division. The position of this nuclear axis is, again, 
dependent on the form and differentiation of the protoplasm which 
surrounds the nucleus; in a sphere the axis tends to lie in the direc- 
tion of any radius, but in an elliptical body in its longest diameter. 
When the protoplasmic disc is circular the axis of the nucleus lies 
parallel to the surface along any diameter. 

Where the constituents of an ovum are of different specific 
gravities gravity will, of course, have an influence; but that which it 
has on the planes of cleavage is an indirect one. 


Perignathic Girdle of Echinoidea.|—Prof. P. M. Duncan describes 
minutely the anatomical structures in the families Cidaridz, Temno- 
pleuride, Echinide, Echinometride, and Diadematide, and the sub- 
order Clypeastridx, to which the muscles, acting on the “ jaws,” are 
attached ; these structures are termed by him “ perignathic girdles.” 
In two plates he gives numerous figures of the arrangements in 
various genera belonging to the above families. 


Apical Area of some Cretaceous and Tertiary Echinids.t— 
M. Munier-Chalmas has studied the arrangement of the aquiferous 


* Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xix., Suppl. (1885) pp. 70-2. 
t Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xix. (1885) pp. 179-209 (2 pls.). 
t Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 1074-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 255 


pores on the surface of the genital and pseudocular plates. The 
rule that in secondary and living Echinids the water-pores are limited 
to a single plate (madreporite) has some remarkable exceptions ; 
Cotteau has already described in Micropedina cotteaui the presence 
of three perforated genital plates; and, likewise, Discoidea infera has 
pores on all the five genitals. There is an analogous arrangement in 
Echinococcus, one, two, three, or four genital plates being perforated ; 
in Hemipneustes the pores are small, and are found not only on two 
or four genital, but also on the three anterior ocular plates. The 
author concludes that when the pores are found on one plate only 
this is not because they are there concentrated, but because they have 
disappeared from the other plates. 

The afrangement of the genital apertures is next discussed, and 
genera witb only three (Isaster, Pericosmus, &c.) or two (Ditremaster) 
are cited; when one genital pore disappears it is the madreporite 
that is affected, and next that which is found opposite to it, or on the 
left side. 


Deformities of Fossil Crinoids.*—Prof. L. von Graff gives an 
account of the various deformities produced in recent Crinoids by 
the presence of parasitic Myzostomida, and enumerates the instances 
of deformities in fossil forms which seem to indicate that they also 
suffered from these parasites. He concludes that the Myzostomida 
existed in the carboniferous period, and are, like their hosts, among 
the oldest of known animal organisms. 


Revision of the Palezocrinoidea.t—In the third part of their 
revision Messrs. C. Wachsmuth and F. Springer discuss the classi- 
fication and relations of the brachiate Crinoids, and conclude the 
generic distinctions. The authors find that the interradials are repre- 
sented in all groups of the Palzocrinoids, were early developed in 
the larva, attained at once large proportions, and were later on either 
persistent or absorbed ; they extend as far as, or even cover over the 
proximals, and they are more extravagantly (not in number but in 
size) developed in the earlier groups. The orals appear to be repre- 
sented only by the central plate. 

The authors discuss the differences between the Paleocrinoids 
and Neocrinoids, and while agreeing generally with Dr. P. H. 
Carpenter (whom they seem to have somewhat misunderstood), they 
think that too much stress has been laid upon the asymmetry of the 
calyx, and that not sufficient value has been attached to the presence 
of interradials in the former. They propose their own diagnoses of 
the two groups. They regard the Pelmatozoa as a class of the 
Echinodermata, of which the Anthodiata and the Crinoidea are the 
two subclasses, and these they, likewise, diagnose. The Paleo- 
crinoidea are divided into the suborders Camerata, Articulata, and 
Inadunata. 


* ¢Paleontographica,’ xxxi. pp. 185-91 (1 pl.). 
+ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1885, pp. 225-364 (6 pls.). See also Dr. P. 
H. Carpenter in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1886) pp. 277-89. 


256 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Coelenterata. 


Sexual Organs of Hydra.*—According to Prof. Milnes Marshall 
Hydra is an extremely modified, and not a primitive form, of Hydrozoa. 
Referring to the various conditions under which the gonads occur in 
Podocoryne, Eudendrium, Cordylophora, &c., he gives his reasons for con- 
sidering the “ sporosac,” “ disguised medusa,” and “attached medusa ” 
as due to arrested developments, rather than as stages in the pro- 
gressive developments of the free-swimming medusa. His reasons 
for considering Hydra a derived form are summarized by the author 
as follows:—1. Hydra is hermaphrodite, which is probably a secondary 
condition in all animals in which it occurs. 2. Hydra is a fresh- 
water form; these are usually derived from marine forms. 3. The 
ovary is exceptional in that only one ovum ripens, out of many 
primitive ova. 4. Cordylophora, the other fresh-water genus, is one 
in which a great deal of shifting of the ova from their original point 
of formation takes place. 5. The ovary in Hydra differs from that of 
ordinary Hydrozoa, in consisting only of ectoderm-cells. 


Gastrula and Mesoderm of Ctenophores.{—The fourth portion of 
Herr E. Metschnikoff’s essay on comparative embryology treats of some 
points in the development of the Ctenophora; he finds that the 
gastrula is the result of invagination which appears to be simul- 
taneously embolic and epibolic. The blastopore in the latter is oral 
but here the growth of the ectoderm does not proceed from the 
animal pole, but from a circular rudiment, and we have in consequence 
in addition to the true blastopore, an upper pseudoblastopore ; this 
sooner or later closes, and forms the base of the sensory organs. 

The Ctenophora appear to be the only Ceelenterates that have a 
mesoderm which arises as a special germinal-layer-like rudiment in 
the course of embryonic development. In Acalephs and Polyps the 
formation of the mesoderm is postembryonic, and the layer does not 
arise as a whole. The author discusses these facts in comparison 
with the ccelom theory of the brothers Hertwig, and points out that, 
on their view, the mesoderm of the Ctenophora is not a mesenchym ; 
taken in conjunction with what he has observed in Nais, and Ranvier’s 
observation that, in mammals, during an inflammation of the dia- 
phragm some of the peritoneal cells are capable of taking up foreign 
bodies, he doubts whether we can speak of “a complete difference 
between mesenchym and mesoderm.” 


Anatomy of the Madreporaria.t—In his first contribution to this 
subject Mr. G. H. Fowler gives an account of Flabellum patagonichum 
and Rhodopsammia parallela ; a pair of mesenteries being defined as 
two mesenteries whose longitudinal muscle-fibres are ranged on their 
adjacent faces, the new term of entocele is applied to such part of 
the coelenteron as lies between a pair of mesenteries, and the likewise 
new term of exocele to those chambers of which one lies between 


* Proc. Manchester Lit, and Phil. Soc., xxiv. (1885) pp. 32-6. 
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlii. (1885) pp. 648-56 (13 pl.). 
t Quart. Journ, Micr, Sci., xxv. (1885) pp. 557-97 (8 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 257 


every two pairs of mesenteries; the septa lying in these two classes 
of chambers are similarly called exosepta and entosepta. 

Previous observers, the chief of whom are Lacaze-Duthiers, 
v. Koch, and Moseley, seem to have settled that: (i.) the adult madre- 
porarian polyp is built distinctly on the Actinian type, save when as 
in Caryophyllia the external body-wall is absent and replaced physio- 
logically by the imperforate theca ; (ii.) the corallum is a product of 
the ectoderm and is deposited outside the embryo ; (iii.) this ectoderm 
persists in the adult as the layer of calycoblasts to which the con- 
tinual growth of the corallum is attributable; the skeleton is thus 
morphologically external to the polyp throughout life ; (iv.) between 
this layer and the cavity of the ceelenteron, and clothing every part of 
the skeleton, is a layer of mesoderm and endoderm, forming the 
internal body-wall; (v.) septa, when present, always lie between a 
pair of mesenteries, and sometimes also in the spaces intermediate 
between pairs of mesenteries; (vi.) tentacles may be exoccelic as well 
as entoccelic, but exosepta may be present without corresponding 
tentacles. 

Flabellum patagonichum has a solitary conical corallum; the 
anatomy is essentially that of the Actinian, except in the absence of 
an external body-wall; the tentacles are simple hollow evaginations 
of the entocceles, and are covered by small prominences, each of 
which is a battery of nematocysts. The acontia are ejected through 
definite openings, and these are therefore directly comparable to the 
cinclides of Actinia. The ova are developed on all three orders of 
mesenteries and appear to resemble those of Actinia; as testes were 
not seen, Flabellum may be supposed to be dicecious. The ectoderm 
of the mouth-disc has distinctly the appearance of a secreting layer ; 
in the stomodeum the ectodermal cells are not modified as in the 
siphonoglyphs of Alcyonarians. The ccelenteron is lined by endoderm 
of cubical or columnar cells; at the point where it passes into the 
mesenterial filament its characters change, and the histological 
appearance bears out the physiological doctrine that the filament 
secretes a proteolytic fluid. 

Rhodopsammia parallela is next described ; it presents very simple 
histological characters. 


Porifera. 


Observations on Fresh-water Sponges.* — Prof. F. Vejdovsky 
finds that Spongilla sibirica, lately described by Dr. Dybowski, is 
identical with S. fragilis of Leidy; the following differences are, 
however, to be noticed; the groups of gemmules are generally but 
not always arranged in fours; isolated gemmules, or groups of 2, 3, 
or 6 are found; the last large number seems to be very rare; the 
horny membrane is always visible, and not obscured as in S. fragilis. 
The author observes that the polar air-tube in S. fragilis plays an 
important part in the life of the gemmules, for it is in direct con- 
nection with the upper process of the gemmule, which is generally 


* SB. K. Bohm. Gesell, Wiss. Prag, 1884 (1885) pp. 167-72 (1 pL). 
Ser. 2.—Vot, VI. s 


258 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


regarded as an orifice by means of which the young escape; Prof. 
Vejdovsky offers no opinion on this view, but he says that he thinks 
it more probable that the polar process is completely closed by the 
horny membrane; the air-tubes of dried gemmules of S. fragilis are 
filled with large air-vesicles, just as in S. carteri. The North 
American genus Carterius is very interesting in having a high hollow 
tube which is always directed upwards when the gemmule is thrown 
into water. In S. fragilis the air-tubes are proportionately larger than 
in any species known to the author and must contain a large quantity 
of air. 


Sponges from South Australia.* — Mr. H. J. Carter continues 
his account of sponges from Port Phillip Heads, South Australia. 
An extended diagnosis is given of the Axinellida, and a new family 
Pseudoechinonemida is instituted. Among the Renieride we have 
the new group Phleodictyonina; the excavating sponges form a new 
family Eccelonida, and a rearrangement of the Holorhaphidota is 
tabulated. 

A new group, Suberitina, is formed to contain the former groups 
Cavernosa, Compacta, Laxa, and Subcompacta. Other new groups 
are Polymastina, Trachyina, Chondropsina (provisionally), and 
Stellettinopsina. 


Siliceous Sponge-spicules from the Chalk.t—Herr P. Poéta has 
a second paper on isolated siliceous sponge-spicules from the chalk- 
formations of Bohemia. He discusses the modifications of four-rayed 
forms caused by the shortening of one or more of the rays; where 
one is shortened we have, of course, three-rayed forms; if one ray is 
at the same time lengthened we get anchors with a dichotomous head ; 
sometimes the persistent rays bifurcate. There are notes on quinque- 
radiate and sexradiate spicules, the former of which are wanting from 
his collections, while the latter are rather rare. The multiradiate or 
stellate spicules have not been observed by him, but nearly all the 
spicular spherules described by Zittel have been found in the 
Bohemian formations. The paper concludes with a list of species, 
four of which are new. 


Sponge-Spicules from the Horn-stone of Briisan.{—The same 
author gives an account of ten species from the horn-stone of Briisan, 
of which, in one case only (Ligidiwm cartert Hinde) was he able to 
distinguish the species. 


Protozoa. 


Nuclear Division in Protozoa.s—Dr. W. Pfitzner, after many 
unsuccessful attempts to perfectly colour the chromatic constituents 
of the nucleus, and at the same time to clear up all the other parts of 
Opalina ranarum, made use of the following method. He cut short 


a * Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1885) pp. 347-68, and xvii. (1886) pp. 40-53, 
2-27. 

+ SB. K. Bohm. Gesell. Wiss. Prag, 1884 (1885) pp. 3-14 (1 pl.). 

t Tom. cit., pp. 243-54 (2 pls.). : ) PP ae 

§ Morphol. Jahrb., xi. (1885) pp. 454-67 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 259 


the lower end of the small intestine of a frog, and drawing outa little 
of the contents of the large intestine, placed them carefully in water 
on a slide; with a pair of fine forceps all visible particles were 
removed, and then a quite thin but not too small cover-glass was laid 
on. If the drop as spread out be thin enough, the large Opaline 
contained in the gut will be flattened out. As soon as satisfactory 
examples have been detected a margin of concentrated picric acid 
solution must be run round with a brush; when (after some days) 
this has passed beneath the cover-glass, the preparation is carefully 
washed until the Opalinz, which will now be visible to the naked 
eye, are quite colourless. After a repetition of the washing, a 
very strong solution of alum-carmine must be used like the picric 
acid, and the slide again placed in the moist chamber; after some 
days (or if fresh hematoxylin be used instead, after some hours), the 
superfluous colouring matter is to be washed away. Pure absolute 
alcohol is then sucked through the preparation, and then a ring is 
made of oil of cloves. After a short time the alcohol evaporates, and 
the oil of cloves takes its place. If it be desired to preserve the 
preparation, which is otherwise now ready, xylol is used after the oil 
of cloves, and then a very thin solution of Canada balsam in xylol is 
allowed to enter. 

In such a preparation the chromatin and the nucleoli will be found 
to be coloured, and all the rest colourless; the cilia are extended and 
well preserved, and there are no indications of any solution of con- 
tinuity or shrinking of the cell-body. A series of forms must be 
studied and compared. 

The resting nucleus exhibits the three constituents—chromatin, 
prochromatin, and achromatin, the parachromatin being obscured ; 
the chromatin is in the form of a fine irregular plexus of fibres of 
varying thickness; the marginal layer is the most prominent, but 
there is a membrane composed of thicker portions of filaments; the 
greater part of the nucleus is very poor in chromatin; there are 
generally a number of relatively large nucleoli, which are sometimes 
arranged in a manner strikingly lke those of the mature frog’s 
ovum. 

The commencement of kinesis is indicated by the formation of a 
coil of filaments of equal thickness; at first very finely filamentar 
and closely meshed, the filaments become thicker later on, the coils 
looser, and the whole extends beyond the limits of the nucleus. 
Segmentation then commences; the filaments shorten and thicken, 
and a central plate is formed. About this time the filaments are cleft 
longitudinally. 

Metakinesis now ensues; the segments undergo such a rearrange- 
ment that the free ends lie towards the equator, and the convex sides 
towards the poles; it is not certain whether this change is directly 
connected with the longitudinal cleavage. The two segment-com- 
plexes, which result from the metakinesis, separate from one another, 
and gradually consolidate. The ground-substance of the nucleus 
exhibits a very interesting character, the chief point in which is that 
it becomes sharply separated from the cell-body. The resting nucleus 


s 2 


260 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


is always circular apparently, but probably it is much flattened ; 
during the first half of karyokinesis it remains round, or becomes 
oval; its long axis, however, is not congruent with the axis of division, 
and is often, indeed, quite at right angles to it. Later on, a con- 
striction appears in the nucleus, which deepens till at last the two 
daughter-nuclei are only connected by a thin filament, which breaks 
later. The nucleoli disappear gradually, and do not pass directly 
into the chromatic figure. It is important to note that in the 
daughter-nuclei they are separate from the chromatic figures. 

It is clear, then, that in all essential points the process of nuclear 
division in Opalina is the same as in Amphibia and Mammalia, and 
such differences as there are are merely quantitative. 

The question arises whether this may be made a generalization 
for all Protozoa; but it is one that cannot yet be certainly answered ; 
it is very probable that it is so, and that is all that can be said at 
present. 


Glycogen in Ciliated Infusoria.*—M. E. Maupas, referring to 
the doubt expressed by Prof. Biitschli as to the presence of glycogen 
in ciliated Infusoria, gives an account of some experiments by which 
he hopes he has demonstrated the presence in these Infusoria of a. 
substance exactly comparable to the glycogen of higher animals. 


Dialytic Properties of the Membrane of the Cyst of Infusoria.{ 
—M. Fabre discusses the question of the function of the membrane 
of the cyst which forms around some Infusoria, such as Colpoda or 
Vorticella nebulifera, and comes to the conclusion that the membrane 
is really chitinous, is perfectly porous, and at the same time exhibits 
special elective properties for the passage of certain bodies; neutral 
salts pass through it less easily than acid solutions, and it thus delays 
or prevents the death of the individual from the possible concentration 
of the water in which it lives. 


Temporary Encystment among Infusoria.{—Mr. J. G. Grenfell 
records some observations on some hypotrichous infusoria, amongst 
which were a number of Sphzrophrya. He found that when an in- 
fusorian was attacked by a Spherophrya, it drew in its cilia, and 
commenced to form a cyst, at the same time allowing a small part of 
its protoplasm to burst. The infusorian would endeavour to leave 
the cyst, but withdrew back into it, if Sphzerophrya was still present. 
Sometimes the animal leaves the cyst, on the side opposite to the 
Sphzrophrya, as a motionless oval body instead of having the shape 
it usually has on leaving an ordinary spiked cyst, which is formed 
when the pond, &c., is drying up. 

Ectoparasitic Peritrichous Infusorian.s—Dr. R. Blanchard de- 
scribes Apiosoma piscicola, a new genus and species of ectoparasitic 
peritrichous infusorians which he found, especially on carp, in the 
fresh-water aquaria at Havre. The body is pyriform, and is attached 
to the surface of the epidermis of the fish by a kind of non-contractile 


* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 1504-6. + Ibid., pp. 1507-9. 
+ Science-Gossip, 1886, pp. 31-3. 
§ Bull. Soc. Zool. France, x. (1885) pp. 277-80 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 261 


peduncle, which is slightly broadened out at its base. The whole 
surface is very distinctly marked out by transverse strie; there is a 
delicate crown of cilia at the point where the anterior passes into the 
posterior two-thirds of the body ; these do not move regularly but 
intermittently. The nucleus is large and triangular, occupies the 
middle of the body, and contains one or more nucleoli; when there 
is one it is triangular, when there are more they are rounded. The 
author observed a stage of encystation, but was, unfortunately, unable 
to follow out the developmental history; in some young forms the 
crown of small cilia was completely wanting. 


Peridinex.*—M. G. Pouchet publishes a third contribution to the 
history of the Peridinez, describing a number of forms which he has 
recently observed, viz. Protoperidinium viride, Peridinium tabulatum, 
Gymnodinium crassum, Gymnodinium polyphemus, and Prorocentrum 
micans. 

In regard to P. tabulatum, he reports the occurrence of a 
quiescent phase of cell-life, observed in September, and lasting for 
several months, during which the organism exhibited an almost 
spherical form, a thick inner, and a delicate outer cuticle, granular 
protoplasm apparently collected in small spheres, a constant mass of 
red pigment, and only an indistinct trace of the nucleus and of the 
grooves. He comes, however, to no conclusion as to the physiological 
import of this resting stage. 

He corroborates his former descriptions of G. crassum, and 
figures a beautiful preparation of the nucleus (due to M. Fabre- 
Domergue, and fixed by a mixture of osmic acid and methyl-green) 
in which the coiled nuclear filaments are seen somewhat contracted, 
leaving a clear space between them and the thick double-contoured 
nuclear membrane. 

He compares the G. polyphemus observed with that described in 
a former report, and notes several peculiarities—the twisting of 
the axis, the all but invisible nucleus, the very marked, terminal, 
cap-like plate, &c. He emphasizes the differences in size, and in 
the presence or absence of the cyst, which obtain among these 
Polyphemi or Peridinee with eye-spots. He figures two individuals 
within a cyst, apparently resulting from a fissiparous division. The 
eye was observed as a hyaline rod, having the anterior or oral end 
plunged in a cylindrical mass of granular, black pigment. 

Great numbers of Prorocentrum micans were found, uninjured, 
among the excrement matter of a Comatula, and in these M. Pouchet 
was able to corroborate his previous observations of this species, in 
its encysted and cyst-changing stages. He contrasts the pear- 
shaped, escaped form, with that observed within the test. The 
formation of the new test, and the resumption of the characteristic 
features are described. 


Peridinium and other Infusoria.j—Dr. A. C. Stokes confirms 
Klebs’ statement that the equatorial groove of Peridinium contains a 


* Journ, Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), xxi. (1885) pp. 525-33 (1 pl.).. 
+ Journ. Trenton Nat. Hist. Soc., i. (1886) pp. 18-22. 


262 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


single, long, coiled flagellum, and not a row of numerous cilia as pre- 
viously supposed. The author considers the same arrangement 
probably obtains in Ceratiwm, though he has not observed the 
flagellum. 

A few notes are added concerning various Infusoria. In Spiro- 
stomum teres (C. and L.) the author has observed conjugation to be 
followed by transverse fission. In Stichotricha secunda Perty, the 
anus was discovered to be near the posterior extremity, and the 
granular condition of the mucilaginous sheath is said to be caused by 
the animal’s excrement. Chilodon caudatus divides transversely ; 
the lip is developed afterwards on the posterior half. 

He considers the form Laguncula piscatoris of Fisher to be a 
species of Trachelomonas—T. piscatoris—the characters of which are, 
Lorica cylindrical, covered with short spines; anterior aperture 
situate at the end of a long neck; frontal border denticulate, 
bearing a row of small spines; flagellum about twice as long as the 
lorica. The author is unable to confirm Fisher’s results as to the 
separation of the spines from the lorica by the aid of potash, nor 
as to the calcareous nature of the lorica by testing with hydrochloric 
acid. 


New Infusoria.*—Dr. A. C. Stokes describes some new forms of 
American fresh-water Infusoria, forming five new genera :— 

Clostonema, belonging to the family Spheno-monadide of Saville 
Kent: the bodies are fusiform, naked ; persistent in shape, with two 
unequal flagella; pharyngeal passage, apparently communicating with 
a contractile vesicle. Cyclanura is somewhat like Phacus, but without 
the caudal prolongation. Diplomastax is holotrichous ; elongate ovate, 
with tail-like prolongation; oral aperture on ventral surface, 
enclosing two vibratile membranes; it belongs to Kent’s family 
Ophryoglenide. Histiobalantidium: heterotrichous; setose hairs 
abundant on the ovate body; mouth ventral and central, with a 
vibratile membrane on its right border; it leads into a tubular 
passage. ‘The author places it between Saville Kent’s Spirostomide 
and Stein’s Bursaride. Balanitozoon: free-swimming form; sub- 
pyriform body ; long cilia anteriorly, none posteriorly ; oral aperture 
apical; pharynx present; single long seta posteriorly. It connects 
the Holotricha with the Peritricha. 

The following are new species :—Heteromita variabilis, Paramonas 
alata, Chrysopyxis urceolata, C. dispar, Urotricha platysoma, Tillina 
campyla, Amphileptus monilatus, Luxophyllum voraz, Colpidium putri- 
num, C. striatum, Rhabdostyla pusilla, Vorticella lemne, Vaginicola 
ampulla, Uroleptus sphagni. 


New Ciliated Infusorians.,—M. P. Fabre-Domergue gives a list 
of Ciliated Infusorians found by him in the Bay of Concarneau. The 
list includes two new genera and three new species. 

(a) On the outside of Asterias glacialis, especially on sickly speci- 
mens with tegumentary excoriations, a parasitic infusor was found in 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1886) pp. 98-111 (1 pl.). 
+ Journ. Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), xxi. (1885) pp. 554-68 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 263 


great abundance. For this the new genus Philaster is founded, and 
the species is named P. digitiformis. It is allied to Paramecium, 
from which it differs, however, in general form and in the possession 
of a long, rigid anal cilium. (b) A magnificent species of Nassula 
(brunnea nov. sp.) was found, characterized by its large size and its 
diatomine-like brown colour, and distinguished from other species by 
the absence of a pre-buccal furrow, by its long, cylindrical, terminally 
rounded, somewhat S-shaped nucleus, by its simple contractile vesicle, 
&e. (c) Plewronema marina Duj. is described; the pharynx is not 
turned upwards, as has been hitherto figured ; in the peripheral layer, 
below the outer membrane, trichocyst-like rods were seen; the con- 
tractile membrane is, when fully extended, almost as large as the body - 
proper. (d) A new species of Lembus (striatus) was especially 
characterized by the very fine, diatom-like, transverse as well as 
longitudinal, striation of its vibratile membrane. (e¢) A new genus 
Certesia is established for a form distinguished by its twelve lateral, 
and its enormous transverse sete, as also by the restriction of the 
marginal setz to one side of the body. In the development of 
marginal sete it approaches the Oxytrichide, while it resembles the 
Euplotide in its consistence and in the horseshoe-shaped arrangement 
of its nuclei. In front, just below the anterior end, there is a 
peculiar, small, membranous plate, rounded, transparent, and capable 
of slight movements. In this form (C. quadrinucleata) the contractile 
vesicle seems to be absent. (f) A new species of Aspidisca is named 
crenata, on account of the bluntly toothed contour of the posterior 
margin of a clear tegumentary fringe which surrounds the body. 
(g) A very full description of Styloplotes appendiculatus Ehr. is given, 
and, in correction of Maupas, the presence of a contractile vesicle and 
of prebuccal cilia is maintained. 


Microthorax auricula.*—M. P. Fabre-Domergue describes this 
new species of the hypotrichous infusorian Microthorax, which has 
been found in a cultivation of alge from the Seine; the specific 
name is due to its remarkable ear-like form. It is € 03-0°04 mm. long, 
has a depressed, reniform, non-contractile body about twice as long as 
wide ; the cilia, which are confined to the ventral surface, are delicate 
and rigid, separated by a somewhat considerable space about 10 » long 
at either end and 8 » long on the rest of the body. WM. auricula runs 
about on its ventral surface among the algz on the decomposition of 
which it lives. It differs from the two species described by Engel- 
mann—WM. sulcatus and M. pusillus by wanting the dorsal groove, and 
by possessing a semicircular and three posterior bourrelets. 


New Rhizopod.;—M. P. Hallez describes a new Rhizopod— 
Arcyothrix Balbianii—found in cultures of the eggs of Ascaris mega- 
locephala. Its irregular globular body has a flattened “ pedal-disc” ; 
from the body two ‘varieties of pseudopodia are given off: a single 
blunt process, which serves to seize prey, and two long, delicate 
filaments, which hold the prey. The locomotion is not assisted 


* Ann. Sci. Nat.—Zool., xix. (1885), No. 6., 1 p 
+ Mem. Soe. Sci. Lille, xiv. (1885) pp. 323- 5. Cr, Bull. Sci. Dep. Nord, 1885. 


264 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


by these processes. There is a mere flowing of the protoplasm, as In 
Ameba. No nucleus was to be seen, and only one specimen has been 
observed. 


Spontaneous and Artificial Division.* — Prof. M. Nussbaum 
describes the structure and history of Opalina ranarum and Gastro- 
styla vorax, with special reference to spontaneous and artificial 
division. On his results he bases a number of generalizations, and 
adds a critical review of several recent researches on the cell. 

I. Opalina ranarum. (a) The division of Opalina, which seems 
to cease during the hibernation of the frog, but which rapidly re- 
commences if the host be warmed or fed, is effected by a cleft, which, 
as it deepens, divides the body into two frequently unequal parts. 
These remain slightly united by a delicate connective filament till 
separated by a voluntary twist of the infusorian. The numerous 
nuclei exhibit no special phenomena and no division during this 
process, but mitosis was during other periods abundantly observed in 
the nuclei of Opaline of the most varied size. The structure of the 
ciliated and encysted phases is described. (6) Nussbaum’s attempts 
to effect artificial division were unsuccessful, which was doubtless in 
great part due to the difficulty of keeping the Opalinz alive outside 
their host. 

II. Gastrostyla vorax. (a) In noting the habitat of this new 
species the author lays special emphasis on the vitality of infusorian 
cysts, which he has sometimes kept latent for two years. The struc- 
ture of Gastrostyla, the encystation, the behaviour of “nuclei” and 
“ nucleoli,’ and the phenomena of division are discussed at consider- 
able length. 

(b) In his experiments on the artificial division of this form Prof. 
Nussbaum demonstrated the continued vitality and rapid reconstruc- 
tion of the portions which contained nuclear substance. The portions 
without nucleus either rapidly degenerated or persisted for a while— 
without growth or reconstruction. 

The following generalizations are formulated and fully dis- 
cussed by the author. (1) Nucleus and protoplasm can only live 
in conjunction; if isolated, death follows more or less rapidly. 
(2) For the preservation of formative energy the nucleus is essential, 
though Griber has shown that certain histological differentiations 
may not be hindered by its removal. (3) Every energy exerted by 
the cell is indissolubly associated with a divisible substratum. In 
this connection the author discusses the relation of polynuclear cells 
to artificial division, the suggestive observations of Fol and others as 
to polygastrulation, &c., and maintains that the cell represents a 
multiple of possible individuals, which in the Protozoa are always 
alike, though frequently different in the Metazoan cell. The subject 
of polar globules is finally discussed, in regard to which, after an 
investigation of fresh material, Nussbaum criticizes Van Beneden’s 
account of polar globule-formation in Ascaris, and maintains as before 
the occurrence of ordinary nuclear division. 


* Arch. f, Mikr. Anat., xxvi. (1886) pp. 485-538 (4 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 265 


Sarcosporidia.*—Dr. R. Blanchard, after a somewhat lengthy 
but useful historical account of our knowledge of these Sporozoa, 
describes a new type which he found in Macropus penicillatus, and of 
which an account has already appeared in this Journal.t He con- 
cludes his paper with an essay on the classification of the Sarco- 
sporidia, which he proposes to divide into two families; the first— 
Miescheridee—contains those which are found in striated muscles ; the 
enveloping membrane is either delicate and structureless as in 
Miescheria, or thickened and traversed by fine canaliculi as in Sarco- 
cystis ; the second—Balbianide—are found in connective tissue, and 
in the only known genus—Balbiania—the envelope is delicate and 
structureless. The author thinks that the time has not yet arrived 
for us to define the species of each genus. The Sarcosporidia are 
intimately connected with the Coccidia, and more particularly with 
the polysporous forms (Klossia = Benedenia), from which they only 
differ in size and habitat. At the same time Dr. Blanchard recognizes 
that there is no absolute distinction of locality between the Coccidia 
and the Sarcosporidia, statements to the contrary notwithstanding. 


New Sarcodine.t—M. J. Kiinstler applies the term of Dumontia 
opheliarum to a Sarcodine which he regards as the type of a new 
sub-class ; it was found in the perivisceral cavity of Opheliz, and 
was when first described spoken of as a Rhizopod.§ It varies greatly 
in size, has an axial internal skeleton, which may be equivalent to 
the central capsule of Radiolaria or to the shell of Rhizopods; it is 
very closely united with the protoplasm of the cell. During life it 
reproduces itself by gemmation, and finally the individual breaks 
up into a number of fragments, each of which is provided with a bud 
of the axis; each fragment forms a new individual, which recom- 
mences the same cycle. The areolated structure of its protoplasm 
recalls that of the Heliozoa; the pseudopodia are not fine like those 
of most Radiolarians, and not obtuse as in many Rhizopods, but 
rather intermediate in structure. The possession of the central axis 
allies it again to the Radiolarians, from which it differs in other 
points. Is it possible that it is a Rhizopod, the test of which hag 
become a central axis, or that the axis has no relation either to the 
test of Rhizopods or to the central capsule of Radiolarians? On the 
whole, its characters are such as to give it a separate place among 
the Sarcodinz, between the two great orders of Rhizopods and Radio- 
larians, 

Pathogenic Role of Certain Psorosperms.|—M. P. Mégnin, 
from his observations on certain diseased fishes, is led to support 
the view of Prof. Balbiani that psorosperms are the cause of the 
tuberculosis of the liver, from which rabbits are often found to 
suffer. He has himself studied some barbel from the Meurthe, near 
Nancy, which are subject to a disease that decimates them; the 
disease is characterized by the development on the surface of the 


* Bull. Soc. Zool. France, x. (1885) pp. 244-76 (1 pl.). t V. (1885) p. 820. 
t Bull. Soc. Zool. France, x. (1885) pp. 309-36 (1 pl.). 

§ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 82. 

|| Bull. Soc. Zool. France, x. (1885) pp. 351-2. 


266 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


body of hemispherical tumours from one and a half to ten centimetres 
in diameter; from these parts the scales drop off and the tumour: 
becomes ulcerous in appearance. In the matter of the tumours there 
are to be found myriads of psorosperms which are analogous to and 
are probably of the same species as those which MM: Robin and 
Balbiani have found in the tench and the carp, where they form the 
matter of the cysts which are particularly found in the swim-bladder. 
The cells are lenticular and composed of two valves which inclose 
some protoplasm, while a long cilium projects from an orifice at one 
end. The author explains the infection of the fishes thus: the 
psorosperms which escape from the ulcers are taken in with the 
water which is swallowed or respired, and these by the blood reach 
the subcutaneous cellular tissue, where they undergo their final 
metamorphosis. 


Bitschli’s ‘Protozoa.’*—Parts 32 and 34, with plate LV., of Prof. 
O. Biitschli’s ‘ Protozoa’ were published at the end of 1885. The 
account of the Dinoflagellata is continued and that of the Cysto- 
flagellata begun. Of the former twenty-six genera and from ninety 
to ninety-five species are known; the first sub-order is that of the 
Adinida Bergh (Prorocentrina Stein), with the family Prorocentrina ; - 
the second Dinifera, with the families Peridinida, Dinophysida, and 
Polydinida. The author gives a phylogenetic table. Cystoflagellata 
is Prof. Hickel’s name for the Noctilucide of authors; the group 
contains as yet only the two genera Noctiluca of Suriray (1816) and 
Leptodiscus of R. Hertwig (1877); in each genus there is but one 
species, the former being cosmopolitan, the latter known only from — 
the Mediterranean. 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a. Anatomy.t 


Movements of Protoplasm in Tissue-cells.{—Dr. H. de Vries has 
investigated the question whether the rotation and circulation of 
protoplasm are confined to isolated cells and to filament-cells, in which 
they are usually observed, or whether the phenomena are not equally 
displayed in the constituent cells of tissues. For this purpose he 
examined Tradescantia rosea and Tropzxolum majus, and found in both 
cases movements of the protoplasm in the living wood-fibres, the 
cambiform cells, the young bast-fibres, the pith, the bast-parenchyma 


* Bronn’s ‘ Klassen u. Ordnungen d. Thierreiches, 8vo, Leipzig and Heidel- 
berg, 1885. 

+ This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm (including the 
Nucleus and Cell-division ; (2) Other Cell-contents (including the Cell-sap and 
Chlorophyll); (8) Secretions; (4) Structure of Tissues; and (5) Structure of 
Organs. 


{ Maandbl. voor Natuurw., 1884. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 79. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 267 


of the internodes, the leaf-stalks and mid-rib of the leaves, the 
rhizome, and the roots. Observation of the currents leads to the 
conclusion that it is by these currents that the substance for the 
formation of starch is conveyed to the amyloplasts. 

For the purpose of these observations the author placed a large 
drop of a 5 per cent. solution of sugar on the substance to be cut, 
moistening the knife also with the same solution. Each section was 
then placed on the slide, the sugar solution removed by blotting- 
paper and replaced by a new drop. The sections were then left for 
from one to two hours before examination, by which time the currents 
of protoplasm had again set up. 


Chemistry of Chlorophyll.*—Mr. E. Schunck first deals with the 
action of acids on chlorophyll; the best to use is hydrochloric acid. 
By adopting essentially the method of Frémy he had been able to 
separate phyllocyanin and phylloxanthin. The properties of the 
former are described in detail; when heated on platinum it gives off 
an acid smell, swells up considerably, evolving gas which burns with 
a smoky flame, and leaves a voluminous charcoal which burns away 
slowly, leaving hardly a visible trace of ash. It is rapidly decom- 
posed on being treated with boiling dilute nitric acid. Insolation 
causes it to yield products which resemble, if they are not identical 
with those due to the action of nitric and chromic acids. Phyllo- 
cyanin appears to play the part of a weak base, that is, it combines 
with strong acids, the compounds, however, being unstable and easily 
decomposed, even by water. Mr. Schunck enumerates a number of 
the compounds he was able to obtain, among which are phyllocyanin 
cupric acetate, stearate, and phosphate, phyllocyanin zinc palmitate 
and oleate, phyllocyanin ferrous citrate and malate; the characters of 
these various compounds are described. 


Studies on Chlorophyll.j—M. V. Jodin describes some experi- 
ments bearing on M. Regnard’s hypothesis, that the action of chloro- 
phyll on carbonic acid is purely chemical, and not physiological. In 
order to prove this he suppresses in turn all the physiological condi- 
tions. After being dried, the green leaf loses the power of decom- 
posing carbonic acid and exhaling oxygen in sunlight. By leaving 
a leaf for sixty-five hours in an atmosphere of hydrogen or of nitrogen, 
it likewise loses this power. He suppressed the respiration of the 
leaves by heating them in sealed tubes in a water-bath. Some of the 
tubes were then placed in the dark, and were found to have under- 
gone no change; but others, placed in sunlight, became discoloured, 
by absorbing the oxygen in the tubes. 

This result seems to show that, “apart from the physiological 
entirety, light only acts on the leaf by destroying chlorophyll and 
giving rise to oxidation.” In order to show that this photochemical 
oxidation was really exerted on the chlorophyll, and not on other 
substances, such as tannin, a solution of xanthophyll, &c., in alcohol 
was placed in sunlight, when it was found to become oxidized and 


* Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxix. (1885) pp. 348-61. 
t+ Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 264-7. 


268 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


give off carbonic acid. Drying oils are known to absorb oxygen even 
in the dark; when mixed with chlorophyll the oil becomes nearly 
inoxidizable in the dark, but its oxidation in the light is increased 
by the presence of chlorophyll. 


Contents of Sieve-tubes.* — Dr. A. Fischer states that the 
collection of mucilage seen beneath the sieve-plate in sections of sieve- 
tubes, and known as “ Schlauchkopf,” does not occur in the tubes in the 
uninjured plate, but is the result of injury. No trace of this structure 
is apparent if the plant is first boiled for from two to five minutes, by 
which means the contents of the sieve-tubes are coagulated. When 
treated in this way, the sieve-tubes of Cucurbita are seen to be com- 
pletely filled by a finely turbid granular mass, while a parietal layer of 
protoplasm can be demonstrated by staining ; it sometimes contains 
drops of mucilage. The author considers that in the uninjured state 
the sieve-tubes of Cucurbita contain a clear thin mucilaginous sap; 
when the tubes are cut, a portion of this sap is pressed out; the 
sieve-plate acts as a filter and keeps back the denser part, which then 
forms the “ Schlauchkopf.” 


Colouring Matters of Plants.t—According to Sig. P. Baccarini 
the red and yellow colour of plants is not always due to the presence 
of chromoblasts. Where this is the case, the originally round 
chromoblasts frequently lose their form in consequence of crystalliza- 
tion, as in the fruits of Eugenia bahiensis and the flower-buds of 
Bignonia venusta ; while in others the form is changed by the forma- 
tion of a vacuole in their interior, as in the flowers of Tecoma capensis, 
Tritomia waria, and Aloe socotrina. 

The inner perianth-leaves of Chamedorea elegans display before 
blossoming a chestnut-brown colouring due to amorphous masses of a 
non-protoplasmic character within the cells. In the unripe fruits of 
Euchyleena tomentosa there are, in the parenchymatous cells, more or 
less rounded grains of chlorophyll, usually with a vacuole in the 
middle; as these capsules disappear the vacuole swells, and the 
contents become yellow or bright red from the formation of a soluble 
pigment. <A similar soluble yellow pigment is found in the fruits of 
Rivina levis, and the flowers of Calceolaria amplexicaulis and Buddleya 
madagascariensis. 'The yellow colour of the flesh of the fruit of 
Eugenia bahiensis is caused by tabular chromoblasts within the cells, 
probably derivatives of chlorophyll. 

The roots of Echium plantagineum are coloured in patches on the 
surface from amorphous masses of protoplasm permeated by a pigment. 
In the flower-buds of Bignonia venusta, alcohol causes a precipitation 
of sphero-crystals, which the author regards as a calcium phosphate. 


Pigment-bodies in Neottia nidus-avis.{—Herr O. Lindt opposes 
the view of Wiesner that chlorophyll exists in the cells of this 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 230-9. Cf. this Journal, v. 
(1885) pp. 477, 1020. 

+ Ann. Istit. Bot. Roma, ii. (1885) 23 pp. (1 pl.). See Oester. Bot. Zeitschr., 
xxxyv. (1885) p. 439. 

{ Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 825-34. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 269 


plant, combined with a substance which masks its colour. He de- 
tails microchemical experiments which lead him to the conclusion 
that the chlorophyll does not pre-exist in the cells, but that it may be 
formed from the brown pigment-bodies by the action of a reducing 
substance such as a volatile aldehyde, present in some cases in the 
cells ; hence the occasional “greening” of the plant under special 
circumstances. 


Occurrence of Calcium Oxalate in the Epidermal Cells of 
Acanthacee.*—Professor A. Weiss finds in the epidermis of the 
organs of several species belonging to the Acanthacee a peculiar 
deposit of calcium oxalate, not in any way connected with the cysto- 
liths. Not only do these crystalline masses occur in the same cell 
with starch-generators, starch, and chlorophyll, but the crystals are 
of the two kinds, rhombic and klinorhombic, completely intermixed 
with one another. 


Formation of Gum in Trees.;—Dr. W. Beyerinck, it will be 
remembered,{ considered the formation of gum in trees to be due to 
a pathological change brought about by the influence of a fungus. 
Working independently, and in ignorance of Dr. Beyerinck’s researches, 
Dr. J. Wiesner has since arrived at a similar conclusion, except that 
he attributes the formation of gum to the action of an unformed 
ferment. This ferment he considers to belong to the starch-con- 
verting or diastatic enzymes, but to differ from the ordinary members 
of the group in that, while it converts starch into dextrin, it pro- 
duces no sugar that reduces Trommer’s solution. The seat of the 
development of the gum-ferment appears to be the granular proto- 
plasmic matter of the parenchyma-cells. From thence it attacks the 
cellulose of the cell-walls, converting it into gum or mucilage, in the 
latter case disappearing itself from the finished product. The ferment 
probably converts any starch it may meet with into dextrin, though 
never into a reducing sugar; indeed it seems capable of arresting the 
action of diastase in this direction, when added to a solution of 
dextrin containing diastase. 


Wax of Box-leaves.§—Prof. G. A. Barbaglia has examined the 
chemical constitution of the wax found chiefly on the upper sides of 
the leaves of Buxus sempervirens, and finds that, like Chinese wax and 
bees’-wax, it contains palmitic acid. 


Stimulation of Gland-cells in Tentacles of Drosera dichotoma. || 
—Mr. W. Gardiner finds that, as regards the general histology of the 
tentacles of Drosera, the gland-cells of the head are provided with 
delicate uncuticularized cell-walls, which are remarkably pitted on 
their upper surfaces; the other epidermal cells have their outer walls 
excessively cuticularized and resistent, while their radial longitudinal 
walls are freely pitted. In the typical resting gland-cell the proto- 


* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xc. (1884) pp. 79-88 (1 pl.). 
+ Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xii. (1885) pp. 119-20. 

t See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 419. 

§ Atti Soc. Toscana Sci. Nat., iv. (1885) pp. 115-6. 

|| Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxix. (1885) pp, 229-34. 


270 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


plasm is arranged in a network, the meshes of which are excessively 
close round the nucleus; after stimulation, which is best effected by 
the application of food, large spherical cavities appear in the mesh- 
work, owing to the breaking down of some part of the plexus; this 
increases as time goes on; the secretion may be sometimes seen to 
escape in drops and to assume a rod-like form; it is of a mucous 
nature, and is due to the breaking down of the protoplasm. The 
author describes the changes which take place in the stalk-cell after 
electrical stimulus or feeding, and states that the body which he calls 
the plastoid or “rabdoid,’ markedly decreases in size after long 
stimulation, so that there are some grounds for believing that it con- 
sists mainly of some reserve-material or some substance which is used 
up during secretion. The normal effect of a regulated stimulus is a 
swelling of the protoplasm and a loss of turgidity ; as the reaction is 
unequal in various cells there is a movement of the tentacle. 


Articulated Laticiferous Vessels.*—-By observation on speci- 
mens of Hevea brasiliensis from Ceylon, Dr. D. H. Scott confirms his 
previous conjecture that the laticiferous tissue of this genus agrees in 
structure with that of Manihot, in consisting of true vessels formed 
by cell-fusion, and not of inarticulated laticiferous cells, as in the 
Euphorbiacee previously investigated. The laticiferous tubes occur 
on the phloem side of all the vascular bundles, and are limited to this 
position, more being found in the parenchyma between the bundles ; 
they form a complete anastomosing system. The absorption of the 
transverse walls is not in all cases complete. Dr. Scott regards the 
tissue as having a nutritive function. 

The author criticizes the classification of Huphorbiacese by Pax, ¢ 
founded on the nature of the laticiferous tissue. He accepts Pax’s 
view that the form of laticiferous tissue which consists of a series of 
closed sacs, his “articulated tubes,’ gave rise to the inarticulated — 
laticiferous cells. The forms with closed laticiferous sacs may be 
regarded as having given rise, on the one hand, to those with typical 
laticiferous cells, as Huphorbia, on the other, hand to those with true 
vessels produced by cell-fusion, as Manihot and Hevea. In Papa- 
veraceze we have an instructive series of transitional forms, illustrating 
how the transition from sacs to vessels may have taken place. 


Medullary Rays of Conifers. | —Herr A. Kleeberg enters into 
great detail respecting the structure and position of the thin spots in 
the walls of the medullary rays and tracheids in Conifers. On the 
cells of the medullary rays these spots occur in the form of circular 
depressions, pores, or simple pits; on the tracheids they are funnel- 
shaped, the widest part of the funnel always facing outwards and 
being closed by a delicate membrane; these are the bordered pits. 
There is again a difference in these bordered pits, according to whether 
they are in juxtaposition with another bordered or with a simple pit. 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.), xxi. (1885) pp. 566-73 (4 figs.). Cf, this 
Journal, iv. (1884) p. 409. 

+ See this Journal, v, (1885) p. 824. 

t Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 673-86, 689-97, 705-14, 721-9 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 271 


All the sections of Pinus, with the exception of Abies, have two kinds 
of cells in their medullary rays, the normal, and those called “ trans- 
verse tracheids,” which always possessed bordered pits and frequently 
spiral thickenings. 

The particulars of these various structures are described in detail 
with respect to a large number of species of Conifers, 

The author finds chromic acid an exceedingly good substance for 
removing the resin from the resin passages and cells of the medullary 
rays and parenchyma of the wood. 


Leaf-stalk and Cushion.*—According to Herr P. Preuss, the 
most widely distributed element in these organs is the collenchyma ; 
then follows the bast; the libriform plays a subordinate part; the 
formation of the scattered sclerenchymatous cells is not clear. The 
most abundant kinds of vessels are the reticulated and the pitted. 

Herr Preuss classifies leaf-stalks and cushions under three types, 
which are not, however, sharply distinguished from one another, 
viz.— 

1. Leaf-stalk nearly of the same thickness throughout, not dis- 
tinguishable into a cushion and a thinner part, (a) without bast and 
libriform, (b) with bast or libriform. 

2. Leaf-stalk with a cushion at both upper and lower ends, and 
with the intermediate portion not flexible. 

3. Leaf-stalk with a cushion at each end, and with the intermediate 
portion moderately flexible. 


Structure of the Bundle-sheath.t—M. C. van Wisselingh describes 
the structure and development of the sheath which surrounds the 
central cylinder in the root of Phanerogams. In the species examined 
it is derived from the outermost layer of the plerome. The outer 
and inner walls of the cells composing it are marked by stronger 
thickening, while on the radial walls neither a middle lamella nor a 
primary thickening is to be made out. The principal thickening is 
on the inner walls. 


Tubercles on the Roots of Leguminose.{—Herr J. Brunchorst 
contests the view of Woronin and Eriksson that the rod-like bodies 
found in these structures are bacteria, connected genetically with the 
fungus-hyphe which are also frequently found in them. He has 
frequently found them where the hyphx were entirely wanting; and 
has also found on the hyphe a formation of spores altogether differing 
from the bacterium-like bodies. These he regards as simply 
albuminoid particles separated from the normal protoplasm of the 
root, and proposes to call them bacteroids. 

This view is confirmed by the facts that there is no evidence of 
the entry of any parasite into the root, and that the bacteroids have 


* Preuss, P., ‘Die Beziehungen zwischen d. anat. Bau u. d. phys. Function 
d. Blattstiele u. Gelenkpolster, 58 pp., 8vo, Berlin, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., 
xxiv. (1885) p. 297. 

y Arch. Néerland. Sci. Exact. et Nat., xx. (1 pl.). See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. 
(1885) p. 326. Cf. this Journal, iii. (1883) p. 383. 

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 241-57. 


272 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


frequently entirely disappeared in older tubercles. The author finds 
them also almost universally diffused among Papilionacez, as well as 
many Cesalpinies and Mimosez, from all climates and soils, but 
exhibiting very different forms in different species. He regards them 
as probably the means through which the food-material obtained from 
the soil is assimilated. 


Tubercles on the Roots of the Alder.*—Herr J. Brunchorst 
has re-investigated the cause of these structures, and pronounces 
decidedly against Miller’s view that they are caused by the plas- 
modium of a Plasmodiophora. Since, however, the germination of 
the spores has not yet been determined, it is impossible at present to 
decide the systematic position of the fungus to which they belong. 

The tubers on the roots of Eleagnaceex correspond altogether in 
structure to those of Alnus. 


Cell-markings as Specific Characters of Exogenous Trees.{— 
Examining sections of a very large number of American exogenous 
woods, Mr. P. E. Lawrence and Mr. C. 8. Raddin have come to the 
conclusion that the markings on the cell-walls are quite unreliable as 
characters for the distinction of species and even of genera, The 
same species may differ in this respect according to the soil in which 
it grows, while species of the same genus showed no relationship to 
one another ; and the markings of trees belonging to widely separated 
natural families presented cell-markings almost indistinguishable 
from one another. 


Biology of Water-plants.;—Herr H. Schenck contributes an 
exhaustive account of the anatomy and physiology of these plants, 
which (excluding seaweeds) he classifies under three heads :—those 
which are altogether hydrophytes; those which have the capacity, 
under special circumstances, to live on the land in peculiar forms; 
and those which are truly amphibious. 

Water-plants are as a rule characterized by the leaves being 
deeply cut, to enable them to withstand the currents of water and to 
be reached by the diffused light. Exceptions are furnished by the 
broad-leaved Potamogetons. The stem is usually thin and flexible, 
and provided with stolons, and there is no difference in the structure 
of the primary and secondary axes. The roots are reduced, and serve 
rather as organs of attachment than of absorption, and are often 
destitute of root-hairs. The stem is endowed with rapid apical 
growth, and has no secondary increase in thickness. For the purpose 
of fertilization the flowers are sometimes elevated above the surface 
of the water and conspicuous, when they are fertilized by flying 
insects, or elevated and inconspicuous, when they are fertilized by the 
wind or by insects which run on the surface of the water. Other 
species have special contrivances for fertilization out of the water, 


* Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. Strassburg, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. 
(1885) p. 222. 

+ The Microscope, v. (1885) pp. 241-3. 

{ Schenck, H., ‘ Die Biologie der Wassergewachse,’ Bonn, 1886 (2 pls.). See 
Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 355. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 273 


as in Vallisneria and Hydrilla, or below the surface, like the absence 
of extine, as in Naias and Ceratophyllum. 

The author enters into further details respecting the mode of life 
and variability of water-plants, their hibernation, their vegetative 
multiplication, the structure of the flowers, the dissemination of the 
seeds, their germination, and geographical distribution. 


Pollen-tubes.*—M. C. Degagny finds that the “cellulose 
stoppers” which obstruct the pollen-tube do not consist of cellulose. 
By the use of methyl-blue, which stains cellulose, the membrane is 
not coloured, but the protoplasm of the “deposit” is stained; this 
indicates that this is analogous to, but not identical with, the callus of 
sieve-tubes ; for whilst the latter is not stained by chlor-iodide of 
zinc, the former is. He concludes that these deposits are proto- 
plasm, richer in carbo-hydrates than is the callus, in which the 
nitrogenous substances prevent the staining by means of this reagent. 
Assimilation ends in the formation of a large quantity of uncoloured 
protoplasm, the degradation of which is so much the more rapid in 
proportion as the nitrogen reserve materials have not time to be 
formed in sufficient quantity. The degradation is not complete, as 
in ordinary cellulose secretions; in fact, these new reactions show 
that the nitrogen is not totally eliminated. These are phenomena 
special to the male cell or pollen-tube and to the increase of proto- 
plasm, which is the active element of fertilization. 


White-seeded Variety of the Honey-locust.;,—Mr. T. Mechan, 
referring to seeds of an old specimen of Gileditschia triacanthos, which 
were white instead of the ordinary olive-brown colour, and which 
showed other differences from the ordinary variety, said that this was 
the only known instance of the species producing white seeds. He 
suggested that environment was not so great a factor in producing 
variations as it was usually considered to be, and is inclined to attri- 
bute the variation to the “ plant’s own innate power to change,” since 
it is difficult to see how this one tree, out of several growing in the 
neighbourhood and under exactly the same conditions of climate and 
soil, could be influenced by its environment. Cross-fertilization often 
produced great changes in the colour of seeds of Indian corn. 


Germinative Power of Seeds after exclusion of Air and Drying 
at High Temperatures.{—Experiments carried on by Herr Wilhelm 
as to the power of germination of seeds dried and hermetically sealed, 
gave the following results, with winter wheat, rye, oats, and linseed. 
Exclusion from air enables the seed to retain its vitality longer than 
when air has access to it; two hours’ heating at 50° C. removes water 
and preserves the seed well; when heated to a higher temperature 
the seeds germinate more slowly. Seeds which have been artificially 
dried, when subsequently moistened, absorb more water than they 
would otherwise have done. 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 230-1. 
+ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1885, pp. 404-5. 
+ Journ, Chem. Soc. Lond., 1, (1886) p. 171, from Bied. Central., 1885, 
pp. 611-3. 
Ser. 2.—Vo.. VI. T 


274 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Distribution of the Fruits of Composite.*—Herr M. Kronfeld 
describes the various ways in which the mature pappus serves to 
disseminate the fruits of the Composite. The most common mode is 
by the finely divided hairs of the pappus itself forming a parachute. 
In the Cynarez the pappus-hairs are united together by their base 
into a ring, and the whole becomes detached from the achene by the 
slightest pressure. This appears to be a contrivance for enabling the 
fruit to reach the ground after travelling a short distance. In some 
species the withered flower acts the part of a pappus. A second 
mode of dissemination is by means of teeth attached to the hairs of 
the pappus, by which they become attached to the skins of animals, 
and thus carried away. A third mode is by running water, the 
pappus forming a floating apparatus, often greatly facilitated by a 
bubble of air being retained by the hairs. 


Epidermal System of Cactacee.t—Herr H. Caspari describes 
two kinds of spines in the plants belonging to this order; in one the 
epidermal cells which surround the sclerenchymatous bundle are 
cylindrical or prismatic in the upper, flat and imbricate in the lower 
part of the spine; while in Mamillaria the terminal cells are chiefly 
prosenchymatous, the basal parenchymatous. The occurrence of these 
two kinds of spine may be used as distinguishing characters of 
species, but not of genera. The Cactacez are specially adapted for 
their dry habit, by the strong cuticularizing of the cuticle, the great 
development of hypoderma, and the structure and distribution of the 
stomata. 


Anatomy of Leafless Plants.j—Herr T. Schube describes the 
arrangements by which plants that have no or very few leaves are 
able to carry on the functions of assimilation. This is effected by an 
unusually abundant development of parenchyma in the axial organs, 
and by a diminution of the means of transpiration. 


Flowers of Figs.§s—Dr. F. Ludwig reports some recent observa- 
tions of cases where fertilization is effected by insects which deposit 
their ova on the flowers. Riley || has shown how the yucca-moth, in 
depositing its ova within the flowers of the Yucca, accomplishes the 
fertilization, and how the few seeds which the larve devour in their 
cradle are unimportant in such richly filled ovaries. 

Graf zu Solms-Laubach ¥ has observed a complicated arrangement 
-in various species of figs. Besides the male flowers, two entirely 


* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xci. (1885) (1 pl.). See Oester. Bot. Zeitschr., 
xxxy. (1885) p. 436. 

+ Caspari, H., ‘ Beitr. zur Kenntniss des Hauptgewebes der Cacteen,’ 53 pp., 
8yo, Halle, 1883. See Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) p. 804. 

t Schube, T., ‘Beitr. zur Kenntniss der Anat. blattarmer Pflanzen, mit 
besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Genisteen,’ 28 pp. (2 pls.), 8vo, Breslau, 1885. 
See Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) p. 805. 

§ Biol. Centralbl., v. (1885) pp. 561-4. 
seu! Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, 1875, 1878. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Ady. Sci., 

{| ‘Domestikation und Vaterland des gewéhnlichen Feigenbaums,’ Gottingen, 
1882. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 99. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 275 


different female flowers exist: (a) those without stigmas and with 
short style adapted to ovipositors of gall-wasps (Cynips blastophaga), 
and with ovaries which swell up (without fertilization) as the result 
of the gall-formation (“ Gallenbliiten”’) ; and (b) those with long usually 
curved style and developed stigmas which do not admit of oviposition 
by wasps but are adapted for fertilization (“ Samenbliiten ”). Two sets 
of colonies occur (1) with only female fertilizable flowers (b), and (2) 
male colonies, with male flowers in the upper portion and with 
proterogynous gall-flowers (a) below. Only in the last can the young 
wasps develope ; in passing out they bear away pollen from the upper 
male flowers, they visit female colonies (1) (b) and fertilize these, but 
are unable to effect deposition of ova. The caprificus or male tree 
has several generations of inflorescences—the “mamme” which last 
through the winter (with only female gall-flowers (a) ), and the 
“‘ profichi”” with male flowers in the upper zone, which ripen much later 
than the female gall-flowers which occupy the lower two-thirds of the 
fig. When the male flowers shed their pollen, the fertilizable female 
flowers (b) of the female tree are ready to receive it. The different 
species exhibit a series of modifications through which this interesting 
arrangement may have arisen. In Ficus elastica and other probably 
archetypal Urostigma species, male and female flowers occur irregu- 
larly in the same inflorescence, and the latter are allalike. In others 
(U. religiosum e. g.) a separation has taken place into an anterior male 
and posterior female zone. Again we find the same arrangement, 
but dimorphic females (a) and (6b) irregularly intermingled. The 
long-styled flowers became more and more protected from the danger 
of gall-formation, and were separated from the other. 

Professor Ludwig points out the interest of these observations in 
connection with the ancient custom of caprification—hanging the 
wasp-containing figs of the goat-fig—Caprificus (i. e. the males and 
gall-forming female flowers (a) ) on the blooming female trees (the 
Essfeige) ; and also in relation to the general theory of the relation 
of flowers and insects. 


Fruit-scales of Cupressineze and Placente of Abietinese.*—Herr 
A. Kramer points out that in the Conifers the fruit-scales (“ Frucht- 
schuppen”’) are simple in some tribes, while in others they are inserted 
in the axis of small leaves or bracts (“ Deckschuppen”). With regard 
to the morphology of the parts, he supports the view of Sachs, 
Kichler, and Gobel, that the “bracts” are really open carpels, and 
the fruit-scales placente bearing the ovules. ‘The observations were 
made on Thuja occidentalis, T. gigantea, Biota occidentalis, Chamx- 
cyparis Lawsoniana, Cupressus sempervirens, and Juniperus communis 
among Cupressines, and on Pinus sylvestris, P. montana, P. Strobus, 
P. Cembra, Larix Ledebourti, Abies pectinata, Picea rubra, and Tsuga 
canadensis among Abietinez. 

The cone of Cupressinee consists of several decussate carpels 
placed on an axis, in the axils of which the ovules originate. The 
history of development shows that these separate carpels are inde- 


* Flora, Ixviii. (1885) pp. 519-28, 544-68 (1 pl.). 
ul iy y) 


276 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


pendent foliar structures, not resulting from the union of two different 
organs ; in the young condition therefore the cone of Conifer must 
be regarded as a single flower and not as an inflorescence. With 
regard to the origin of the swellings on these leaves, investigation 
shows that either only one cushion is formed on the carpel, which is 
then always on the upper side, or that the swelling takes place on 
all sides. In the Cupressinee a partial transformation of the other- 
wise parenchymatous structure of the carpels always takes place 
into scattered sclerenchymatous cells. ; 

In the Abietinee the structures formed in the axils of the carpels 
must be regarded as placentee; and here also each cone must be 
regarded as a single flowor, and not as an inflorescence. These 
placentz always appear at first as axillary swellings, and afterwards 
as transverse cushions in the axil of the carpels which generally 
remain small. In this condition they are nearly alike in the different 
species, and only subsequently develope in different ways. ‘The 
rudimentary cones attain a very different degree of siructure in the 
different species in the autumn preceding their true development, 
In the species of Larix, and in Pinus sylvestris and montana, there is 
to be met with at that time only a longish oval mass of tissue, the 
subsequent axis; while in Tsuga canadensis not only have the carpels 
begun to be formed, but even the placente in their axil. 


Structure of the Leaves and Stomata in Coniferee.*—Dr. A. 
-Mahlert has examined in great detail the anatomy of the leaves 
and the structure and mode of development of the stomata in a large 
number of Conifere, and in a few Cycadex and Gnetacee. The 
following are the general results arrived at :— 

In most Conifers: the stomata are recognized on the white or grey 
coating of wax, which also extends into their outer opening. This 
coating is altogether wanting in Taxus, Taxodiwm, Gingko (Salis- 
buria), Torreya, and Sciadopitys, and is but very feebly developed in the 
broad-leaved Araucarias, Dammara, and some species of Podocarpus. 

In Gingko, Araucaria Cunninghamii, A. eacelsa, A. Cookii, Crypto- 
meria, Arthrotaxis, and nearly all Cupressinee, the stomata are 
distributed without order over the surface of the leaf. In Dammara, 
Taxodium, Araucaria imbricata, A. brasiliensis, A. Bidwillii, Cunning- 
hamia, and Sequoia, the longer axes of the stomata are parallel to one 
another, in the two first usually at right-angles to the direction of 
the vascular bundles, in the rest parallel to it. In Pinus, Picea, 
Cedrus, Larix, Abies, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga, Saxe-Gothea, Taxus, 
Cephalotaaus, Torreya, Sciadopitys, and Podocarpus, they are in 
longitudinal rows, parallel to the vascular bundles. ‘Three different 
forms of guard-cell are described and figured. 

The epidermal cells are nearly always lignified and thickened on 
the outer side; beneath them is a hypodermal bast-layer, the cells of 
which are lignified, and lengthened in the longitudinal direction of the 
leaf. A few cases of exception to both rules are given. 


* Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) pp. 54-9, 85-8, 118-22, 149-53, 180-5, 214-8, 
243-9, 310-2 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. ATT 


The assimilating parenchyma lies on the side exposed to the 
light, and, where only one side is so exposed, has the ordinary 
palisade-form, of which there are several varieties. In Pinus, Picea, 
Cedrus, Larix, Pseudolarix, Abies, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga, Cunninghamia, 
Sciadopitys, and Gingko, the vascular bundle is surrounded by a lignified 
protecting sheath, usually consisting of cells varying in size and 
number, in which the bordered pits are irregularly disposed over the 
lignified cell-wall. The xylem usually occupies the part of the 
bundle nearest the upper surface of the leaf, and consequently facing 
the stem; in Sciadopitys the reverse ; the position of the “ transfusion- 
tissue” in relation to the bundle varies greatly ; in Abietinez its walls 
are always provided with bordered pits; in Taxinew they are 
reticulately thickened. Sclerenchymatous cells are sometimes imbedded 
among the parenchymatous cells. 

The position of the resin-passages corresponds to that described 
by Thomas and Meyer. A sheath of bast-cells occurs only in Pinus 
and some species of Picea; these cells are slightly thickened in 
Cedrus and Sciadopitys; the outer layer of cells surrounding the 
resin-passages is lignified in Tsuga, Arthrotaxis latifolia, Sequoia sem- 
pervirens, Torreya, and Gingko. The resin-passages are not lignified 
in Abies, Larix, Pseudolarix, Pseudotsuga, Araucaria, Cryptomeria, 
Dammara, Sequoia gigantea, Taxodium, Dacrydium, Saxe-Gothea, and 
Podocarpus. 


Peculiar Epidermal Organ.*—Herr G. Ebel describes a peculiarity 
of the epidermal cells of various species of Hriocaulon, which is pro- 
bably of mechanical significance. These cells have long protuberances 
on the inner side which project into the tissue of the plant like 
bristles. They resemble in form the cells of a palisade-parenchyma, 
but always remain in connection with the epidermal cells, and are, 
like them, thick-walled and destitute of chlorophyll. Each epidermal 
cell has either one or two of these appendages. In other instances 
they were shorter. 


Aril and Seed of the Nutmeg. t— Herr A. Tschirch finds the 
epidermis of the aril of Myristica fragrans to consist of several layers 
of cells, beneath which are delicate vascular cells, large oil-cells, 
and fundamental tissue. The cells of the latter contain a proto- 
plasmic matrix, imbedded in which are grains, from 2 to 10 p» in 
size, of a peculiar substance, shown, by their microchemical reactions, 
to belong to a peculiar group of albuminoids. 

The cells of the endosperm are filled with starch, oil, and grains 
of aleurone, with some protoplasmic residue. The aleurone-grains 
contain either a number of small crystalloids or a single solitaire. 


Phylloclades of Phyllanthus.t—Herr H. Dingler describes in 
detail the flat leaf-like shoots that go by this name in the section 
Xylophylla of Phyllanthus, especially with reference to the course of 


* Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. Strassburg, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. 
(1885) p, 288. + Ibid., p. 313. 

{ Dingler, H., ‘Die Flachsprosse der Phanerogamen. Heft 1, Phyllanthus, 
sect. Xylophylla.’ 153 pp. (8 pls.), 8vo, Miinchen, 1885. 


278 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the fibrovascular bundles. Growth takes place apically from a tetra- 
hedral apical cell. The larger number of species of Phyllanthus, 
characterized by phylloclades, grow in moist rather than in dry 
climates. 


B. Physiology. * 


Excretion of masses of Sexual Protoplasm before and during 
Impregnation.{—Herr A. Dodel-Port illustrates this phenomenon 
from a large number of types in both the animal and vegetable 
kingdoms. 

In the Peronosporee the male fertilizing substance consists only 
of idioplasm, the nutrient protoplasm remaining behind; in the 
female organ the periplasm must be regarded as the analogue of the 
“ excretion-substance”’ of Ulothri« and Sphzroplea. In the Sapro- 
legniex, the author considers that a sexual process takes place, and 
the excretion of sexual protoplasm is in most cases reduced to the 
expulsion of water. Inthe Zygomycetes the separation of the resting- 
spore from its parent-cells must be regarded as a phenomenon of 
exoretion. In the lowest sexual stage of vegetable life, the Gamo- 
spores, where conjugation takes place between two similar swarm- 
spores, as Ulothrix, Acetabularia, Enteromorpha, Ulva, Cladophora (?), 
&c., the excretion-substance appears to be represented only by the 
so-called “vesicle” of the sexual parent-cells. 

The Alge display a higher stage. In Spirogyra Heeriana, during 
coalescence of the conjugating cells, an excretion of protoplasm always 
takes place. In Craterospermum and Staurospermum only the chloro- 
phyll-plates coalesce, while the protoplasmic utricle of the conjugating 
cells remains behind as useless. In Sirogonium a much more copious 
excretion takes place, the male cell throwing off two and the female 
cell one sterile cell. In Sphzroplea the male cells throw off almost 
the entire nutritive protoplasm, and consist of idioplasm only, the 
ovum-cell becoming the chief bearer of the nutritive protoplasm. In 
the Cidogoniexw, Vaucheriacee, and Fucacex, the excretion from the 
protoplasm of the ovum-cell is much more striking ; and in Characez 
only a portion of the protoplasm of the male cells is used in the 
production of antherozoids, the rest being excreted as useless. 

In the Archegoniate we have a still further step. The excretion 
in the female protoplasm is preceded by a division of the nucleus and 
the formation of the ventral canal-cell, which may be regarded as a 
true excretion-substance. In Gymnosperms the whole of the pollen- 
tube, except the nucleus which enters the ovum-cell, constitutes the 
male excretion-substance. In the embryo-sac of Angiosperms the 
daughter-nucleus which moves towards the pole after the first division 
of the nucleus appears to be the carrier of the female idioplasm. It 


* This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction (including the formation of the 
Embryo and accompanying processes); (2) Germination ; (3) Nutrition; (4) Growth; 
(5) Respiration ; (6) Movement; and (7) Chemical processes (including Fermen- 
tation). 

+ Dodel-Port, A., ‘ Biologische Fragmente,’ Part II. (24 figs,). Cassel and 
Berlin, 1885. See Bot, Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 132. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 279 


divides into two, and each of these again into two derivative nuclei; 
three of these constitute the “egg-apparatus”; the fourth, which 
again moves to the centre of the embryo-sac, is the last product of 
excretion. Of the contents of the pollen-tube, the larger part is again 
excretion-substance. 

In the higher types it would appear as if the excretion of proto- 
plasm from the female cell before impregnation had for its object 
simply to form a nidus for the reception of the male fertilizing agent. 


Hybrid-pollination.*—Prof. E. Strasburger describes the con- 
ditions under which it is possible for the pollen-grains of one species 
to germinate on the stigma of another species, and the pollen-tubes 
even to reach the ovules. Special contrivances to prevent the access 
of foreign pollen are unnecessary, since pollen of the same species 
always has an advantage over foreign pollen. Hybrids are com- 
paratively very rare in nature, even in those species which display 
the greatest tendency to hybridization. 

Lathyrus montanus will put out pollen-tubes which will reach to 
the ovary of Convallaria latifolia ; and those of Agapanthus wmbellatus 
will penetrate deep into the style of Achimenes grandiflora. Those of 
Fritillaria persica will not only enter the ovary of species of Orchis, 
but will even excite the development of the ovules and will cause them 
to begin to swell. The pollen-grains of Achimenes grandiflora will 
not, on the other hand, penetrate the stigma of Agapanthus. 

The possibility of the pollen-grains of one species or genus 
developing tubes on the stigma of another species or genus does not 
depend on the possibility of hybridization between them. Orchis 
Morio produces no pollen-tubes on O. fusca, while, on the contrary, 
the pollen-tubes of the latter enter the ovary of the former species, 
cause the normal development of ovules, and occasionally even im- 
pregnate them. As a rule, the pollen-tubes penetrate into the style 
or even the ovary to a depth proportional to the relationship of the 
species, though this is not without exception, as in the case of 
Lathyrus montanus and Convallaria latifolia, and therefore cannot be 
regarded absolutely as a measure of sexual affinity. 

That varieties of the same species exhibit greater capacity for 
exciting the development of pollen-tubes than species of the same 
genus, depends simply on a greater resemblance in the composition of 
the nutrient material furnished to the pollen-grains and tubes by the 
stigma and style. Hybridization is an evidence of sexual affinity, 
while its non-occurrence is no evidence of the absence of affinity. 


Unisexual Flowers and movements of the Stamens in Anemone.j 
—Dr. 8. Calloni states that it is quite common, towards the end of 
March or beginning of April, to find flowers of Anemone hepatica 
which have become unisexual by the complete suppression of the 
stamens, and distinguished at once from the hermaphrodite flowers by 
their small size. He also observed a slow motion of the stamens in 


* Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. Strassburg, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. 


(1885) p. 285. a’ 
+ Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xiii. (1885) pp. 409-14. 


280 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


this species, of the kind known as automatic, and evidently intended 
to render self-fertilization possible. Similar movements, but less 
pronounced, were observed in A. nemorosa and ranunculoides. 


Self-fertilization in Orchidee.*—Mr. H. O. Forbes describes the 
contrivances to assist fertilization in a number of tropical orchids 
from Java. Phaius Blumei furnishes a very remarkable instance of 
an orchid which has every facility for attracting insects, a large showy 
flower with some perfume and a distinct nectary, which appears, how- 
ever, never to be yisited by insects, but to be always self-fertilized. 
As a general conclusion, Mr. Forbes states that many orchids with 
showy flowers never set their seeds, while many genera are always 
self-fertilized, and in many cases cannot be fertilized in any other 
way. The great family of Vandex, however, seem rarely, if ever, to 
be self-fertilized ; they are either cross-fertilized or do not produce 
fertile seeds. 


Morphology and Physiology of Germination.j—Herr G. Klebs 
' classifies flowering plants under the following heads in relation to 
the phenomena connected with their germination:— _ 
I. Germination with two or more cotyledons. 
A. Cotyledons above-ground (five types). 
B. Cotyledons under-ground, and serving only as reser- 
voirs of food-material. 
II. Dicotyledons, with one or both cotyledons rudimentary 

(parasites, saprophytes, &c.). 

III. Monocotyledons (seven types). 

The author then describes in detail the following points connected 
with germination :—The fixing of the seed in the soil and the absorp- 
tion of water; the first emergence of the seedling; the fixing of the 
seedling in the soil, and the absorption of the endosperm; the 
emergence of the cotyledons from the seed and the penetration of the 
soil; the unfolding of the cotyledons and of the first leaves above 
the soil. 


Formation and Transport of Carbohydrates in the Leaves.j— 
Dr. A. F. W. Schimper has made a long series of experiments on this 
subject, the plant observed being chiefly Impatiens parviflora. To 
determine the presence of starch in the cells, the leaves, after ex- 
traction with alcohol, were placed in a solution of iodine in aqueous 
hydrate of chloral (eight parts of chloral to five of water), and left for 
twelve to twenty-four hours. The leaves, if not too thick, were by 
' this means rendered so transparent that they could be easily examined 
by the strongest immersion-system, and the chloral causes the starch- 
grains to swell so strongly that the smallest could be detected by the 
iodine reaction. The presence of glucose was determined by the 
sugar-reaction. 

The experiments showed clearly that the product of the solution 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.), xxi. (1885) pp. 538-50 (1 pl.). 

+ Unters, aus dem Bot. Instit. Tiibingen, i. (1885) pp. 536-635. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 260. 

t Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 737-43, 753-63, 769-87. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 281 


of starch in the leaves was glucose, and that this glucose is transported 
into the leaf-stalk and stem. This transformation into soluble sugar 
is undoubtedly due to a diastatic ferment. Further experiments 
showed that the veins are the sole conduit through which the trans- 
port of glucose takes place, and that it occurs almost exclusively in 
the “conducting sheath” or tissue which encloses the finest ramifica- 
tions of the vascular bundles as a single layer of cells, the stronger 
bundles as a tissue composed of several layers. The chlorophyll- 
grains in this sheath possess only to a small degree the power of 
forming starch. The transport is the direct consequence of darkness, 
and the current of assimilated substances takes place practically in 
the veins, but chiefly in their conducting sheath. The sugar begins 
to disappear after the complete transformation of the starch; first 
from the mesophyll and finer veins, then from the stronger veins, 
gradually from the apex to the base. The cells of the conducting 
sheath are adapted for their function by a much stronger attractive 
force for dissolved carbohydrates than those of the mesophyll. 

In Impatiens the formation of starch is comparatively feeble. 
Totally different results are obtained from a number of plants where 
the changes go on with such energy that the glucose is temporarily 
again transformed into starch in all the cells through which it passes. 
An extreme case of this is furnished by Hydrocharis morsus-rane. 
Here the sheaths of the thicker bundles are found to retain the starch 
the longest. 

With regard to the transport of food-materials by the laticiferous 
vessels, as assumed by Schwendener* and others, experiments of 
the author on Euphorbia Peplus and E. lathyris are quite opposed to 
the hypothesis. 

In a Hepatica, Plagiochila asplenioides, the transformation of 
starch into sugar was also determined. Details are given with regard 
to the formation of starch and sugar in a number of other plants. 


Functions of Chlorophyll.j—Herr C. Timiriazeff sums up the 
evidence in favour of the view which he has advocated that the 
decomposition of carbonic acid in the light is effected by the heat- 
rays of the spectrum, and that their maximum and that of the 
decomposition of carbonic acid corresponds with the absorption-band 
of chlorophyll in the red. He criticizes the opposing conclusions of 
Draper, Pfeffer, N. J. C. Miiller, and others. 


Temperature of Growing Fruits.{—Interesting experiments have 
been tried on the temperature of growing fruits by Dr. W. M. Ord. 
He used a slender-pointed thermometer, which could be easily thrust 
into the fruit. The trials were made on cucumbers in a hot-house, 
and the variations due to fluctuations were indicated by the tempe- 
rature of a bottle of water suspended at the side of the fruit. A 
difference of one or two degrees was found between the temperature 


* See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 1022. 

+ Bull. Congres Internat. Bot. St. Petersburg, 1884, pp. 103-34. See 
Comptes Rendus, ec. (1885) p. 851, and Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 264. 

t Brit. Med. Journal, 1885, ii, p. 784. Cf. Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) p. 430. 


282 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of green fruit and the air or water in the bottle, the latter two 
usually varying one way or the other by about a degree; a difference 
of a degree was also recorded between the two extremities of the 
fruit, which represent different stages of growth. This is suggestive 
of an interesting line of research. 


Respiration of Leaves in the Dark.*—Experiments were under- 
taken by MM. P. P. Dehérain and L. Maquenne to ascertain whether 
any of the carbonic acid produced by green leaves was retained by 
them. A known quantity of the leaves of Huonymus japonica was 
placed in a known volume of pure air; this air was then analysed. 
The leaves were then placed in vacuo, when the remainder of the air 
retained by the leaves was extracted and analysed. The relation 
between the “apparent ratio” (first result) to the “real ratio” (both 
results together) was found to depend on the ratio of the volume of 
the leaves to the volume of space in which they were confined. 
Leaves placed in an atmosphere of carbonic acid, in the dark, absorb 
a considerable quantity of the gas. 


Intramolecular Respiration.;—Herr W. Pfeffer has tested the . 
conclusions on this subject of Mr. W. P. Wilson by the method of 
passing alternately a current of air and of hydrogen over plants, and 
absorbing by baryta-water the carbonic acid produced. Designating 
the carbonic acid produced by normal respiration, by N, and that 


produced by intramolecular by I, then the proportion T differs for 


different plants, though almost always less than unity; Vicia Faba 
being the only plant in which it approached unity. With seedlings 
of Sinapis alba it was 0°177; with Abies excelsa, 0-077; with leafy 
shoots of Lagustrum vulgare, 0:816; with beer-yeast, 0°31; with 
Cantharellus cibarius, 0:666. Intramolecular respiration is not a 
phenomenon of decadence, but is connected with the vitality of the 
cells. The author regards respiration as a true process of direct 
oxidation. 


Respiration of Plants.{—Pursuing their researches on this sub- 
ject, MM. G. Bonnier and L. Mangin confirm their previous conclu- 
sions that at any given moment for the same individual the relation 


is independent of temperature, pressure, and light, equally for 


all kinds of plants and for all parts of the plant. They now find, in 
Pinus maritimus, the same results at all temperatures between zero 
and 36° C., and in the ivy between zero and 35°C. These conclu- 
sions are also now confirmed by the results obtained by MM. 
Dehérain and Maquenne.§ 


* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 887-9. Cf. this Journal, v. (1885) p. 678. 

+ Unters. aus d. Bot. Inst. Tiibingen, i. (1885) 50 pp. (1 fig.). See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 161. 

{ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 1173-5. Cf. this Journal, y. (1885) p. 835. 

§ See this Journal, vy. (1885) p. 678. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 283 


Aerotropism.*—Dr, H. Molisch’s researches on this subject are 
now published more at length and in great detail. 

Godlewski’s Theory of the Motion of Water in Plants.|—Herr 
A. Zimmermann claims to show that Godlewski’s theory is a physical 
impossibility. The assumption that when water is driven out of the 
cells of the medullary rays it passes entirely or chiefly into the upper 
tracheids, and conversely when it is absorbed by these cells, involves 
a more rapid increase of the air-pressure in the tracheids downwards 
than can occur in nature. 


Circumnutation of Etiolated Seedlings.t—By experiments on 
young plants of Polygonum Fagopyrum, Tropzolum majus, and Bras- 
sica Napus growing in a warm chamber lighted only with red light, 
Herr F. Noll has determined that the circumnutation characteristic 
of twining stems may be induced also in ordinary shoots made to 
grow abnormally in vital conditions otherwise favourable. He finds 
in this an explanation of the occurrence of climbing plants in isolated 
genera of widely separated natural orders. 

Influence of Gravitation on the Movement of Floral Organs. § — 
M. J. Dufour finds a remarkable diversity in the way in which the 
floral organs of plants are affected by gravitation, some appearing to 
be entirely uninfluenced by it. The cause of this diversity appears 
to be connected with some unknown factors in the way in which 
geotropism works. 

Insufficiency of the Imbibition Theory.||—Herr M. Scheit ad- 
duces further arguments against the theory that the motion of the 
sap in wood is due to currents in the cell-walls themselves. These 
arguments are derived from the extent to which cell-walls increase 
in size when permeated by water, from the fact that these membranes 
are, even in the living plant, in a dead state, and from other con- 
siderations. 

Mechanism of Twining Plants./—Herr J. Wortmann proposes 
the following as an adequate explanation of the phenomena of 
twining stems. The movement is brought about by a combination 
of negative geotropism and circumnutation. In every smallest 
transverse section of the growing part of a twining stem, these two 
forces combine in such a way that at the apex of the stem circum- 
nutation is much stronger than negative geotropism, the latter in- 
creasing in force towards the base, and therefore in older internodes, 
The consequence of this is a modification of the ordinary movement 
of growth, each smallest transverse section of the twining stem having 


* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xe. (1884) pp. 110-96 (1 pl.). Cf. this Journal, 
v. (1885) p. 96. 

+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 290-2. Of. this Journal, v. 
(1885) p. 490. t Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 664-70. 

§ Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xiv. (1885) pp. 413-24. Cf. this Journal, v. 
(1885) p. 272. 

| Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xix. (1885) pp. 166-73. Cf. this Journal, 
v. (1885) p. 679. 

{| Versamml, Deutsch. Naturf. Strassburg, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. 
(1885) p. 252. 


284 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the tendency to grow not in a straight line, as is the case with or- 
dinary orthotropous internodes which do not twine, but in a spiral, 
which is very flat at the apex from the combination of the two forces, 
but becomes gradually steeper and steeper towards the base. 

If a stem growing in such a spiral meets with no support, but is 
at the same time protected from falling, it will, after its growth in 
length is completed, assume a straight and vertical position, like any 
other orthotropous stem, since the spiral line becomes constantly 
steeper towards the base so long as growth continues and geotropism 
is also acting. This property enables the strongest twining plants 
to cling round the slenderest supports. The true object of the 
support is to act as a hindrance to the straightening of the stem 
which is growing with a spiral movement. The stoppage of growth 
by thick supports causes the internodes of stems which coil round 
them to be usually shorter than those of stems coiling round slender 
supports. The erect position of the higher internodes prevents the 
terminal bud ever being at a great distance from the support. The 
torsions so often observed in climbing plants are of secondary 
importance in the process of coiling. 


Mechanism of Twining.*—Herr H. Ambronn discusses all the 
previous theories on this subject, and confirms Baranetzki’s statement 
that the circumnutation of twining plants ceases when they are made 
to rotate slowly round a horizontal axis. He considers the movement 
of twining to be made up of three factors, viz. (1) cireumnutation ; 
(2) negative geotropism; (3) the resistance offered by the support to 
the movements of the apex of the shoot. The part played by these 
three factors is discussed in detail. 


Sensitiveness to Contact.t—Herr W. Pfeffer insists on the dis- 
tinction between sensitiveness to contact and sensitiveness to impact 
(“Stossreize”). The first is the result of continuous contact with a 
solid body, as in the case of tendrils; the second of momentary 
powerful action, as in the sensitive plant. Static pressure does not 
bring about the second kind of irritation when it is unequal, and 
consequently causes unequal pressure on neighbouring points. This 
was proved by the pressure of water, mercury, and gelatin. In the 
case of tendrils the weight of the body is no factor in the sensitive- 
ness. Pieces of cotton-wool of the weight 0:00025 mer. produced 
no effect if carefully placed on the tendril, but did when they caused 
gentle impact by slight currents of air. 

Contrary to the statement of Darwin, the author found the 
glandular hairs (tentacles) of Drosera to have a sensitiveness very 
similar to that of tendrils, statical pressure producing no effect. 
Small pearls or splinters of glass only produced irritation of the 
glands when they caused a rubbing as the result of concussion ; fluids 
producing no effect, as with tendrils. 


* Ber. Math.-Phys. Klasse K. Sachs. Gesell. Wiss. Leipzig, 1885. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 81. 

+ Unters. aus d. Bot. Instit. Tibingen, i. (1885), Heft 4. See Bot. Centralbl., 
xxiv. (1885) p. 75. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 285 


The author considers the conduction of the sensitiveness to be 
not altogether due to the continuity of the protoplasm from cell to 
cell, since in the case of Mimosa such continuity could not be demon- 
strated to extend to the epidermis; the sensitiveness is, on the 
contrary, conveyed through the cell-walls to the protoplasm. In 
‘many cases there were found in the tendrils pits in the outer wall of 
the epidermal cells, which appeared to play a part in the conduction 
of the irritation. In Mimosa the author regards the movement of 
water as the chief agent in the transmission of the irritation; the 
protoplasmic threads may have more to do with the sensitiveness of 
tendrils. 


Polarization-phenomena of Tissues.*—Dr. N. J. C. Miller de- 
scribes the optical properties of various parts of plants which he 
refers to a small number of types, and traces to the molecular forces 
which were active in their formation. 


Exhalation of Ozone by Flowering Plants.t—Dr. J. M. Anders 
has repeated his experiments on this subject, the test employed being 
papers moistened with tincture of guaiacum (8 parts resin to 90 parts 
alcohol). The general conclusions are that scentless plants exhale only 
a very small amount of ozone, or none at all; while scented plants, 
whether flowers or leaves, are powerful generators of ozone. This is 
especially the case with the pine and the hemlock (Abies canadensis). 
As a control, to insure that the blue colour of the guaiacum-paper was 
not due to the presence of alkaline substance, reddened litmus-paper 
was also used. 


Disinfection of Plants.t—Sig. F. Sestini points out the incon- 
veniences of the method of disinfecting vines attacked by Phyllowera 
by means of hydrocyanic acid. He proposes instead the use of 
sulphocarbonate of potassa, which he prepares in the following way. 
One part by weight of the sulphocarbonate is dissolved in 400 parts 
of water, and this must then be applied to the roots or other parts 
affected so that they are under its influence for about an hour. 


Desiccation of Plants in Aqueous Solutions.s—M. A. Levallois 
finds that if an orange-branch is placed in a concentrated solution of 
calcium chloride it goes through all the phenomena of withering 
from loss of water, leaves, stem, and flower all losing weight, the 
total weight diminishing from 25 to 10°5 grm. Similar results were 
obtained with leaves of the scented geranium and mint; while flowers 
by themselves of the rose, jasmine, orange, or tuberose lost but very 
little in weight, their surface being protected against the action of 
the calcium chloride. The desiccation of leaves was nearly as great 
as that caused by a stove, and was in proportion to the desiccation of 
the solution. After a time, however, an opposite process sets in, and 
the leaves regain their original weight. 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot, Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 226-9. 

+ Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 858-65. Cf. this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 777. 
t Atti Soc. Toscana Sci. Nat., iv. (1885) pp. 172-6. 

§ Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 1175-6. 


286 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO | 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA. 
Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Antheridia and Antherozoids of the Heterosporous Lycopodiaceze 
(Selaginellacese).*—Herr W. Belajeff has made a detailed examina- 
tion of the internal structure and germination of the microspores of 
Isoétes and Selaginella, with a view to reconciling the conflicting 
statements on some important points of Millardet and Pfeffer. While 
differing on some points from both these authorities, he agrees much 
more nearly with the former than with the latter. 

Of Isoétes the two species examined were I. setacea and Malinver- 
niana, in both of which the microspores closely resemble those of 
I. lacustris. 'The spores have three membranes, epispore, exospore, 
and endospore: of which the innermost shows the cellulose reaction 
with zinc chlor-iodide, but neither of the outer ones. The outermost 
coat, the epispore, is yellowish, and has a fissure through which the 
exospore projects. In I. setacea the epispore is very thick and full 
of vacuoles. The brown exospore or middle coat is the first formed 
of the three. In the interior are a number of albuminous granules 
and a nucleus. 

The first process in germination is the separation of a small 
lenticular cell, the rudimentary prothallium, the rest constituting the 
antheridium. This then divides into three cells by two oblique 
walls, and the central of these again divides into two. Hach of these 
four primary cells of the antheridium contains a nucleus; their walls 
do not show cellulose reaction. By further division the antheridium 
consists of two internal cells completely surrounded by four outer 
ones; the two inner ones are hyaline, the four outer ones filled with 
granular protoplasm. Hach of the two inner cells again divides into 
two; these four all contain nuclei, and are the mother-cells of the 
antherozoids. ‘The surrounding cells coalesce, by the disappearance 
of their walls, into a turbid granular mass. The lenticular pro- 
thallium remains all this time unchanged. The membrane of the 
inner cells finally deliquesces and the antherozoids uncoil, two disc- 
shaped spongy bodies dropping from them at the same time. 

The antherozoids of I. Malinverniana are remarkably large. They 
consist of a spirally coiled ribbon-shaped body and a large number of 
cilia all attached to the anterior end; all of them also coiled, and at 
first pointing backwards. Attached to the body along its length is a 
clear ribbon-shaped appendage, which is broadest behind. The anthero- 
zoids are in motion only for from three to five minutes, and then 
coil up to the form they had in the mother-cell. All the nuclein in 
the nucleus of the mother-cells is used up in the construction of that 
of the body of the antherozoids. The cilia are formed out of the 
protoplasm of the mother-cell. 

In the microspores of Selaginella the author found two types of 
structure, one represented by S. Kraussiana and Poulteri, the other by 
S. cuspidata, lextevirens, fulcrata, stolonifera, Martensii, viticulosa, 
ineequalifolia, and caulescens. 


* Bot. Ztg., xliii. (1885) pp. 793-802, 809-19 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 287 


The microspores of the first group have three separable mem- 
branes, of which the two outer ones are coloured brown, the inner- 
most blue by zinc chlor-iodide. The granular spiny epispore has 
three fissures uniting at the apex, through which project ridges of 
the clear homogeneous exospore. The exospore is again the first- 
formed of the three. The spore contains oil-granules and a nucleus. 
After the separation of the lenticular prothallium-cell, the anthe- 
ridium-cell divides first of all into two, and each of these two again 
into four cells by three oblique walls; these walls again do not show 
cellulose reaction ; each of the cells contains a nucleus. By further 
division the antheridium consists of four inner cells entirely sur- 
rounded by eight outer cells. Each of the four inner cells then 
divides into a number, the mother-cells of the antherozoids, which 
float in a granular mucilaginous mass resulting from the deliques- 
cence of the walls of the outer cells. 

In the second group of Selaginella the microspores have only two 
separable membranes, the inner one of which only gives cellulose 
reaction; but the outer one is divided into two layers, the outermost 
of which is spiny. The processes of internal division are in the main 
the same as in the first group, but there are only two inner primary, 
surrounded by eight outer cells ; from the two inner ones are developed 
the mother-cells of the antherozoids. The antherozoids, on escaping, 
are still enveloped in a small globular membrane; they have only 
two cilia. 

These observations bring the mode of formation of the antheridium 
in the Selaginellaceee much more into harmony with that in the other 
Archegoniate than appeared from the descriptions of Millardet and 
Pfeffer. In all cases the primordial cells of the antheridium arise 
from a single cell by successive divisions ; some of these primordial 
cells break up, by a wall parallel to the outer surface, into the inner 
mother-cells of the antherozoids and the outer enveloping cells. 

The author considers the establishment of a special class, the 
Ligulatz, for the heterosporous Lycopodiacez as very unsatisfactory, 
there being no sufficiently good general characters for it. Nor does 
he consider the differentiation of microspores and macrospores as a 
good basis for classification. 


Influence of the Direction of the Light on the Division of the 
Spores of Equisetum.*—According to Prof. E. Stahl, the direction 
in which the division of the nucleus takes place in the spores of 
Equisetum is dependent on the direction of the rays of light, the two 
daughter-nuclei lying in that direction. The nucleus at the greater 
distance from the source of light is that of the root-cell, the one 
nearer to the source of light that of the prothallium-cell. The former 
is therefore on the side of the spore which is turned away from the light. 


Calamites of the Coal-measures.{—Herr C. E. Weiss enters at 
great length, and in great detail, into the structure and systematic 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 334-40. 
+ Abhandl. Geol. Spezialkarte v. Preussen, vy. (1884), 8 figs. and an atlas of 
28 pls. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) p. 310. 


288 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


position of the fossil Calamariee. He regards them as a very large 
group, varying widely in some points of structure, of which our 
modern Equisetacee represent a strongly differentiated type. The 
Equisetaceze are therefore calamites, but it is wrong to speak of the 
latter as in all cases Equisetacee. ‘The leaves only rarely display 
sheathing coalescence (Hquisetites) ; and the spores appear to have been 
destitute of elaters. The spores are frequently dimorphic. Volk- 
mannia and Sphenophyllum, as well as the Lycopodiacee, the author 
regards as more nearly related to the true Calamariew than had pre- 
viously been supposed. In some cases the stems show avery similar . 
structure to that of Hquisetum, in the central cavity, the separate 
vascular bundles with lacune, the peculiar course of the bundles, and 
the silicification ; but in other cases, the structure was widely different. 
A considerable variety was also displayed in the organs of fructifica- 
tion ; and on the characters of the fructification he proposes to base 
the diagnoses of the genera. 


Fructification of Sigillaria.*—M. B. Renault describes in detail 
the structure of Sigillaria Menardi, and derives therefrom confirmation 
of his previous conclusion that the Sigillariz are a transitional group, 
and may be divided into two families:—the Leiodermariex, or 
phanerogamic Sigillariz, with smooth bark, nearly allied to the 
Cycadee, and the Rhytidolepide or cryptogamic Sigillariz, with 
channelled bark, allied to the Isoétez. 


Algee. 


Protoplasmic Continuity in Seaweeds.} — Continuing his re- 
searches on this subject, Mr. T’. Hick finds that in Laminaria digitata 
(belonging to the Phzosporee) the protoplasts of the cortex are 
rhizopod-like masses, with pseudopodia spreading in such a manner 
that the cells of each layer are brought into connection with one 
another and with those of adjacent layers. Both here and in the 
cortex continuity is effected by the intervention of sieve-plates; in 
the epidermal tissue it was not detected with the same certainty. In 
Himanthalia lorea (Fucacez) the same phenomena were observed, 
though by no means s0 universally. 


Cystosira barbata.{ — Dr. A. Dodel-Port has submitted this 
seaweed to a careful examination, as a type of the Fucacee. 

The branching is monopodial. The ultimate branches are the 
organs of assimilation, and bear also the reproductive organs or 
receptacles at their youngest solid ends. 

In the stem four distinct parts are to be distinguished :—(1) A 
central cylinder of fibre-cells; (2) a layer of thick-walled cells with 
irregular cavities; (3) the cortical layer, the cells of which become 
gradually shorter centrifugally, the outermost being isodiametrical 
and containing chromatophores; (4) the epidermis, not sharply 


* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 1176-8. 

+ Journ. of Bot., xxiii. (1885) pp. 354-8. Cf. this Journal, v. (1885) p. 682. 

{ Dodel-Port, A., ‘ Biologische Fragmente,’ Part I. (10 col. pls.), Cassel and 
Berlin, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 129. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 289 


differentiated from the cortex, and filled with chromatophores. The 
epidermis is the chief assimilating organ. The growing point lies in 
a funnel-shaped depression at the apex of the branch. The barren 
conceptacles are formed on the young branches in acropetal suc- 
cession; a bundle of paraphyses projects from their ostiole; and 
these are continually renewed as the old ones are rubbed off. No 
transitional structures were observed between the barren and fertile 
conceptacles. The air-bladders are formed by strong tangential 
growth of the cortex and epidermis; the central tissue remaining 
unaffected. A large number of barren, but only a few fertile con- 
ceptacles are found on the air-bladders. 

The sexual organs are formed from November to May in the solid 
warty cartilaginous conceptacles ; these are from a few millimetres to 
2 or 3 centimetres in length, and are usually brightly coloured. The 
fertile, like the barren conceptacles, are formed in acropetal suc- 
cession, and have a circular ostiole. The parts of the wall nearest to 
the ostiole develope a large number of branched antheridial hairs 
with a few paraphyses; large quantities of oogonia springing from 
the base, surrounded also by paraphyses. Occasionally some of the 
conceptacles are unisexual. 

After the escape of the antheridia from the conceptacle, they lie 
before the ostiole in an orange-coloured heap: the oogonia, on the 
contrary, never collecting round the ostiole. The ripe antheridia are 
somewhat curved, and the antherozoids are formed in them with great 
rapidity by bipartition. In Cystosira the wall of the antheridium 
consists of only one layer of cells, the entire antheridium escaping 
through the ostiole; while in other Fucacez the wall consists of two 
layers which separate from one another, and the inner layer only, 
with the antherozoids, escapes through an opening in the outer. The 
antheridia are specifically heavier than sea-water, and are frequently . 
caught when sinking by the tuft of paraphyses projecting from the 
ostiole of the barren conceptacles ; the antherozoids then escaping by 
the conversion into mucilage of their investing membrane. They are 
curved and pear-shaped, and contain a colourless corpuscle (nucle- 
olus ?) and an orange-coloured eye-spot; they have two cilia of 
unequal length. The swarming takes place chiefly in the fore- 
noon. 

The oogonia are usually sessile and have a distinct nucleus ; they 
are of an olive-brown colour with light-coloured apex. The membrane 
consists of two layers, both becoming gelatinous when ripe; the 
nucleus divides in two; the lower portion becomes the true ovum- 
nucleus, and the upper portion is expelled as the “ excretion-sub- 
stance.” In the act of impregnation a number of the antherozoids 
force themselves into the gelatinous envelope of the oosphere; the 
cubic contents of the latter exceeding that of a single antherozoid 
40,730 times. The actual contact of the antherozoids with the pro- 
toplasm of the oosphere was not observed; but apparently the 
entrance of a single antherozoid is sufficient to cause the excretion 
of a cellulose membrane ; the gelatinous envelope disappearing at the 
same time. Impregnation usually takes place while the oospheres 

Ser. 2.—Vou. VI. U 


290 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


are sinking in the water, or when caught by the paraphyses of the 
barren conceptacles. 

The oospores displayed evidences of germination after nineteen 
hours, putting out a colourless rhizoid. Excluding this, the young 
plant is not larger than the oospore. 


Embryo Plantlets of Fucus.*—Dr. W. R. M‘Nab calls attention 
to young embryo plants of Fucus vesiculosus, adhering in considerable 
numbers to the conceptacular region of the thallus. They probably 
escape from the thallus after a short adherence. 


Durvillea Harveyi.j—Herr J. Grabendorfer describes in detail 
the structure of this alga from South Brazil, belonging to the Fucacez, 
from dried specimens and material preserved in alcohol. 

The most important point brought out in the structure of the 
vegetative organs is the absence of an apical growing point such as 
appears to exist in all other Fucacez, with the exception perhaps of 
Splachnidium. 

The conceptacles agree in all important points with those of 
Fucus, but are considerably smaller; Durvillza is dicecious; but no 
difference is perceptible in the mode of growth of plants of the two 
sexes. One point of difference from Fucus was established, that the 
contents of the oogonia divide, not into eight, but into four oospheres : 
viz. first of all into three by two transverse septa, and then the 
middle one of these again into two by a longitudinal wall. 


Lessonia ovata.{—This seaweed from South Brazil, belonging to 
the Laminariacer, has been subjected to a critical examination by 
Herr J. Grabendérfer, both in dried specimens and in material 
preserved in alcohol. 

In the structure of the vegetative organs Lessonia shows no very 
marked departure from other genera of the order. It agrees with 
Macrocystis rather than with Laminaria in showing a rather marked 
differentiation between the medullary and the cortical tissues in the 
stem. The “sorus” consists of two kinds of cells peculiar to it:— 
(1) the sporangia, ovate cells filled with numerous polyhedral bodies, 
and at first thin membrane; and (2) the paraphyses, club-shaped 
cells with moderately thick membrane and brown contents. Both 
paraphyses and sporangia are formed from epidermal cells. 


“Prothallus”’ of Padina.s—Dr. G. M. Giles describes a structure 
which he regards as the“ prothallus” or sexual generation of Padina 
pavonia, found abundantly on the fronds of the seaweed itself 
on the coast of British Burmah. They are minute flat bodies, on 
which were observed peculiar structures which the author considers 
to be of the nature of antheridia and archegonia. Young fronds of 
the non-sexual form were found sprouting from the edge of these 
prothalloid bodies. 


* Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1886) pp. 163-4. 

7 Bot. Zig., xliil. (1885) pp. 609-18, 625-36 (1 pl.). 

7 Ibid., pp. 641-8, 657-64 (1 pL). 

§ Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, liy. (1885) pp. 71-5 (2 pls.). 


“ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 291 


Endochrome of Diatoms.*—According to Dr. M. Lanzi, the form 
and arrangement of ‘the endochrome in a large number of species of 
Diatomaceze varies according to the age of the individual, being 
sometimes homogeneous, sometimes divided into a larger or smaller 
number of distinct species. He regards this as a distinct confirmation 
of the statement of Castracane tf and others, that, in addition to 
division, conjugation, and reproduction by auxospores, diatoms have 
another, though rarer mode of multiplication, by non-sexual endo- 
genous spore-formation. 


Diatoms in Town Water.t —Prof. W. I. Macadam mentions the 
presence of certain diatoms left on the sandy filter through which water 
supplied to Edinburgh had passed. Fragilaria capucina Desm. was 
most abundant, together with various species of Cymbella, Encyonema, 
Navicula, Achnanthes, Nitzschia, and others. He points out that the 
presence of these is evidence rather of the purity, than of any 
pollution of the water. 


Schmidt's ‘Atlas der Diatomeenkunde.’— After a long interval, 
parts 21 and 22 of this work are now published. They contain eight 
plates, all of forms of Triceratium, including many new varieties. A 
second edition of the whole work is also being issued. 


New Desmidiee. §—M. Raciborski describes 175 species of 
Desmidiex from the neighbourhood of Cracow. Of these twenty-four 
species are new, viz.—eleven species of Cosmarium, seven of Staur- 
astrum, one of Euastrum, two of Micrasterias, one of Cylindrocystis, and 
two of Penium. 


New Algological Journal— Notarisia. We welcome the ap- 
pearance of the first number of a new quarterly journal entitled 
‘Notarisia: Commentarium Phycologicum, published at Venice, 
under the editorship of Drs. G. B. De Toni and D. Levi. This 
number contains a list, with diagnoses, of all new alge published in 
1885, an index of algological literature for the year, and lists of 
published collections of alge, with some other matter. The first 
part of the editors’ “Sketches of genera of Floridex, adapted to 
Ardissone’s ‘ Phycologia Mediterranea,” consists of two plates in 
photo-lithography, with accompanying letterpress, and illustrates 
the genera Callithamnion, Griffithsia, Halurus, Crononia, Ceramium, 
Centroceras, Microcladia, and Chantransia. 


Fungi. 
Behaviour of the Nucleus in the Coalescence of the Cells of 
Fungi. ||\—Herr C. Fisch has investigated this process in a number of 
fungi, with a view to determine the existence or otherwise of a true 


* Atti Accad. Pontif. Nuov. Lincei, xxxvii.((1885) 6 pp. 

¢ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 1041. 

{ Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, 1885, p. 483-5. 

§ Ber. Phys. Com. Akad. Wiss. Krakau, xix. (1885) pp. 3-24 (5 pls.). 
(Polish with Latin diagnoses). See Oester. Bot. Zeitschr., xxxv. (1885) p. 438. 

|| Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. Strassburg, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. 
(1885) p. 221. 


u 2 


292 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


act of sexual conjugation. The staining material used was various 
preparations of hematoxylin. 

In Pythium (with which Cystopus appears to agree) the uuclei 
occur in considerable numbers in the mycelium, each having a very 
large nucleolus. In young oogonia, before the formation of the 
oospheres, the number is usually from ten to twenty. When the 
oosphere is being formed, they collect together and coalesce into a 
single large ovum-nucleus. In the antheridial cell only a single 
nucleus was found, but this was probably the product of the coalescence 
of several. This nucleus passes, with the gonoplasm, into the oosphere, 
and coalesces with the ovum-nucleus. 

Among Ustilagines, Tilletia, Urocystis, Ustilago, and Protomyces 
were examined. ‘The spores of these appear to contain only a single 
nucleus, while the mycelial cells usually contain several, as also those 
of the promycelium, and usually those of the sporidia. In the “ copula- 
tion” of the sporidia and mycelial cells, no coalescence of nuclei was 
ever observed. In the mycelium which is formed subsequently to 
“ copulation,” a number of nuclei generally enter with the protoplasm, 
and are separated from one another by protoplasm, so that here there 
can also be no coalescence. In the Hymenomycetes also nothing of 
the kind was observed. 

The general conclusion of the author is that in Pythium and its 
allies there is a true process of sexual union; but not in the Usti- 
lagineze and Hymenomycetes. 


Classification of the Discomycetes.*—M. E. Boudier insists on the 
importance of the mode of dehiscence of the ascus in the classification 
of this family. In the fleshy Discomycetes there are only two modes 
of dehiscence of the ascus—by a kind of apical operculum, and by a 
foramen or perforation of the cell-wall at the apex. ‘These two 
groups, the Operculata and Inoperculata, are well defined, and the 
tribes and genera may be further distinguished by characters drawn 
from the receptacle, the form of the ascus, the paraphyses, and the 
spores. The terrestrial Discomycetes, of a soft or waxy consistence, 
belong to the Operculata; whilst the epixylous or epiphytal species, 
of more elastic consistence, which approach the Pyrenomycetes, come 
under the Inoperculata. The whole group may be divided into six 
tribes, as follows :— 


I. OprrcuLaTA. 


1. Mitrese :—Morchellee and Helvellez. 
2. Cupulezxe :—Rhizinez and Pezizee. 
3. Lenticuleze :—Ciliariesw, Humariex, and Ascobolez. 


II. Inoprrcunata. 
4. Clavulezx :—Geoglossexe and Leoties. 
5. Carnosezx :—Ombrophilee and Calloriez. 
6. Gathulesw :—Helotiex, Dasyseyphex, and Urceolez. 


_* Bull. Soc. Mycol., 1885. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885). Rev. 
Bibl., p. 129. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 293 


Aspergillus Oryze.*—Herr M. Biisgen has investigated the 
properties of this mould, the agent in the fermentation of the 
Japanese drink “saké.” The mycelium consists of branching 
and septated filaments 7 in thickness; the conidiophores attain a 
length of 1 mm., and the heads of conidia resemble those of 
A. repens. The sterigmata are unbranched, and the greenish-yellow 
conidia 5-7) in diameter, and finely verrucose. Perithecia have not 
been observed. The author considers it certain that this fungus is a 
producer of diastase. 


Poisonous Properties of the Morel.t—Herr E. Jacobasch has 
investigated the alleged poisonous properties of Helvella esculenta. 
He concludes that in all circumstances it is extremely dangerous to 
eat the freshly-gathered fungus raw. Hot water dissolves out a sub- 
stance which renders it extremely poisonous. If kept for a fortnight 
it is still dangerous; and it is only when kept for six or twelve 
months that it can be eaten without suspicion. 


Peziza baccarum.t—Dr. M. Woronin describes the hitherto 
undetected gonidial form of this fungus, the selerotia of which cause 
the bleaching of the fruits of Vaccinium Myrtillus var. leucocarpum. 
The conidia can be niade to germinate in water, and produce round 
spermatia-like sporidia. Their germination on the stigma of the 
Vaccinium produces filaments which penetrate into the ovary, and 
there give rise to sclerotia which almost entirely replace the tissue of 
the berry. Similar parasites attack also the berries of other species 
of Vaccinium. 


Agaricus cirrhatus, a new phosphorescent Fungus.§ —Dr. F. 
Ludwig found a number of specimens of Agaricus (Collybia) cirrhatus 
Pers., the long slender bent stipites of which sprang from small pale- 
yellow or reddish-yellow sclerotia, In the dark, distinct phosphor- 
escence was exhibited by the sclerotia at the spots from which the 
fructifications sprang, and by the pieces of moss and decaying grass- 
stems, &c., in connection with them. 


Pestalozzia. ||Sig. P. Voglino publishes a monograph of this 
genus of Fungi, in which the following new species are described, 
viz.—P. Montellica, on oak-leaves near Treviso; P. affinis, on grape- 
clusters and nut-branches in France ; and P. abietina, on fir-cones in 
Northern Italy, Carinthia, and North America. The author retains 
the threé subgenera of Saccardo, viz. Hu-pestalozzia, Monochetia, 
and Pestalozzina. 


Bommerella, a new genus of Pyrenomycetes.{—M. E. Marchal 
gives the following description of this new genus :—“ Fungus conidio- 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. Generalversammlung, 1885, pp. Ixvi—lxxi. Cf. 
this Journal, vy. (1885) p. 1045. 

+ Verhandl. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, xxv. (1884) pp. ii—viii. 

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. Generalversammlung, 1885, pp. lix.-Lxii. 

§ Hedwigia, xxiv. (1885) pp. 250-1. 

|| Atti Soc. Veneto-Trentina Sci. Nat., ix. (1885), Fasc. 2 (3 pls.). See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 34. 

q CR. Soe. R. Bot. Belgique, 1885, pp. 169-70. 


294 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


phorus Oosporam exhibens. Perithecia superficialia, sparsa, ostiolata, 
contextu parenchymatico fuligineo setis vestita. Asci octospori, 
pedicellati, aparaphysati. Spore eximie triangulares, depress. Par- 
tibus externis sat similis est Chetomio a quo sporarum forma mox 
dignoscitur.” The only species, B. trigonospora, was found on hare’s 
dung. 

Tubercularia persicina Ditm.*—Prof. C. Gobi finds this fungus 
associated with and parasitic on the ecidia and spermogonia of 
Puccinia Poaruwm parasitic on Tussilago Farfara, and also in the 
tissue of the leaves themselves, usually on the under side. The 
pustule consists of a delicate mycelium composed of fine septated 
much-branched hyphe, forming a weft which is especially dense im- 
mediately beneath the epidermis. The spores are produced in great 
numbers beneath the epidermis, which they push up and rupture; 
but they do not constitute a powdery mass, being imbedded in a 
hyaline mucilaginous jelly. The ripe spores are round, oval, or 
pear-shaped, of a delicate lilac colour, with a thick smooth membrane, 
and about 6 » in diameter. In hot dry weather the formation of 
spores is suppressed, and the fertile hyphae become divided by septa 
and assume a lilac colour. This process advances from the periphery © 
of the pustule inwards, gradually forming a pseudo-parenchymatous 
structure or sclerotium. In damp weather these sclerotia are repro- 
ductive, putting out germ-tubes, from the ends of which conidia are 
abstricted. The so-called “ sporidia” are simply vegetative cells of 
the promycelium, and have no sexual functions. 

The author found this fungus also on Sorbus Aucuparia, Paris 
quadrifolia, and Cirsium oleraceum. Its true systematic position he 
considers to be among the Ustilaginesw, and proposes for it the 
generic name Cordalia; this genus and EHntyloma forming together a 
group with spores enveloped in mucilage, which represents a transi- 
tion from the Ustilaginee to the Tremellini. 


Basidiobolus, a new genus of Entomophthoree.{—Dr. H. Hidam 
describes a very peculiar fungus found on the excrement of frogs, 
to which he gives the name Basidiobolus ranarum. 'The conidia are 
produced singly on conidiophores elevated in the air; beneath each 
conidium is a swollen basidium, which, when ripe, is violently de- 
tached along with the conidium, the conidium being again severed 
from its basidium in the act of being thrown off. The conidia may 
be germinated in a nutrient solution, and in two or three days again 
produce on the mycelium conidiophores and an extraordinary number 
of resting-spores. 

The resting-spores or zygospores are produced on the mycelial 
filaments. ‘Two adjacent cells on the same filament put out each a 
beak-like protuberance close to the septum between them, and become 
gametes. One of the gametes always swells up to a spherical form 
close to the septum, while the other remains small; true conjugation 


* Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg, xxxii. (1885) No. 14, 25 pp. (1 col. pl.). 
+ SB. Schles. Gesell. f. Vaterl. Cultur, Nov. 5, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., 
xxiv. (1885) p. 284. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 295 


takes place between them by the coalescence of their contents after 
resorption of the septum; the apices of the protuberances, however, 
remain, and are shut off as small cells. The spherically swollen cell 
then becomes separated as a zygospore, excretes a thick stratified cell- 
wall, which becomes brown and covered with conspicuous warts, and 
which always possesses the characteristic beak. The direct produc- 
tion of zygospores from conidia was also observed, without the 
intervention of a mycelium. 


New Genera of Fungi.*—Among a number of new species of 
fungus from the province of Venice, Sig. G. Bizzozero describes the 
following new genera :— 

Testudina (Perisporiacee). Perithecia sparsa v. sepius dense 
gregaria, superficialia, carbonacea, astoma, globosa v. pyriformia, 
dein in areolas subpentagonas regulariter rupta, basi subnuda. Asci 
globosi-clavati, stipite articulato, longo, subinde ramoso inserti. 
Sporidia ellipsoidea, 1-septata, fuliginea, asperula. On decaying 
yew-leaves. 

Cytoplea (Spheropsidez). Stroma subsuperficiale, pulvinatum, 
confluendo effuso-crustaceum, intus monostiche multi-locellatum ; 
loculis plus v.. minus distincte cuboideis. Sporule ovoideo-oblonge, 
continue, olivaceo-fuligine, initio subcatenulate, stipitate et fili- 
formi-paraphysate. 

Dacrymycella (Hyphomycetes?). Acervuli discoidei, rubro-rosei, 
superficiales, subinde confluentes, initio subgelatinosi, sicci duriusculi, 
nitidi. Basidia distincte et longe ramosa, filiformia, ubique, basi 
excepta, verruculoso-conidifera. Conidia subrotunda, hyalina. 


New Genera of Fungi.{—In the second series of Sigg. P. A. 
Saccardo and A. N. Berlese’s ‘Miscellanea Mycologica, a large 
number of new species are described, together with the following 
new genera:—Among Australian fungi, chiefly collected by Scorte- 
chini in South Queensland :—Scortechinia, belonging to Spheriacee, 
with the single species S. acanthostroma, on the bark of trees; Gibellia, 
intermediate between Botryospheria and Cryptosporella, on decorti- 
cated twigs ; Gamospora, belonging to Spheropsidee, a peculiar genus, 
in which the stylospores are formed, as in Basidiomycetes, in twos or 
threes on the apices of basidia; a single species, G. eriosporoides, on 
unknown coriaceous leaves. Among North American fungi, from 
various collectors :—Martindalia, a genus of Hyphomycetes, with one 
species M. spironema, on an elm-wood vessel in a cellar; Periconiella, 
also belonging to the Hyphomycetes, parasitic on living leaves, 
already described by Winter as a species of Periconia ; Scoriomyces, 
a very remarkable genus of quite uncertain position ; the only species, 
S. Cragini, on the bark of Rhus venenata. Among Italian fungi from 
the province of Padua:—Unceigera, belonging to Hyphomycetes, the 


single species, U. Corde (Fusisporium uncigerum Corda) on elm-leaves. 


* Atti R. Istit. Veneto, iii. (1885) (2 pls.). See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) 
p. 289. . 

+ Atti R. Istit. Veneto, iii. (1885) (4 pls.). See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) 
p- 199. 


296 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


New Fungi.*—Herr H. Zukal describes the following new species 
of fungus, viz.—Hrythrocarpon microstomum, Microascus longirostris, 
Sporormia immersa, Melanospora ornata, and M. Solani, also the 
pycnidia of Spheronema vitreum. Two new Myxomycetes are also 
described, viz. Trichia nana, near to T. fallax, and Amaurochete 
speciosa, distinguished by the structure of its capillitium; and a new 
bacterium, B. tortwosum, forming zoogloeas, and well marked by the 
ribbon-like arrangement of the separate individuals. 


Hetereecious Uredinex.}—Pursuing his investigations of the life- 
history of these fungi, Herr EH. Rostrup has made out that several 
species of Czoma are ecidial forms of Melampsora, M. Caprezearum DC., 
for example, growing on Salix cinerea and S. Caprea, is the second 
generation of Caeoma EHuonymi ; another species growing on S. mollissima, 
viminalis, and other species, is identified with C. Ribesit Lk. found on 
Ribes Grossularia and alpinum ; a Melampsora occurring on Populus 
tremula and alba has its ecidial form in Ceoma Mercurialis Pers. ; 
while C. pinitorquum is connected genetically with a Melampsora 
growing on Populus. . 

Puccinia dioica Magn. was found on Carex dioica, and in close 
proximity specimens of Cirsium palustre attacked by a rare ecidium 
which is probably connected with it. A new ecidium, 4. Cinerarie, 
was found on Cineraria palustris, and close by Eriophorum angustifolium 
attacked by Puccinia Eriophort. 

The author makes the observation, in conclusion, that it is not 
uncommon, in experimental sowings, for the spores to germinate in 
the leaves of plants which are not normally attacked by them, and 
there to produce spermogonia and uredospores in small quantities ; 
and this may occur also in nature. Thus among a number of speci- 
mens of Senecio vulgaris largely attacked by Coleosporium Senecionis, 
was one of Crepis tectorum, a single leaf of which bore a single sorus 
of the parasite; Gymnosporangium clavarizforme produces, on pear- 
leaves, only spermogonia, not roestelie; and Cromartium ribicola, 
very common on Ribes nigrum, occurs only rarely and exceptionally 
on other species of the genus. 


New Uredinex.{—Herr W. Voss describes a new species of 
Uredinese, Puccinia (Pucciniopsis) carniolica, found on Peucedanum 
Schotiu, in two of its forms, the hymenium-form (Aicidiwm Peucedant) 
and the teleutospore form. Also the three forms of Uromyces 
(Huuromyces) Cytisi Schrét., viz.:—the hymenium-form (Afcidium 
Cytisi), the stylospore-form, and the teleutospore-form (Uredo Cytisi 
DC., U. Laburni DC., Uromyces Laburni ¥ck., U. Cytisi Schrot.). He 
also gives the distinguishing diagnoses of the following species of 
Puccinia, viz.—P. Falcariz, P. carniolica, P. Bunii, and P. Smyrnit. 


* Verhandl. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxy. (1885) pp. 332-45 (1 pl.). 
See Oester. Bot. Zeitschr., xxxvi. (1886) p. 64. 

t Overs. K. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk. Forhandl., 1884 (1 pl.). See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 97. Cf. this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 421. 

t Oester. Bot. Zeitschr., xxxy. (1885) pp. 420-3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 297 


Gymnosporangia of the United States.**—Prof. W. G. Farlow 
has pursued his experiments of sowing various species of Gymnos- 
porangium on different trees belonging to the Rosacee. Spermogonia 
showed themselves on Crategus oxyacantha, Douglasii, and tomen- 
tosa, after sowing with the spores of Gymnosporangium fuscum var. 
globosum, macropus, and clavipes, and on CO. tomentosa and Amelanchier 
canadensis with the spores of G. biseptatum. G. Ellisii gave no result. 

The author believes the ecidium of G. biseptatum to be probably 
Restelia botryapites, that of G. globosum to be R. aurantiaca, and that 
of G. macropus to be a Restelia growing especially on the plum and 
on Amelanchier. 

The author has found in the White Mountains a Peridermium 
growing on Abies nigra, resembling P. abietinum, associated in Europe 
with Chrysomyxa Rhododendri and Ledi. C. Ledi was found in the 
same region, in June, on Ledum latifolium. In July the leaves of 
the same Ledum ne longer exhibited the Chrysomyxa, but two uredos, 
Uredo ledicola on the upper surface, and on the lower surface another 
apparently distinct species. 


Elaphomyces and Fir-roots.t—Herr,M. Reess regards the hyphal 
covering so frequently found on the roots of firs as Elaphomyces 
granulatus ; and though it is probable that in the other trees in which 
this phenomenon is known, the species of fungus may be different, he 
has always found this present in the neighbourhood of Monotropa. 
He describes further the development of the fructification, which at 
first has no immediate contact with the root, but is at length always 
enveloped in the hyphal root-cover. 


Apple-scab and Leaf-blight.t—Mr. W. Trelease has carefully 
investigated this disease, caused by Fusicladium dendriticum. He 
describes in detail the blotches on the leaves and on the fruit, which 
are due to the same cause. The effect of the parasite is to remove all 
the products of assimilation from the leaves, and hence render them 
functionless. In the fruit it does not penetrate below the epidermal 
cells, but obtains nourishment from the hypodermal cells, which it 
kills. It does not injure the seeds. In older fruits the part infected 
by the parasite is usually thrown off and replaced by cork. The 
spores appear to be retained and to germinate in depressions of the 
epidermis caused by the puncture of insects or by lenticels. 


New Fungus parasitic on the Olive.s—Under the name Inzengxa 
asterosperma, Sig. A. Borzi describes a new species and genus of fungus 
which forms a dense mould on olives. The mycelium is septated and 
much branched, and gives.a beautiful blue colour with iodine. The 
conidiophores arise erect, a number being united on the same stalk, 


* Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci. and Arts, 1885. Cf. this Journal, i. (1881) p. 774. 

+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 293-5 and Generalversammlung, 
1885, pp. lxiii-lxiv. Cf. this Journal, v. (1885) pp. 844, 1025. 

¢ First Ann. Rep. Agricult. Experiment. Station at Wisconsin for 1883 (1885) 
pp. 45-56 (8 pls.). 

§ L’Agricoltore Messinese, viii. (1885) No. 1. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. 
(1885) p. 14. 


298 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


and closely resemble those of a Stilbwm. The conidia are spherical 
or ovoid, colourless or light pink, forming terminal chains; they 
germinate very readily, the new mycelium producing again conidia 
after twelve hours. 

Sexual organs are also produced, pollinodia and carpogonia. The 
former have the form of elongated swollen vesicles, or short pedicels 
consisting of three or four cells. The carpogonium is a relatively 
thick branch of the mycelium, rich in protoplasm, attaching itself to 
the pollinodium, and winding round it in a two- or three-fold spiral. 
The author could not detect any act of impregnation, and believes 
that reproduction is apogamic. The pollinodium appears to have no 
further function; the carpogonium divides into several cells, and 
developes by branching into a small ball, the rudiment of the re- 
ceptacle. The enveloping hyphe become differentiated into an outer 
and inner layer of the perithecium; the central part becomes the 
fertile tissue, in which are ultimately developed the asci, each 
containing eight ascospores, which escape when ripe through an 
ostiole. 

The arrangement of the asci in the perithecium brings Inzengzea 
near the Tuberacer, and especially to Elaphomyces, differing from . 
this genus in the presence of an ostiole. The author regards it as 
possibly presenting a transition to the Perisporiacez. 


Olive-disease.*—M. HE. Prillieux points out that the disease of 
the olive-trees known as “noir” or “morfée” is frequently of a 
double character, consisting of a blackish coating, and a honey-dew- 
like exudation. The former is caused by a Fumago which multiplies 
very readily by gemmez, every cell being reproductive. 'The honey- 
dew-like exudation is the result of the puncture of the leaves by an 
insect, Chermes oleze, which thus inflicts a double injury on the tree, 
the sweet viscid exudation both fixing the spores of the fungus, and 
furnishing a nidus in which they increase with great rapidity. 


New Parasitic Fungus.t—Under the name Trichospheria nigra 
Prof. R. Hartig describes a newly detected parasite on fir-branches. . 
The mycelium is dark-brown and perennial. Extremely delicate 
haustoria perforate the thick outer wall of the epidermal cells of the 
host, the mycelium itself entering the tissue through the stomata. 
The perithecia appear in large numbers on the surface; they are 
large, spherical, and covered with hairs. 

Trametes radiciperda and Polyporus annosus.{—Prof. R. Hartig 
points out the great difference between these two fungi, which have 
frequently been confounded. 


Fungus in Human Saliva.§—In studying the parasitic organisms 
of the saliva, M. V. Galippe observed, during the process of filtration, 


* Bull. du Ministere d’ Agriculture, iv. pp. 239 et seg. See Bull. Soc. Bot. 
France, xxxil. (1885), Rev. Bibl., p. 121. ; 

+ SB. Bot. Ver. Miinchen, Feb. 11, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1885) 
p- 363. 

{ SB. Bot. Ver. Miinchen, Feb. 11, 1885. See Bot. Contralbl., xxiii. (1885) 
p. 362. 
§ Journ, Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), xxi. (1885) pp. 538-53 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 299 


a mycelium growth with spores. He was able to cultivate the fungus 
and to trace its development. Care was of course taken during |jthe 
sowing, &c., to prevent the entrance of foreign spores. He dis- 
tinguishes the following stages: (1) Seven hours after sowing, some 
of the spores had formed at one end a small increasing sphere, at first 
homogeneous, but soon exhibiting refracting granules; (2) after an 
equal lapse of time, a third expansion from the primitive spore was ob- 
served, and occasionally two symmetrically situated; (3) in three or 
four days these expansions have elongated, and formed numerous inter- 
twining lateral branches; (4) the interior of the mycelium tubes 
becomes granular, apparently containing refracting bodies, and the 
partitions make their appearance ; (5) the ends of the lateral branches, 
or sometimes of the terminal expansions, become swollen; in the 
centre of the swelling a small refracting and protoplasmic mass 
becomes visible; (6) the first spore is thus formed, or if the branch 
has bifurcated a primitive spore is produced at the end of each fork. 
If the conditions are favourable the further fructification is quickly 
developed, behind the first spore a second is formed, and so on; a 
chaplet of twenty to twenty-five may be formed, but the number is 
very variable. The oldest, that is, the most terminal, are sometimes 
separated off. 

The spores themselves were elliptical, measured 6°36 » by 
5°26 pw, exhibited a double contour and translucent contents, be- 
coming granular as germination began. They varied considerably 
in contour and content, according to the season and the surroundings. 
M. Galippe is uncertain whether the fungus was originally in the 
saliva, or whether the spores insinuate themselves from the hospital 
or laboratory atmosphere into the filtering apparatus, but inclines to 
the latter hypothesis. 

According to Prof. P. Van Tieghem the fungus is neither an 
Aspergillus nor a Penicillium, while Prof. M. Cornu referred it to the 
genus Monilia. M. Galippe has therefore defined it as MW. sputicola 
nov. sp. 


New Diseases of Cultivated Plants.*—Herr E. Rostrup records 
the following new observations :— 

In a field of clover consisting of Trifolium repens, hybridum, and 
pratense, and Medicago lupulina, many of the plants of Medicago were 
found to be dying. On both root and stem were found black 
tuberous sclerotia, which on germinating developed a fungus with a 
layer of acicular paraphyses, and club-shaped asci with numerous 
minute spores. It was named by the author Vibrissea sclerotiorum. 

In a field of barley many of the plants were sickly, the leaves 
discoloured and flaccid, and the whole plant overrun by Penicillium, 
Cladosporium, and Macrosporium. The cells of the stem were found 
to be almost entirely filled by a mycelium, producing smooth yellow 
spores closely resembling those of Pythium deBaryanum, not pre- 
viously observed on barley. 


* “Oversigt ov. d. i 1884 indlobne Forespérgsler angaaende Sygdomme hos 
Kulturplanter,’ Copenhagen, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 47. 


300 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Bhizoctonia violacea was found in vigorous development on Tri- 
folium repens, pratense, and hybridum, usually attacking the upper 
part of the root, causing it to put out a number of new roots. Ripe 
sporangia were found only on completely rotten roots. 


New Peronospora of the Vine.*—Sig. G. Arcangeli has observed 
on a number of vine-stocks from seeds brought from Cochin-China a 
Peronospora differing from P. viticola dBy. in the smaller size of the 
spores ; their length being 11-13 yw and their breadth 9-11 p, instead 
of a length of 16-23 « and breadth 12-15 y, as in the latter species. 
Since, however, the vines on which it was found were always in close 
proximity to American vines attacked by the common Peronospora, 
he is disposed to regard it as a degraded variety of the latter, and 
proposes the name Peronospora viticola dBy. var. Ampelocissi. 


Oidium albicans.{—Herr H. Plaut contests Grawitz’s view that this 
fungus (“der Soorpilz”’) is identical with Mycoderma vini. He gives 
the results in detail of cultivations of the microbe from men, children, 
and fowls. In fermentable fluids it produces, when luxuriant, mode- 
rately strong fermentation, while Saccharomyces Mycoderma produces 
only very slight fermentation, and soon dies. 'The Oidiwm shows no 
intercellular formation of spores, while, according to Reess and 
Cienkowski, S. Mycoderma does. In its yeast-form the Oidium is 
more nearly spherical, S. Mycoderma ellipsoidal or fusiform. Pure 
culture of Oidium reproduces the same form; that of S. Mycoderma 
remains without result. The author considers the Ocdiwm as more 
nearly allied to Monilia candida Bon. or to Hansen’s new species of 
that genus. 


Mycology of Rome.{—Sigg. P. Baccarini and C. Avetta describe 
116 Micromycetes from the neighbourhood of Rome, 98 of which are 
new to the district. The following three species are described for the 
first time, viz.:—Chetomidium Pircuniz, on rotting wood of Pircunia 
dioica; Metaspheria Ferulz, on dead branches of Ferula communis ; 
and Cucurbitaria hirtella, on rotten branches of Sambucus. 


Fossil Chytridiacea.s—MM. B. Renault and C. E. Bertrand find, 
in the superficial cells of the seeds of Sphxrospermum oblongum, a 
fossil gymnosperm from the upper “terrain houiller,” the mycelium 
and sporangia of a fungus which they name Grilletia Spherospermi, 
and refer to the Chytridiacee. The sporangia are naked, ovate, and 
swollen on one side where the opening occurs, without any oper- 
culum. It differs from other Chytridiacez in the absence of an 
operculum and neck to the sporangia, in the presence of a mycelium, 
and in its habit. It appears to develope in the seeds when they 
begin to decay. 


* Atti Soc. Toscana Sci. Nat., iv. (1885) pp. 181-3. 

+ Plaut, H., ‘Beitr. zur systemat. Stellung des Soorpilzes,’ 16 pp., 8vo, 
Leipzig, 1885. Cf. this Journal, iil. (1883) p. 540. 

t Ann. Istit. Bot. di Roma, i. (1885) Fasc. 2 (1 pl.). See Bot. Centralbl., 
xxiv. (1885) p. 33. 2 

§ Comptes Rendus, c. (1885) p. 1306. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 301 


Protophyta. 


Nucleus in Yeast-cells.*—Herr F. Krasser has endeavoured care- 
fully to test the accuracy of the statements of Schmitz, Strasburger, 
and De Bary of the presence of a nucleus in the cells of Saccharomyces 
cerevisiz, but with entirely negative results, using as staining mate- 
rials hematoxylin and hematein-ammonia, as well as other reagents, 
such as carmine, saffranin, &e. With the ammoniacal staining mate- 
rials he was sometimes able to colour granular structures, but these 
could not with certainty be recognized as nuclei, especially as they 
occurred also in cells from which the nuclein had been removed. 
The author states that the nucleus always contains nuclein, but the 
converse is not always true, that the presence of nuclein indicates a 
nucleus, the facts rather pointing to the conclusion that in the cells 
of yeast the nuclein is distributed through the protoplasm. 


Nomenclature of Schizomycetes.t—Herr H. Buchner considers 
that the various species of Schizomycetes are constant, but that they 
are subjected to a great variety of “ growth-forms,” according to their 
vital conditions. In order to avoid the confusion at present pre- 
vailing in their nomenclature, he proposes to retain the Latin names 
Micrococcus, Bacillus, &c., to designate the species, and some such 
scheme as the following for the “ growth-forms.” 


A. Forms isolated in their growth. 


Spherical form. The longitudinal and transverse diameters equal. 
Oval form. Longitudinal not more than double transverse 


diameter. 
Short-rod form. Longitudinal 2-4 times transverse diameter. 
Long-rod form. a 5 oe 
Filiform form. Longitudinal more than eight times transverse 
diameter. 


Semi-helix or Comma form, A very short helix of not more than 
a single circuit. 

Long-heliz or Spiral form. Two or more circuits of the helix. 

Spindle form. Rod with fusiform ends. 

Oval-rod form. Ends less pointed than spindle-form ; longitudinal 
2-4 times transverse diameter. 

Club form. Rod with end thickened on one side. 


B. Forms united in their growth. 


Double-sphere form. Union of two spheres. When the separation 
is barely indicated :—Hour-glass form. 

Row-of-spheres form. Union of spheres up to eight. When the 
separation is barely indicated :—Torula form. 

Filament-of-spheres form. Union of more than eight spheres. 
When curved :—Rosette form. When the separation is barely 
indicated :— Torulose filaments. 


* Oester. Bot. Zeitschr., xxxv. (1885) pp. 373-7. 
t+ SB. Gesell. Morphologie u. Physiologie Miinehen, June 23, 1885. See 
Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 258. 


302 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Cluster form. A cluster of a number of spheres. 

Double-rod form. Composed of two short rods. When composed 
of more than two :—Filament-of-rods form. 

Tetrahedral or Cubical form. Spheres or short rods united in 
fours in one or two layers. 


Microbe of Rabies.*—Prof. H. Fol gives an account of a microbe, 
the presence of which appears to be associated with hydrophobia. 
The preparations were made by hardening the spinal cord or brain by 
immersion, directly after death, in a solution of 2:5 grms. bichromate 
of potash, and 1 gramme of sulphate of copper in 100 parts of water ; 
the piece of tissue is divided so as to be able to take up Weigert’s 
solution of hematoxylin, then placed in absolute alcohol, imbedded 
in paraffin, and cut into sections not more than 1/200 mm. in thick- 
ness. In these preparations, when carefully cecolorized, we see 
groups of small globules, not unlike micrococci. If a cultivation be 
made of part of the brain there is a deposit which, on inoculation 
into healthy animals, produces all the features of rabies. If, however, 
the cultivation be more than six days old, there are no marked toxic 
effects. M. Pasteur had already recognized the presence of certain 
granulations in the spinal cord of rabid animals, but they were not 
sufficiently fully described to enable M. Fol to say whether or no 
they are the same as the microbes which he has been able to detect ; 
nothing can be distinctly made out by merely reducing the nervous 
tissue to a pulp, and examining it microscopically as recommended by 
M. Gibier. 


Microbes of Calf-lymph.j—Fermenting forms of Saccharomyces 
have been found only exceptionally in vaccine taken directly from the 
arm of children, in capillary tubes with glycerin-lymph, and in the 
lymph of children dried in the air; but are found abundantly in calf- 
lymph cultivated on Koch’s gelatin-plates, and on malt-extract gelatin- 
plates. Herr L. Pfeiffer describes these forms in detail. They 
consist of elongated or spherical budding cells 1:5 pw by 4 p, 
varying in form according to the nutrient fluid. The author regards 
them as probably derivatives of higher fungi such as Ustilagines, 
which have reached the cattle through the fodder. Pfeiffer thus 
describes the hypothetical Saccharomyces vaccine :—Small, roundish, 
or ellipsoidal cells, single or united into chains, of 1:5—-4°5 » diameter, 
usually with a vacuole in the centre, and a shining lateral nucleus. 
The gemmation is evident on a fresh nutrient substratum, with no 
formation of mycelium nor of internal spores. In beer-wort they 
cause no or very little alcoholic fermentation. 


Action of Sunlight on Micro-organisms, &c.t—Dr. A. Downes 
has previously shown that sunlight is fatal to microsaprophytes by a 
process of hyper-oxidation thereby induced. In this process the more 


* Comptes Rendus, ci, (1885) pp. 1276-9. Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xiv. 
(1885) pp. 549-53. 

+ Pfeiffer, L., ‘Ueber Sprosspilze der Kalber-lymphe, Weimar, 1885. See 
Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 176. 

{ Proc. Roy. Soc., xl. (1886). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. " We 


refrangible rays were the most active. In the course of the induction 
which led to this conclusion two other facts of importance were 
elicited. The molecule of oxalic acid was speedily resolved into 
water and carbonic acid by the combined effect of light and free 
oxygen, and a typical representative of the diastases, the invertive 
ferment of cane-sugar, had its qualities completely destroyed by sun- 
light, which was, however, without effect in a vacuum or a neutral 
atmosphere. During the past eight years evidence confirmatory of 
these conclusions has accumulated from various sources, and the 
principal facts are reviewed by the author. 

After referring to the observations of Warington and others on 
the nitrifying ferment, of Tyndall in regard to the insolation of 
putrefiable infusions under an Alpine sun, and to others, Dr. Downes 
summarizes the recent results of Duclaux,* who finds, from an ex- 
amination of several species, that Micrococci are apparently far more 
sensitive to sunlight than the more resistant spore-forming Bacilli. 
Duclaux, who has likewise observed the destructive effect of sunlight 
on a diastase, agrees that this injurious action on germs is an affair of 
oxidation. In his previous papers the author had noted the different 
powers of resistance of various organisms to sunlight, notably of 
Saccharomycetes or Mucedines, as compared with Bacteria. He now 
describes a specially resistant Bacterium, roughly resembling, but not 
identical with, the Ascobacterium of Van Tieghem, of which he finds 
no previous record. 

In refuting the conclusion of Jamieson, an Australian observer, 
that both he and Prof. Tyndall had mistaken effects of heat for effects 
of radiant energy distinct from heat, Dr. Downes describes recent ex- 
periments of his own, which indicate that a similar action, though of 
course in a less degree, is exercised by diffused light. He concludes 
with a reference to the well-known observations of Pringsheim on the 
destruction of vegetable protoplasm by the more refrangible rays, and 
claims them as evidence of the truth of his former generalization, 
that the hyper-oxidation of protoplasm by light is a general law, from 
the action of which living organisms require to be shielded by a 
variety of protective developments of cell-wall, aggregation of tissue 
or colouring matter, and in other ways. 


* See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 1047. 


304 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


MICROSCOPY. 
a Instruments, Accessories, &c.* 


Fol’s Travelling and Dissecting Microscope.—Prof. H. Fol’s 
Travelling Microscope is shown in fig. 45. 

As will be seen, the upper portion is similar to the large Micro- 
scope of the Geneva Society (cf. Vol. IV. 1884, p. 281), while the 
folding base is made on the ingenious plan of the Travelling 
Microscope of the same manufacturers (cf. tom. cit., p. 437). 

The new points (in addition to the special stability and size of 
the stage, unusual in “Travelling” Microscopes) are : (1) the stage and 


Fic. 45. Fic. 46. 


substage, both of which are movable on a single rack, and (2) the 
incandescent electric lamp of four candle power attached to the 
front of the cross arm, and worked by a bichromate battery of four 
elements.. The lamp can also be attached beneath the stage when 
desired. 

Another point is (3) that the instrument can be converted 


* This subdivision is arranged in the following order :—(1) Stands; (2) Kye- 
pieces and Objectives; (3) Illuminating Apparatus; (4) Other Accessories ; 
(5) Photo-micrography; (6) Manipulation; (7) Microscopical Optics, Books, 
and Miscellaneous matters. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 805 


into a Dissecting Microscope, as shown in fig. 46. It is for this 
use of the instrument that the stage is made to move up and down by 
rack and pinion, so as to form a fine adjustment.* 


Helmholtz’s Vibration Microscope.;—Professor H. L. F,. Helm- 
holtz’s instrument (fig. 47) is thus described by him. 


Fia. 47. 


“ No complete mechanical theory can yet be given for the motion 
of strings excited by the violin bow, because the mode in which the 
bow affects the motion of the string is unknown. But by applying a 


* The Microscope is briefly described in Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xiv. (1885) 
Pp vee but the above figs. are taken from photographs kindly sent us by 

rof, Fol. 

+ Helmholtz, H. L. F., ‘On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for 
the Theory of Music, 2nd Eng. ed. by A. J. Ellis, London, 1885, pp. 80-2 
(2 figs.). ‘Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen,’ 4te Ausg., Braunschweig, 
1877, pp. 137-41 (2 figs.). 

Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. ; D4 


306 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


peculiar method of observation, proposed in its essential features by 
the French physicist Lissajous, I have found it possible to observe the 
vibrational form of individual points in a violin string, and from this 
observed form, which is comparatively very simple, to calculate the 
whole motion of the string, and the intensity of the upper partial ones. 

Look through a hand magnifying glass consisting of a strong 
convex lens, at any small bright object, as a grain of starch reflecting 
a flame, and appearing as a fine point of light. Move the lens about 
while the point of light remains at rest, and the point itself will 
appear to move. In the apparatus I have employed, which is shown 
in fig. 47, this lens is fastened to the end of one prong of the tuning- 
fork G. It is in fact a combination of two achromatic lenses, like 
those used for the object-glasses of Microscopes. ‘These two lenses 
may be used alone as a doublet, or be combined with others. When 
more magnifying power is required, we can introduce behind the 
metal plate which carries the fork, the tube and eye-piece of a 
Microscope M of which the doublet then forms the object-glass. 
This instrument may be called a Vibration Microscope. 

The end of the other prong of the fork is thickened to counter-. 
balance the weight of the doublet. The iron loop B, whichis clamped — 
on to one prong, serves to alter the pitch of the fork slightly ; we flatten 
the pitch by moving the loop towards the end of the prong. E is an 
electro-magnet by which the fork is kept in constant uniform vibra- 
tion on passing intermittent electrical currents through its wire coils. 

When the instrument is so arranged that a fixed luminous point 
may be clearly seen through it, and the fork is set in vibration, the 
doublet moves periodically up and down in pendular vibrations. 
The observer, however, appears to see the luminous point itself 
vibrate, and, since the separate vibrations succeed each other so 
rapidly that the impression on the eye cannot die away during the 
time of a whole vibration, the path of the luminous point appears as a 
fixed straight line, increasing in length with the excursions of the fork. 

The grain of starch which reflects the light to be seen, is then 
fastened to the resonant body whose vibrations we intend to observe, 
in such a way that the grain moves backwards and forwards hori- 
zontally, while the doublet moves up and down vertically. When 
both motions take place at once, the observer sees the real horizontal 
motion of the luminous point combined with its apparent vertical 

motion, and the combination results in an apparent curvilinear motion. 
The field of vision in the Microscope then shows an apparently steady 
and unchangeable bright curve, when either the periodic times of the 
vibrations of the grain of starch and of the tuning-fork are exactly 
equal, or one is exactly two or three or four times as great as the 
other, because in this case the luminous point passes over exactly the 
same path every one or every two, three, or four vibrations. If these 
ratios of the vibrational numbers are not exactly perfect, the curves 
alter slowly, and the effect to the eye is as if they were drawn on the 
surface of a transparent cylinder which slowly revolved on its axis. 
This slow displacement of the apparent curves is not disadvantageous, 
as it allows the observer to see them in different positions. But if 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 307 


the ratio of the pitch numbers of the observed body and of the 
fork differs too much from one expressible by small whole numbers, 
the motion of the curve is too rapid for the eye to follow it, and all 
becomes confusion. 

If the Vibration Microscope has to be used for observing the motion 
of a violin string, the luminous point must be attached to that string. 
This is done by first marking the required spot on the string with 
ink, and, when it is dry, rubbing it over with wax, and powdering 
this with starch so that two or three grains remain sticking. The 
violin is then fixed with its strings in a vertical direction opposite the 
Microscope, so that the luminous reflection from one of the grains of 
starch can be clearly seen. The bow is drawn across the strings in a 
direction parallel to the prongs of the fork. Every point in the string 
then moves horizontally, and on setting the fork in motion at the 
same time the observer sees the peculiar vibrational curves already 
mentioned.” 


Reichert’s Stand with New Stage and Iris Diaphragm.—Herr 
C. Reichert has adapted to this stand (fig. 50) an arrangement for 
moving the object in two directions, which, like that of Mr. J. Mayall 
jun., does not necessitate 
any addition to the thick- Fic. 48. 
ness of the stage so as to 
interfere with the illu- (| 
mination. ral 
The arrangment is i= 
shown in fig. 50 in situ, 
and also separately at fig. Iie 
48. The glass slip is held a 
between two clips r r. ia 
These clips are attached 
to a nickel-plated frame hel = sai 
which slides on the upper 
surface of the stage, and is 
secured in place by grooves 
at the side. A projecting tail-piece with a rack on the under side 
passes through the limb of the Microscope, and the frame is moved 
from back to front by a pinion in the limb, which is actuated by the 
milled heads h’ h'. The motion of the slide from side to side is effected 
by the milled heads hh, which by 
means of a screw move the piece to Fic. 49. 
which the clips are attached. The * 
clips consist of two metal plates, with 
a piece of indiarubber between, slightly 
projecting laterally, so that the metal 
is not in contact with the slide. By 
loosening the screws / 1 the clips can 
be brought closer together, so as to 
grasp the slide tightly, which is thus 
moved on the surface of the stage without any intermediate support. 
The Abbe condenser is shown in figs. 49 and 50. Itis movable by 
x 2 


C. REICHERT 


Lurosie 


[MIKROSCOPISCHES |] =| 


= 


i T HE 


: i _& ik i 


lone mT 


aA 


308 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Fig. 50. 


a lt 


Hii; i) 


Reicuerv’s SranD witH New SrTaGe anp Iris DIAPHRAGM. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 809 


rack and pinion on the bar u. The diaphragm slide f can be rotated 
on the ring g, and also moved excentrically by the milled head i. 
The lenses m are attached to a slide b. A rotating stop at k 
prevents the condenser from being racked off the bar u unless desired. 
A pin p serves as a guide for the condenser on the other side of 
the stage. 

A novelty in a Continental Microscope is the iris-diaphragm N 
(figs. 51 and 52), the first we have seen. It is made on G. Wale’s 


Fia. 52. 


am Wt 
1 
Samii. i - 
Sa Till! Ses 
LALLA if)" 5S 


plan ; the rotation of the cone n by ¢ causes the pieces of which the 
iris is composed to close or open; 0 is a cap. 


Thoma’s Microscope for observing the Circulation of the 
Blood.*—This Microscope was designed by Prof. R. Thoma, to observe 
the circulation of the blood (and especially inflammatory disturbances 
of the circulation), not in frogs, but in warm-blooded animals, using 
for the purpose the mesentery of dogs, cats, guinea-pigs, &c. For 
this purpose a very large stage is of course necessary, with some 
kind of heating apparatus, and it is also desirable to be able to keep 
a stream of liquid constantly flowing over the part of the animal 
under observation, as previously recommended by the author (see infra, 
Thoma’s frog-plate). 

The instrument as now made by Herr Jung of Heidelberg, is 
shown in fig. 58. It consists of a stout iron stand, with a wooden 
top 191 x 10 in., which forms the base plate of the stage. The 
Microscope keys into the lower part of the frame by a stud pin 
beneath the standard, so that it can be removed as required. The 
mirror is attached to the front foot of the tripod of the Microscope. 
On the wooden base-plate is a second plate of wood of the same size 
as the lower one. It is unattached, and can be moved about by the 
hand as desired. To ease the friction, the bottom of the plate has 
four brass-headed nails on which it moves. To maintain an approxi- 
mate equilibrium, a cord and weight are fixed to each of the front 
corners, the cords passing over pulleys projecting from the lower 
plate. The latter has a horseshoe aperture just beneath the body- 
tube, and the upper plate has a circular aperture, over which is fixed 


* Arch, f. Pathol. Anat, u. Physiol. (Virchow), lxxiv. (1878) pp. 360-93 (1 pl.). 


Fia. 53. 


310 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


a “hot stage.” This consists of a box 45 x 23 x 1 in., through 
which is an aperture for illumination closed at the top and bottom by 
glass plates. Hot water is brought to the box by the tube on the left 
and passes away through the waste-pipe on the right. <A third 


opening with a tap allows air-bubbles to be eliminated. The arrange- 
ment for irrigating the object consists of a rod and clamp for 
supporting a tube, through which the liquid can be directed upon the 
object. The stage being inclined at an angle of about 20° the liquid 


THoMA’s MICROSCOPE FOR OBSERVING THE CIRCULATION or THE Boop. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 311 


flows to the side next to the Microscope, and is prevented by a raised 
ledge from running off, except through the two tubes on either side 
of the Microscope which are connected with the waste-pipe. Twelve 
nails in the sides and on the top of the upper plate are for the cords 
used in tying the animal. 

The author also describes and 
figures the arrangement of water- 
bath, heating and irrigating appa- 
ratus, cork plates, &c., of which he 
made use, and gives directions for 
examining the mesentery, as well as 
a full description of the results of 
his researches. 


Watson’s Collectors’ Pocket 
Microscope.—This instrument (fig. 
54), made by Messrs. Watson and 
Sons, is a small compound Micro- 
scope with 4 in. body-tube and 
a 2 in. objective, mounted on an 
upright pillar, which screws into a 
round brass base-plate. There are 
universal motions, so that the tube 
may be pointed in any direction for 
the best illumination of the object. 
The body-tube slides in an outer 
tube or jacket for adjustment of 
focus, and at the object end of this 
is a hollow cut for a test-tube to lie 
across the optic axis, being held = 
there while being examined by an ——— 
elastic band. Ordinary slides (3 
x 1 in.) may also be held in the same manner. The instrument, and 
three glass specimen tubes, pack into a flat case 54 x 53 x 1} in. 


Cheap Dissecting Microscope.*—Prof. C. R. Barnes writes as 
follows :—“ No laboratory or workers need be unsupplied with dis- 
secting Microscopes. If even the cheapest form manufactured by the 
opticians is beyond the means of the school or individual, an effective 
stand may be made as follows :—Into any block of wood of suitable 
size fix upright a short piece of stiff wire or rod having a smooth 
surface. Bore a hole in a fine-grained cork, a little to one side of 
the centre, so that the cork will slide smoothly on the rod. Bend 
one end of the smaller wire into suitable shape to hold whatever lens 
is at hand, and make a hole of proper size in the cork at right angles 
to the first. This arrangement gives ample and smooth movements 
of the lens in any direction for adjustment. The plan may be 
elaborated to any desired extent. If the rod be fixed in a plain 
piece of board, dissecting may be done on a piece of glass laid flat on 


* Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) pp. 427-8. 


312 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


the board. Pieces of black or white paper underneath will give the 
backgrounds against which any object may be seen. For dissecting 
in liquid a deep butter-plate answers well. If it is desired to have 
transmitted light, the object may be dissected on the bottom of 
an inverted tumbler which has a smooth concavity. Sloping blocks 
may be placed at the sides for hand-rests. Still better illumination 
may be had by fixing two such blocks, one on each side of the upright 
rod, and placing between them a strip of mirror-glass inclined to an 
angle of 30°-40°. In fact, with a little ingenuity and mechanical 
skill, one may construct a stand for dissecting which will equal in 
efficiency any of the simple Microscopes offered for sale.” 


Hand-rests.*—Dr. R. H. Ward describes the hand-rests which he 
has been accustomed to use, and which are made of mahogany strips 
about 1 cm. thick, and 10 to 12 cm. wide, constructed as shown in 
front view in fig. 55. 


Fic. 55. 


The rests are attached by hinges, and are held down firmly with 
brass hooks, hinged strips supporting the rests at the desired height 
and in an inclined position. Wooden buttons, held by large screws 
fastened with brass nuts below, hold the base of the Microscope firmly 


in position. The hinges are all so arranged that the strips can be 
folded together solidly, for portability, as shown in fig. 56, and held 
in that position by the same hooks as when open. By a slight change 
in size it is applicable to any dissecting Microscope. It should be 
made of such size that the upper ends of the rests will be nearly 


* Behrens’ ‘Microscope in Botany’ (Amer. ed. by Hervey and Ward), 8yo, 
Boston, 1885, pp. 108-10 (2 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSOOPY, ETC. ole 


continuous with, or slightly below, the stage of the Microscope. 
Exact approximation is not necessary. When properly adjusted, the 
rest is perfectly firm and steady. When portability is not required, 
the hinges and hooks may be dispensed with, and the wooden strips 
fastened together with glue and brads. 


Astigmatic Eye-piece.*—Mr. E. Gundlach discusses the nature 
of astigmatism and its interference with the perfect use of the eye, as 
well as the relation of the astigmatic eye to the use of optical in- 
struments and the injurious efiects of astigmatism on microscopic 
observations. 

As a remedy he proposes the use of an eye-piece of an asymmetric 
form, so as to just neutralize the asymmetry of the crystalline lens of 
the eye. This can best be done by making the outer surface cylin- 
drical instead of spherical or plane. It may be made either concave 
or convex as the requirements of the case may demand. The eye- 
piece must be constructed with special regard to the purpose, so as 
to place the asymmetric surface in such close proximity to the eye 
that no perceptible secondary distortion is produced by the oblique 
direction of the eye towards the edge of the field, and at the same 
time the prismatic colours dispersed in the direction of the astigmatic 
distortion must be neutralized. 

Mr. Gundlach intends to construct such eye-pieces, and expects to 
start witha lin. To enable the applicant, for this special purpose 
at least, to be his own examiner for astigmatism, he intends to furnish 
with the eye-piece three eye-glasses, alike in mounting but different 
in the degree of asymmetry, for selection; the difference being such 
as to practically approach both limits of common astigmatism. 
The one of the three lenses nearest in asymmetry to that of the eye 
will correct the astigmatism to an undisturbing minimum. The 
observer will then have to test all the lenses, beginning with the 
weakest, on a suitable object, slowly revolving the eye-piece until 
its best position is found. Mark this position, and do the same 
thing with the other lenses. After this, compare the action of the 
lenses, each in its best position, to find the one best fitted for the 
eye. Of course the eye-piece, or rather its asymmetric eye-lens, 
must then always be used in the same position to the astigmatic 
axis. 

Dr. J. K. Stockwell considers * that while Mr. Gundlach’s plan 
is quite feasible and very excellent in optical results, there are several 
serious objections that may be mentioned. 

The first, and perhaps most tenable one, is the fact that while the 
eye-piece would perfectly suit the person for whom it was made,— 
one eye at least—not another one in several thousand could use it, 
unless it was so constructed as to admit of having the eye-lens, the 
asymmetric part, readily removed and replaced by a symmetrical one, 
and the optical results would not be commensurate with the trouble 
and expense involved. 

Complicated combinations of spherical and cylindrical lenses, 


* The Microscope, vi. (1886) pp. 1-4. + Ibid., pp. 29-32. 


314 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


requiring plus and minus lenses of both kinds, ranging in focal 
distance from six inches in extreme to seventy or one hundred in mild 
cases, and skill and experience are necessary to correct astigmatism. 
How then can the ordinary microscopist bring order out of confusion 
by experimenting with three eye-glasses ? 

It would improve matters if the astigmatic observer were to 
have the formula for a lens neutralizing his asymmetry (for instance, 
thus :—36 cyl. axis 180°) sent to an optician, and have made a small 
lens, with a setting of thin brass, so constructed as to slip on the top 
of the eye-piece, over the eye-lens and as close to it as possible. The 
slight details of convenient construction readily suggest themselves to 
the optician. 

If the microscopist uses the eye-piece of one maker, the accessory, 
for such it is, fits each and all of them as they are brought into use, 
and when not needed it may be easily removed, leaving the perfect 
eye-piece ready for use under the normal eye. 

Many, in fact most, astigmatic persons have a different degree of 
defect in each eye, and therefore a better plan would be to have 
suitable cylindrical lenses put into spectacle frames, and worn only 
while using the Microscope. These can be placed near the eyes, 
the axis of each is firmly held in its proper relation to the effective 
medium and each eye has before it the exact correction of that eye’s 
asymmetry. ‘To be sure, this requires the aid of a skilled specialist, 
but once done, there is no further trouble or anxiety—no examination 
with test-lines in order to be sure that the glasses are in the best 
position for work. 

Secondary distortion because of being a little distance from the 
eye-lens of the instrument is not troublesome, nor worth considering 
as against convenience, comfort, and the ability to instantly change 
eyes when working—an important desideratum. 

The author also thinks that many of the disputes between 
microscopists as to the markings of test and other objects, notably 
those having lines meeting or crossing at various angles, are possibly 
due to the fact that they are not seen through optically similar eyes, 
one being practically free from astigmatism and the other having it 
developed to a much greater degree, thus making it utterly impossible 
for the observers to see alike. 


Malassez’s Camera Lucida.*—-M. L. Malassez discusses camerz 
lucida in general, and describes a modification which he has designed 
to avoid the inconveniences attendant upon the existing forms, and 
particularly the necessity of placing the Microscope vertical and 
drawing on an inclined plane in order to insure the correspondence 
of drawing and object. It is much preferable to be able to have the 
Microscope in an inclined position and the paper horizontal. 

If a Doyére and Milne-Edwards or Nachet camera is placed on a 
Microscope inclined 15°-18°, so that the image is thrown behind the 
Microscope, it will be found that it is partly projected on the base. 


* Laborat. d’ Histol. du Collége de France. Travaux de 1884 (1885) pp. 166-79 
(1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETO. 315 


This can be remedied by inclining the Microscope to an angle of 
40°-45° and altering the position of the camera prisms as shown in 


a 


l] 


Tl 


a 


fig. 57. A drawing thus made will be undistorted if its axis (a’ 0) is 


exactly perpendicular to the surface 
of the table. For this, however, it 
is necessary that the axis should fall 
on the line x y, and that it should 
make with the axis of the Micro- 
scope an angle (aoa’) equal to the 
angle of inclination of the Micro 
scope. 

Fig. 58 shows M. Malassez’s 
modification of a Doyére and Milne- 
Edwards camera to meet these con- 


ditions. One of the prisms can be @ ul 
rotated by a milled head and adjusted “Witim 


for the 45° position, or where the 
objects must be kept horizontal and 
the Microscope therefore vertical it 
can be set for an angle of 18°. The 
modification can be applied to other 
camere, but where the reflecting 


surfaces are not movable the original construction must be altered. 
The author considers that Dr. Schréder’s camera is objectionable, 


316 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


on account of the rays from the Microscope having to undergo a 
double total reflection, whilst the necessity of drawing with the head 
in the same position as when using a vertical Microscope sacrifices 
one of the great advantages of an inclined Microscope. This would be 
remedied by reversing the prisms, so that the unreflected rays are 
those which come from the Microscope and not from the paper, the 
reflected rays being received from the paper. 


Relative merits of Filar and Ordinary Glass Eye-piece Micro- 
meters.*—Dr. M. D. Ewell has undertaken a series of comparisons 
to test Mr. H. L. Tolman’s conclusion { that the cobweb micrometer 
does not offer sufficient advantage in point of accuracy to compensate 
for its additional cumbersomeness and expensiveness. 

Dr. Ewell comes to the conclusion that for the comparison of 
lengths nearly equal and for the measurement of minute distances 
with low powers, the glass eye-piece micrometer is vastly inferior to 
the filar micrometer ; and that in cases where the greatest attainable 
accuracy is required, as for example in the measurement of blood- 
corpuscles in criminal cases, nothing but the filar micrometer should 
be used. 


The New Objectives.—For some months past it has been known 
that we were on the eve of an important advance in objectives, 
depending mainly on the elimination of the secondary spectrum, 
leaving only a small tertiary spectrum. We alluded to the subject at 
the Anniversary Meeting, by way of supplement to the remarks of the 
President on the great value which he had found an increase of 
aperture to be in his researches on very minute organisms with 
high powers, and we expressed the belief that the new objectives 
would be found to be of at least equal advantage. 

Two objectives have now been received in this country, and 
their examination has fully borne out the expectation formed of 
them, and has shown that however trifling the improvement might at 
first sight be thought to be on theoretical grounds, it is very distinctly 
appreciable, so that the high power work of the future will almost 
necessarily be done with these glasses. 

The objectives in question are both 1/8 in. The special point in 
their construction is that they are made of new kinds of optical 
glass, which Prof. Abbe and Dr. Schott have been working for the 
last five years to perfect. The objectives are. composed of ten 
single lenses, combined to five separate lenses, with a single front 
lens. Their working distance is 0°25 mm., and in order to secure 
this the aperture is limited to 1:40 N.A. With the length of tube 


* The Microscope, vi. (1886) pp. 32-40. + See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 704. 

t Prof. Abbe writes us on this point, ‘We have now made what I called in 
1878 ‘the Microscope of the future,’ i.e. objectives which admit of a more perfect 
concentration of all the rays from the object. If now (as I am nearly sure they 
will) microscopists should feel somewhat disappointed at being told that ‘the 
Microscope of the future’ is nothing more and nothing better in principle than 
these objectives, I must answer ‘It is not my fault that at this time microscopical 
optics is such an ungrateful domain of human work, that many years’ hard labour 
haye no other result than a slight advance.’ ” 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 317 


engraved on the setting (taken from the nose-piece to the eye-lens), 
the objectives have their best correction for a cover-glass of 0 16-0°18 
mm. Much thinner covers require a lengthening of the tube by 
10-25 mm. further. They are very sensitive in regard to length of 
tube, and the change in this length is the simplest, and in fact the 
best, means for slight corrections for different covers—the reason 
being that a change of that kind does not alter the proper balance of 
the various corrections (spherical, chromatic and sphero-chromatic), 
whilst an alteration in the distance of the lenses of the objective from 
one another, as is done by a screw-collar, does disturb that balance 
to the injury of the performance of the objective. It may be possible 
to find a formula which will be less sensitive in regard to this 
question of correction, but until it is found, Dr. Zeiss, by whom the 
objectives are made, will not supply any with correction-collars, so 
as to convert a good objective into a medium one for the sake of a 
non-essential convenience only. 

A novel point in connection with the objective is that its 
performance is improved by the use of special eye-pieces, of which 
two are supplied, of 25 mm. and 15 mm. focal length. Their func- 
tion is to compensate for certain aberrations outside the axis, which 
cannot be compensated for in the objective. With these eye-pieces, 
particularly with that of 25 mm. focal length, the field of view is 
surprisingly uniform. 

Of the ten lenses of which the objective is composed, two only 
are of siliceous glass, the other eight being made of borates and 
phosphates. The crown and flint glass now used by opticians does 
not contain (as essential components) more than six chemical elements, 
O, Ca, K, Na, Pb and Si, whilst the new objective contains not less 
than fourteen elements. 

The optical principle on which the objectives have been con- 
structed is indicated in a paper by Prof. Abbe in this Journal,* “ On 
new methods for improving spherical correction,” &c. In fact, all 
the work of Prof. Abbe and Dr. Schott during the five years has 
been solely directed to finding the proper means for the realization 
of the desideratum there mentioned, viz. doing away with the 
secondary chromatic aberration, and with the chromatic difference 
of spherical aberration. The proper means was found in special 
kinds of glass, which allowed of proportional dispersions in different 
parts of the spectrum, and which at the same time exhibit different 
relations between the refractive indices and dispersive powers. By these 
means a more perfect concentration of all the rays emanating from 
the object is obtained. With the old kinds of crown and flint glass 
two different colours only could be collected to one focus, a secondary 
spectrum remaining uncorrected, whilst the new objectives collect 
three rays of different colours to one focus, leaving a small tertiary 
spectrum only. Moreover, spherical correction has hitherto been con- 
fined to rays of one colour, being made for the central part of the 
spectrum, the objective remaining wnder-corrected spherically for the 


* See this Journal, ii. (1879) p. 42. 


318 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


red rays and over-corrected for the blue rays. In the new objectives, 
however, the correction of the spherical aberration is obtained for 
two different rays of the spectrum, that is practically for all colours at 
the same time, and the objective shows the same degree of chromatic 
correction for the central as for the marginal part of the aperture. 
All this requires greater complication in the construction, hence the 
use of five lenses instead of the four hitherto employed. In addition, 
uniformity of amplification by the various zones of the clear aperture 
has been obtained in a higher degree than could hitherto be done. 

The objectives will be specially useful in photo-micrography where 
the correction of the secondary spectrum will be found of considerable 
practical advantage. Not only is there no difference in the optical 
and chemical foci, but the image formed by the chemical rays is in 
itself much more perfect. This advantage is very clearly verified by 
experimental trials which have been made. For photo-micrography a 
third eye-piece magnifying 24 times is supplied, the lenses of which 
can be slightly separated for exact adjustment of the image. 

Two series of objectives will be constructed, one adapted for the 
short Continental body-tube and the other for the long English body- 
tube, and there will be a corresponding “compensating” series of 
eye-pieces. The homogeneous-immersion lenses will have aper- 
tures of 1:40 N.A. and 1°30 N.A., and focal lengths of 3:0 mm. 
and 2:0 mm., the latter with much increased working distance. The 
water-immersion lenses will have an aperture of 1°25 N.A. and a 
focal length of 2:5 mm., and the dry lenses 0°95 N.A., 0°60 N.A., 
and 0:30 N.A., with focal lengths of 4 mm., 8 mm., and 16 mm. 

We append what will we think be of interest to many of the 
Fellows, a brief account of what we understand to be the history of 
the construction of the new glass, though, as we have not been able 
_ to submit it to Prof. Abbe, he must not be understood to endorse it 
in any way. 

The origin of the matter was Prof. Abbe’s Report on the Micro- 
scopes of the South Kensington Exhibition published in 1878.* This 
contained at the end some general considerations as to the unfulfilled 
requirements of practical optics in regard to the properties of optical 
glass, and complaints of the unfavourable conditions then existing. 
Dr. O. Schott (of Witten, in Westphalia), a chemist, but long versed 
in practical glass-making, and who had made some remarkable re- 
searches on the physical properties of glass, read the report, and in 
the beginning of 1881, having communicated with Prof. Abbe, they 
commenced a preliminary study of the optical properties of the various 
chemical elements as far as they admit of “ vitrificable ” combinations. 
This was conducted at first on a very small scale, Dr. Schott working 
alone at Witten, and the optical part of the research being carried out 
at Jena. After a year it was decided to continue the experiments on 
a larger scale, with the object not only to determine the optical effects 
of various elements, but to try the production of practically useful 
combinations. In January 1882, Dr. Schott settled at Jena, and he 
and Prof. Abbe established a complete melting-laboratory with large 


* See this Journal, iy. (1884) p. 291. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 319 


gas-furnaces, a gas engine for driving blowers, &c., and with the aid 
of two assistants for the chemical and the optical part of the work, 
and of several workmen, the experimental research was continued 
there for two years. 

The general direction of the work was based on the principles 
indicated in the Report of 1878, and in the paper in this Journal 
before mentioned. According to these principles, there were two 
distinct objects:—(1) To obtain a greater variety of the optical 
properties of the glass in regard to the relation of the refractive to 
the dispersive power. The existing kinds of optical glass constituted 
nearly a line, i.e. the dispersion increasing always with the refraction, 
with very slight deviations only. The object was to combine glasses 
which, if arranged according to n and An, would not be confined to a 
linear series, but would embrace an area of a certain breadth, one 
value of n admitting various values of A n, and vice versd, as far as 
possible. 

(2) The second problem was:—To procure kinds of glass of 
different relative dispersions, in which the dispersions should be 
proportional, as near as possible, in different parts of the spectrum 
(the problem of “ secondary chromatism’’). 

In regard to the general research, Prof. Abbe and Dr. Schott had 
a predecessor in the late Rey. W. Harcourt, who worked at the subject 
in conjunction with Prof. G. G. Stokes. They could not, however, 
use his results, as all that was published about them is very 
fragmentary and very indefinite, and they were obliged to begin quite 
anew. Nevertheless, one important fact was brought to a practical 
result, viz. the very peculiar property of boracic acid in regard to 
the second problem, the new observations being only a confirmation 
of Prof. Stokes’s account of the glass-samples produced by the Rev. 
W. Harcourt (though in other essential points the results do not 
confirm the statements of Prof. Stokes). 

Dr. Schott had succeeded, after the first months of hig melting at 
Witten, in obtaining fusions of very small quantities—down to 100 
grammes—with a remarkable degree of homogeneity, admitting of an 
exact measurement of the refraction and dispersion by means of 
spectrometric observation. This was the very basis of advance, 
because it allowed of a continuous and strict co-operation of the 
chemical and optical research. Every change of chemical composi- 
tion could be immediately controlled, in regard to the optical effect, 
by measurement, 

The fusions were obtained by means of gas-furnaces, and with 
crucibles of very different kinds—a great number with platinum 
crucibles and tools—in quantities of from 50 grammes to 12 kilos, 
according to the particular object, nearly all chemical elements being 
submitted to trial; there is even glass containing 10 or 20 per cent. 
of mercury. 

A large number of analyses had been executed by the assistants up 
to the end of 1883, and more than 600 prisms were ground and 
measured by the spectrometer. Since then this figure has reached 
1000. As it would have been detrimental to the progress of the work 


320 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


to depend on the weather, the spectrometer measurements were always 
made by means of the five bright lines, Ka, Ha, Na, Hg, H,, after the 
methods described in Prof. Abbe’s paper, ‘ Neue Apparate,’ &e. 

There were innumerable difficulties to be overcome in order to 
obtain compositions which should not only show the optical properties 
desired, but at the same time fulfil so many other requirements for 
optical glass; and many repeated trials were necessary for one and 
the same subject before a satisfactory result could be obtained. It is 
due to the ingenuity and energy of Dr. Schott that these obstacles 
were overcome. 

Towards the end of 1883, Prof. Abbeand Dr. Schott had exhausted 
the programme, as far as appeared possible in a laboratory-research, 
and were about to close the affair, and publish the results, as showing 
the possibility of a series of new kinds of optical glass, and thereby ~ 
giving an impulse, as was hoped, to its manufacture. At this period, 
however, several distinguished astronomers and physicists who had 
taken notice of these researches, encouraged them to go one step 
further, and to undertake the practical utilization of the results in the 
way of manufacture. Through the aid of these gentlemen a subsidy 
was obtained from the Prussian Government (though Jena is not in 
Prussia) to continue the experiments, so as to establish a manufacture 
of optical glass, which did not exist in Germany. Messrs. Zeiss, 
who had already furthered the work, since the beginning, in the — 
most liberal manner by putting all the personal and technical 
resources of their establishment at Prof. Abbe and Dr. Schott’s 
disposal, united with them, and in the beginning of 1884 glass-works 
were set up, with a large furnace and machinery. The Prussian 
Government’s subsidy was 3000], and given under conditions as 
liberal as any Government has ever granted when putting public 
money into the hands of private persons. 

The new furnace was lighted in September 1884, and since that 
time Dr. Schott has been actively engaged, almost day and night, in 
overcoming the difficulties of the operations. The experiences of 
other manufacturers being inaccessible to a new competitor, every- 
thing had to be learned anew. A year later, the first part of the 
matter was brought to an end—the production of the ordinary 
siliceous glass, and this, since last autumn, is used by nearly all 
German opticians. In a few months, it is hoped, that the borates and 
the phosphates will also admit of regular production, and then the 
Jena manufactory will be opened for the supply of optical glass on a 
strictly scientific basis. 

This extension of the work has had the effect of delaying the 
introduction of better glass into microscopical optics by more than 
two years. In the summer of 1883, sufficient materials had been 
obtained for the construction of microscope-lenses, and, in fact, the 
first objectives were made by Messrs. Zeiss at that period, but after 
it had been decided to establish a manufactory with the aid of public 
money, Messrs. Zeiss were obliged to abstain from using the new 
glass, and to wait until the latter should be accessible to other 
opticians also. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 321 


At present the objectives are not on sale, but it is expected that 
very shortly both objectives and glass can be purchased in the 
usual way. 

Mr. E. M. Nelson, who has had our objective under examination, 
writes as follows :— 

“The great benefit which will accrue to microscopists from the 
use of lenses of this construction will be due, not so much to the 
absence of colour as to the greater freedom from spherical aberration. 
In other words, these lenses will stand illuminating by axial cones of 
larger angle. This is evident from its performance on Navicula 
rhomboides (Cherryfield). This diatom, which under oblique light is 
a test fora 1/4 of 90°, becomes a pretty severe test for the widest- 
angled homogeneous-immersion objective under a large axial cone; 
in the former case only crossed strie, or checks could be made out, 
but in the latter the minute grating should be clearly seen. 

This minute grating I have never seen so sharply defined as 
with this new objective when illuminated by Powell’s achromatic 
condenser with full aperture. It shows the following very delicate 
objects most distinctly : fracture through the delicate perforated mem- 
brane inside the large areolations in Isthmia nervosa, and the fracture 
through the still more minute perforations inside the hexagonal 
structure of Triceratium favus. 'This last object may be termed the 
highest test to which the ‘microscopy’ of the present day can be 
subjected. Those interested in oblique light will be glad to hear 
that the striz on A. pellucida come out sharper than I have ever 
seen them before. The valve is resolved from tip to tip, showing 
that the lens is flat in its field, To sum up, this lens is decidedly 
the most brilliant objective Ihave everseen. . . . After mentioning 
the above tests, it is almost unnecessary to say that bacteria, stained 
and mounted in balsam, are most clearly defined.” * 

Mr. Nelson subsequently wrote us that he had discovered a very 
minute perforation on the interior lining membrane of Eupodiscus 
Argus. This diatom consists of two separate membranes. The 
outer one has a brown tint with transmitted light, but appears white 
and sparkling, not unlike loaf sugar, with reflected light. This outer 
membrane has large and for the most part oval areolations all over 
it, the interspaces being granulated. The inner membrane, which 
is very transparent, has rows of comparatively large white dots 
radiating from the centre of the diatom. The whole of this inner 
membrane between these white dots is covered with very minute 
perforations. These perforations are often arranged in circular rows 
round the white dots, and are, in reality, “tertiary ” markings. 

There is, so far as he is aware, no record of a “ tertiary ” marking 
on a diatom having been observed before. 


Liquid Lenses.*—Herr P. Lebiedzinski has described some liquid 
lenses prepared by a method devised by Herr K. Lochovski and 
himself. 


* Engl. Mech., xliii. (1886) pp. 62-3. 
+ Medical Society of Warsaw, 1881, p. 379. Reported in Jahresber. iiber die 
Fortschritte der Anatomie und Physiologie, x. (1882) p. 6. 
Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. ¥ 


322 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


They are made of a glycerin mixture; and it is said that the drop 
of liquid adopts a form near that of a paraboloid or ellipsoid, and 
thus to a certain extent eliminates spherical aberration ; the curvature, 
and with it the magnifying power, can be altered by piston- and screw- 
motions. Such a lens forms a cheap Microscope made on Plateau’s 
principle, with a magnifying power of 100-200. After use the Hee 
can be withdrawn by means of the piston into a hollow receptacle. 
The lenses may be combined to the number of two or three to form a 
system. 


: z , 6 
Koristka’s Abbe Illuminator.*—Yet another mounting for t 
Abbe Illuminator has been devised by Signor Koristka, of Milan, for 
Students’ Microscopes, and is shown in figs. 59 and 60. ‘The lenses 


Fig. 59. Fie. 60. 


iy 
hike T 
Se 
mT S 
My ~ Bim Will ‘ AN 
‘ngnuitit I | iN MIVUNTI NL Ld 
B | iNT 


are separated from the diaphragm- 
holder, and slide in a tube c fixed to the b 
under side of the stage, the upper lens ii) 
being level with the top of the stage i 

or below it, as may be desired. The | AA | 
diaphragm-holder swings on a pivot, mi aUne per turte 
and the diaphragms can be placed 

excentrically by moving the slide P by means of the milled head B. 

A catch at M shows when the diaphragms are central. The central 
plate of the holder can also be revolved by the pins underneath it. 

For Microscopes which have a less space than 38 mm. between 
the centre of the pillar and the stage, and 80 mm. between the base 
and the stage, a still simpler plan is adopted, the diaphragms being 
carried in a ring which is movable on the under side of the stage. 


Central v. Oblique Light. —One of the familiar arts of contro- ~ 
versialists is to conjure up an imaginary adversary who propounds 
the most absurd propositions which are immediately demolished by 


\\\ 
=< 


il 


* G. Martinotti in Zeitschr. f, Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 500-2 (2 figs.). 
+ Engl. Mech., xlii. (1886) pp. 451-2 (3 figs.); pp. 527-8 (5 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 323 


his better informed antagonist. This device has been applied by 
Mr. E. M. Nelson to the question of central and oblique light. 

The author first describes Mr. Stephenson’s paper (ante, p. 37) 
as having for its object to discountenance the use of central illumina- 
tion, and as drawing the conclusion that the central portion of the 
illuminating beam is “useless, harmful, and as such ought to be 
stopped out”! It is hardly necessary to tell any one who has read 
that paper that Mr. Nelson’s description is as little correct as it 
would be to describe it as a paper having for its object the extraction 
of central illumination from cucumbers. The demonstration of the 
absurdity of the supposed view is, of course, under such circumstances, 
unusually complete. 

Mr. Nelson next combats the view “that nothing can be known 
about the structure of the Diatomacesm, because all the diffraction 
spectra are not admitted,” which is proposed to be refuted by show- 
ing “that something can be known of the structure of P. formosum, 
because some of the diffraction spectra are admitted.” In course of 
time we have come to know a little of the views of theoretical 
microscopists, but we have not yet met or heard of any one who holds 
or ever held the view quoted by Mr. Nelson, which we fear has only 
a subjective existence. We are at a loss to understand why such a 
misstatement should have been made in what is apparently intended 
for a scientific paper, and purporting to be written au sérieux. It 
seems to us, with all deference, to serve no useful purpose from any 
point of view. 

The next point dealt with by the author is put in such a way 
that to be properly appreciated it must be quoted in eatenso. 

“Tt is curious to note how those who refuse to know anything 
about the structure of the Diatomacesw, because all the diffraction 
spectra are not taken up, affirm that a German student, who had 
never seen a diatom, worked out the purely mathematical result of 
the interference of the six spectra of P. angulatum. The purely 
mathematical result is a very simple business. The diffraction 
spectra are chromatic images of the source of light arranged in a 
pattern similar to the pattern which causes the interference, the 
mathematical connection between the spectra and the pattern being 
in the size of the interspace and the angular divergence of the spectra 
from the dioptric beam. All that the German student could do was 
to say that the source of light was a disc, that the pattern causing 
the interference was similar to the pattern of the diffraction spectra— 
namely, quincunx—and that if the angular divergence of the spectra 
from the dioptric beam were given, the size of the interspaces could 
be found out. Instead of which, he drew a fantastic picture for 
which there was no warrant from the data given. As this picture 
had been drawn from purely mathematical investigation, of course 
the markings must be there, although no one had ever seen them. 
The angulatum was re-examined, but with a stop at the back of the 
objective, and the small secondary markings predicted by the 
German student were seen. The whole affair was given out as a 
microscopic edition of the discovery of the planet Neptune.” 


¥ 2 


324 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The above quotation shows that the author, at the time he wrote, 
had not merely not seen the paper of the German student but had 
not the most elementary appreciation of the manner in which 
hexagonal markings are derived from six spectra. The statement 
that the “purely mathematical result is a very simple business,’ 
&c., is a8 wide of the actual fact as the version of Mr. Stephenson’s 
paper. 

These are not by any means all of the mistakes into which the 
author has, no doubt unwittingly, fallen. It is, we venture to think, 
unfortunate to say the least that such crude notions should be hurried 
into print without any care having been previously taken to master 
the elements of the subject supposed to be treated of. 


Illumination by aid of Air-bubbles.*—For very delicate struc- 
tures, such as fur-fibres, Mr. H. L. Brevoort often purposely permits 
air-bubbles in the mounting material, or introduces them into it. 
The chances are that some of the fibres will pass through some of the 
air-bubbles, and when they do this in the proper position, the fibres 
will be found to be illuminated by the reflection of light from the 
upper part of. the concave surface of the bubble, and the surface of 
the fibres may be studied with a 1/16 in. immersion lens as readily 
as with alin. This method of illuminating he finds of great service 
with the highest powers, and has used it with balsam and glycerin. 
With the latter it works exceedingly well. ‘The air-bubbles may best 
be introduced by means of a stylographic pen-filler. 


Campbell’s Fine Adjustment.;—Mr. E. M. Nelson describes a fine 
adjustment devised by the Rev. James Campbell, which he considers 
particularly suitable for Microscopes of the Continental type, where 

direct-acting screws are employed. ‘The device 
Fic. 61, consists essentially of a differential screw-adjust- 
ment, and is shown in fig. 61 as made by Messrs. 

J. Swift and Son. 
D is the milled head of the direct-acting 
screw. ‘The upper part S of the screw has 20 
threads to the inch, and the lower part T 25 to 
the inch. B is the fixed socket forming part of 
the limb of the Microscope, and H is the 
y travelling socket connected with the support of 
the body-tube. The revolution of D causes the 
screw-thread § to move up or down in B at the 
rate of 20 turns to the inch, whilst the screw- 
thread T causes the travelling socket H to move 
in the reverse direction at the rate of 25 turns 
to the inch. The combined effect, therefore, of 
turning D 20 revolutions, is to raise or lower T 
and with it the body-tube 1/5 of an inch, or 1/100 in. for each 
revolution. The spiral spring below H keeps the bearings in close 

contact. 


io} 
(UVTI TDOOIAANED UNERLGLOSULNUDNTINY 
M Too 


* Journ. New York Mier. Soc., i. (1885) p. 208. 
+ Engl. Mech., xlii. (1886) p. 448 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 325 


Mr. Nelson considers 25 and 20 threads upon the screw will pro- 
vide a convenient fine focusing movement for students’ Microscopes, 
though, of course, any desired speed can be obtained by proper com- 
bination of the threads. For instance, 32 and 30 would give 1/480 in. 
for each revolution, and 31 and 30 would give 1/960 in. He thinks 
the system specially commendable, from the fact that fine movements 
are thus obtained by the use of strong screws having coarse threads. 
In his opinion the difficulty with the usual fine adjustments applied 
to Continental Microscopes has been “that if there is a direct-acting 
screw with its thread fine enough to give a sufficiently slow move- 
ment, then the screw will be found too weak to stand the wear and 
tear. On the other hand, if it is strong enough to stand the wear 
and tear, the screw will have to be too quick.” 

It should be noted that Herr E. Gundlach applied a differential 
fine adjustment of this kind to the Microscope some years ago, and 
that at the Inventions Exhibition of last year Messrs. Ross and Co. ex- 
hibited a differential movement specially devised by Dr. H. Schréder 
for application to Microscopes having the “ Jackson” limb. 


Anderson’s Double-action Fine Adjustment.—Messrs. Anderson 
& Sons have devised a fine adjustment by which two different rates 
of speed in focusing are provided, the one acting on the lever at the 
rate of 40 turns to the inch, and the other at 100 to the inch. 

The mechanism is shown in fig. 62, 
where A is a stud carrying the usual Fic. 62. 
tube nose-piece as applied to the 
“ Jackson” form of fine adjustment, 
with a swinging pin D passing loosely 
through, and suspended on the top 
of, the metal block C, which slides 
freely in parallel fittings and termi- 
nates below in a knife-edge. B is a 
- long lever acting on C. S is a screw 
having 40 threads to the inch at the 
lower part and 100 above; it is fixed 
in a hinged shoe-piece G, which covers 
a rigid bar projecting from the side of 
the body-tube support. 

In action the rotation of the milled 
head E upwards raises the lever B, and consequently OC, D, and A 
(the latter carrying the tube nose-piece), at the rate of 40 turns to 
the inch, and when a slower motion is required, the rotation down- 
wards of the milled head F draws up the screw and shoe-piece G 
together with H, B, C, D, and A, at the rate of 100 turns to the inch, 
the rigid piece within G serving as the stop for this motion. A spiral 
spring within the body-tube acts against the upward movement of the 
lever B, and therefore opposes the screw movements of the milled 
heads E and F. 


Fritsch’s Stage for Stereoscopic Photo-micrographs—Dr. G. 
Fritsch’s apparatus, to which we referred at p. 144, is an elaboration 


396 — SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of that by Dr. Benecke (p. 148). It not only allows the angles of 
inclination of the slide to be varied toa definite extent and accurately 
measured, but it also enables the observer to bring the axis of 
inclination into exact agreement with the optic axis, a point which 
Dr. Fritsch considers to be of the greatest importance, as otherwise 
the two pictures will not be “ stereo-identical.” Fig. 63 is aside view, 
and fig. 64 a view of the apparatus from below. The base-plate con- 
sists of an outer frame a a, with an inner plate attached to the stage 
by two pins bb. The frame is movable laterally on the plate by the 
action of the screws f f working against the sides of the stage. 

The inclining plate is at c c, and it can be set at different 
inclinations (on the axis x) by the screw e acting against the springs 


Fic. 63. 


orn : 
SOA uo AL. SB 
3 eo SAY 
i A \\ “Cas fF EE 
[oa 


~ ee ae 
\ : 2a; 
ASSMAN 


nn. The slide is not placed on this plate, but on a second plate d, 
which lies over the former, and which can be inclined (by the screw 
g), on an axis at y. The object of the second plate is to compensate 
for the thickness of the slide. Ath his a graduated are for record- 
ing the inclination, and at m m spring clips. 

The centering of the apparatus is effected by using a spider line 
stretched in the optic axis and a slide ruled with parallel lines. On 
tilting the plate c first to one side and then the other, any defects in 
the centering can be readily noticed, for if properly centred no 
alteration of the focus will be required for the centre ruled line, which 
will remain in focus at ail inclinations of the plate.* 

Kellicott’s Moist Chamber. +—Professor D. 8. Kellicott suggests 
a modification of Dallinger and Drysdale’s moist chamber, which 
he thinks is an improvement. Instead of cementing the thin glass 


* Festschr. zur Feier d. hundertjahrigen Bestehens d. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde 
zu Berlin, 1873, pp. 75-95 (6 figs. and 6 stereophotographs). Cf. Stein’s ‘ Das 
Licht,’ 1884, pp. 201-3 (2 figs.). 

+ Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vii. (1886) pp. 267. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETO. 327 


cover, which is the object-carrier, on the glass stage over the aperture, 
it is cemented on a rather deep ring, made by cutting off a glass tube 
of a diameter equal to that of the aperture. The ring may then be 
cemented to the stage, or simply made to rest in place upon it. It 
will be seen that the bibulous paper stage may now be made to fit 
close up to the ring, as the object-carrier is lifted above it into the 
cell or moist chamber formed by the outer glass tube and its thin 
rubber cover. The ring carrying the object plate and the stage 
perforation must be large enough to admit the substage condenser. 

The author has also applied the principle of the above to the 
construction of a moist chamber which he has in constant use, and 
finds handy. An ordinary glass slip is taken; a ring with a cover- 
glass cemented on the top rests at its centre; then a number of 
layers of blotting-paper of proper size, with the centres cut out, are 
placed upon the slide sufficient to reach above the object; the lower 
paper should fit close up to the ring, and have a tongue on one 
side. After the object is in place, and covered or not, as the case 
may be, a slide is put over all, and the combination is put over a 
dish of water, with the tongue of bibulous paper reaching into it. 
The drop will not evaporate, and being surrounded by a quantity of 
air, the infusorian or rotifer under observation will keep in good 
health for a long time, A special slide and cover, 3 x 14 in., 
are rather more convenient, giving a larger cell than ordinary slips, 

A still better plan is to use two brass plates, 3 x 14 in., instead 
of glass. The lower one is perforated at its centre, and the ring 
and object-carrier cemented over it; the tongued bibulous paper is 
then put on as before (only one layer is required to supply moisture, 
but an additional one with a larger hole at the centre facilitates the 
removal of the cover). The other plate should have a larger central 
perforation, over which a ring and cover-glass are cemented. When 
in use this one is placed over the former, covering the object with 
the cell, and the whole placed over a dish of water, with the tongue 
reaching the water. It will be seen that examination with a low 
power may be made at any time through the cover—the cover to be 
removed for the use of high powers. 


Klénne and Muller’s Bacteria-finder.—In the description of this 
apparatus (ante, p. 127) more stress should have been laid on the fact 
that the upper part of the frame is level with the top of the stage, so 
that the slide moves on the surface of the stage itself, thus allowing 
the Abbe condenser to be brought close to the under side of the slide, 
an advantage which is not obtainable with the earlier forms by 
Schmidt and Hinsch.* 

Dr. W. Behrens suggests t the addition of a vernier for reading 
the scale on the circular slot, which it is now difficult to do on account 
of the end of the movable frame by which it has to be read throwing 
a shadow on the scale, and points out the inconvenient extent to 
which the apparatus projects behind the Microscope. The makers 


* See this Journal, iii. (1880) p. 878. 
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii, (1885) pp. 502-7 (2 figs.). 


328 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


propose to add rackwork for the swinging motion, to obviate the 
uncertainty of moving it by hand. 


Exner’s Micro-refractometer.*—If a card is introduced between 
the eye and the eye-piece of the Microscope and moved towards the 
axis of the instrument, a point will be reached at which the field is 
partially darkened, while the objects stand out in relief with sharply 
defined lights and shadows as in oblique illumination. A transparent 
object will be gradually obliterated from one side or the other as the 
card is inserted. If the transparent object is thicker in its centre than 
at the edges, then if it is also more strongly refracting than the 
medium by which it is surrounded, the side which is apparently 
opposite to the card will be the first to become dark; if, on the other 
hand, the object is less strongly refracting than the surrounding 
medium, it will be darkened first on the side from which the screen 
is introduced. 

The matter will be better understood from fig. 65, where F is the 


Fig. 65. 


objective, C O the eye-piece, A the eye, c the object. The lines ab 
mark the normal course of parallel rays through a non-refracting 
object, while the lines de represent rays passing through an object 
which is thicker in the centre than at the edges, and more highly 
refracting than the surrounding medium. In this case it will be seen 
that owing to its refraction towards the axis of the instrument the 
ray ¢ is the first to be obliterated by the screen S when introduced 
from right to left. With a less highly refracting object, the opposite 
side will be first obliterated. The dotted lines which diverge from 
the central point of the object c indicate the effect of oblique illumina- 
tion, produced when an opaque object is illuminated from above. 
S should be at the point above the eye-piece to which the rays 
converge. 

Prof. §. Exner has devised an apparatus (figs. 66 and 67), founded on 
this principle, which consists of a box fitting by a spring tube above 
the eye-piece O, with an opening at A, and containing a screen F, with 
screw motions B and C, by which it can be shifted laterally and raised 
or depressed. The box can be rotated round the axis of the Micro- 
scope on the ring 77, and to allow of its being readily removed from 
the eye-piece, it turns on a pin z, and has a spring catch at E. It 


* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxv. (1885) pp. 97-112 (2 figs. and 1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 329 


may be used for three purposes: (1) as a means of oblique illumina- 
tion ; (2) if the form of the object be known it will show whether 
the refractive power is greater or less than that of the surrounding 
medium ; (3) if the refractive power be known it will show in which 


Fig. 66. 


directions the thickness of the object increases or diminishes. Prof. 
Exner has also used it to measure the refractive index by immersing 
the object in different liquids whose refractive index is known, and 
so finding two of very nearly 
the same refractive power be- Fig. 67. 
tween which it must lie. He 

considers that the method is 
80 sensitive as to measure the 
index accurately to a few 
units in the fourth decimal 
place. 

As an application of the 
method it is shown how the 
optical constants of the eye of 
Hydrophilus piceus were determined. An examination of the cornea 
proved that for each facet the index of refraction increases towards its 
centre so that the facets may be regarded as consisting of a number 
of cylinders inclosed within one another, the innermost having the 
strongest refractive power. This is just such a structure as will con- 
centrate the greatest possible number of rays which fall upon each 
facet towards its axis, so that they may be utilized in the act of vision. 


330 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


A plate is given showing the appearance with the apparatus of 
human red and white blood-corpuscles, red blood-corpuscles of a frog 
with two vacuoles, and a section through the cornea of Hydrophilus. 


Apparatus for Examining the Reflex in the Compound Eye of 
Insects.*—Mr. B. T. Lowne has found the best method of examining 
the reflex to be the substitution of a reflecting ophthalmoscope for the 
eye-piece of the Microscope. 

By this means a bright luminous spot may be observed as a real 
image in the tube of the instrument. A 1/4 in. objective must be 
used, and the mirror of the ophthalmoscope must be strongly illu- 
minated. The Microscope is then focused so that a real image of the 
corneal facets is seen between the objective and the eye of the observer. 
By bringing the object-glass gradually nearer to the insect’s eye, 
the reflex will come into view. The reflex appears as a disc having 
a fiery glow, in moths, and as a bright ruby spot in the cabbage 
butterfly. Sometimes six spots, surrounding a central spot, are seen 
in the eye of the insect; perhaps these are diffraction-images. A 
similar appearance is seen when the eye of this insect is observed by 
the naked eye, except that the spots are black. The central spot is 
always opposite the eye of the observer, whatever the position of the 
eye of the insect. The reflex seen with the micro-ophthalmoscope is 
green in Tipula, and bright yellow in the diurnal flies. Coloured 
diffraction-fringes are usually present around the central bright spot 
in both these insects ; but the central image is sometimes surrounded 
by a perfectly black ring. 

Thoma’s Frog-plate.{—In addition to the Microscope described 
supra, p. 309, Professor R. Thoma previously devised and strongly 
recommended the following apparatus for examining the circulation 
of the blood in the tongue of the living frog. It is more especially 
intended for obviating the effects of evaporation by keeping the 
tongue flooded by the constant passing over it of a rapid stream of 
salt solution, which at the same time keeps it free from impurities 
which might interfere with the observations. It also allows the salt- 
and-water contents of the tissues to be increased or reduced, and the 
action of other solutions, such as indigo-sulphate of soda, to be 
observed. 

The apparatus consists of a double plate a of brass and vulcanite 
(the latter beneath) with an aperture at b closed by a sloping block 
of glass for the tongue to lie on. At ee’ are two movable supports 
for the irrigation tubes. When the Microscope is inclined the fluid 
is retained by the ledge ccc which surrounds the glass block, passing 
away through the two tubes dd at the lower end. At the upper end is 
a support f for the tube used for infusing fluids into the blood, so as to 
prevent it being displaced if the stage-plate should be moved. Small 
cork plates are inserted behind the glass block to which the tongue 
is fixed. 


* Trans. Linn. Soc, Lond.—Zool., ii. (1884) pp. 389-420 (4 pls.). Cf. Amer, 
Natural., xx. (1886) pp. 90-1. 
+ Virchow’s Arch. f. Path. Anat. u. Physiol., Ixv. (1875) pp. 36-47 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 331 


A similar contrivance is also used for the web, mesentery, and 
lung of the frog. 


Easy Method of Making Micro-photographs.*—The only special 
appliance absolutely necessary, according to Mr. F. C. Thompson, is 
a small dark slide to carry an ordinary 3 by 1 in. glass slip. This 
need be no elaborate piece of mechanism. The simplest form for use 
with a 1 in. objective may be constructed as follows :—Take a slip of 
mahogany 33 x 1% in. (it may be wider if the stage of the Microscope 
allows of it) and 3/16 in. thick, and in its thickness make a shutter 
sliding longitudinally. To do this, chisel out carefully and smoothly 
a space 24 in. long, 1 in. wide, and 1/8 in. deep, so as to leave 1 in. 
at one end of the slip untouched, and 1/4 in. on each side. In this 
shallow recess cut another, the depth of the thickness of thin sheet 
zine, or stout post-card. This is for the shutter to slide in; let it 
extend to 24 in. from the end of the slip, and be 3/4 in. wide. Then 
a piece of-wood 25 by 1 by 1/8 in., carefully glued in the larger 
recess, will form a neat and light-tight groove. Before glueing in this, 
however, the hole should be cut in the centre of the slip, through 
which the picture falls on the plate. This need only be about 
1/4 in. square, or the same diameter if round. Corresponding with 
this must be another hole in the bit of wood forming the groove. 
The shutter may be a piece of thin sheet zinc, or cardboard, of the 
thickness of an ordinary stout post-card. 

On this slip thus furnished with a shutter, glue strips of wood 
about 1/16 in. thick, so as to leave space between them fora 3 by 1 in. 
slip. In the corners of this space glue small pieces of thin wood for 
the corners of the glass to rest upon, and keep the film from being 
abraded. Another slip of wood of the same dimensions as that 
described above, and: likewise furnished with a shutter, hinged to 
this plate-carrying arrangement, completes the dark slide—except a 


* Year-Book of Photography for 1886, pp. 49-52. 


332 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


couple of fasteners, which may be made of thin sheet brass, to keep the 
two parts together. There is no necessity for any troublesome 
grooving and beading to keep out the light; the pad of blotting- 
paper put at the back of the plate, to soak up excess of silver nitrate, 
efficiently does this, and serves also for spring to keep the glass slip 
in place. A bellows arrangement, to go between the slide and 
objective, is not so good as a simple piece of black velvet, wrapped 
round the lens-mount, and extending to the dark slide. This is 
much less trouble, and more effective. 

We are now prepared for the operation of focusing. It is clearly 
impossible to do this in the ordinary way. The picture being so 
small would need a second Microscope to see it, even supposing a 
surface sufficiently fine could be obtained on which to receive it. 
The principle of conjugate foci must be made use of, the property of 
a lens by which the object and its image are always interchangeable. 
In the dark slide, place face downwards, the thinnest and most 
distinct microscopic section available, or a micro-photograph. On 
each side of the centre put a pad of cotton wool or paper, to keep it 
in place (it is of course a convenience to provide a dark slide with a 
couple of springs), and close the side. Draw both shutters (which 
should be marked, so as to show when the hole is uncovered), and 
place on the stage of the Microscope, section upwards. Let the 
instrument have a 1 in. objective. Remove the eye-piece, and lay 
on the top of the tube a piece of ground glass, ground side down- 
wards. An enlarged image will of course be produced on this; this 
must be focused very carefully, and in doing so it is an advantage to 
use a magnifier. Then, by the well-known property of lenses alluded 
to above, if an object be placed where the ground glass is, its image 
will be formed in the place occupied by the section. It is, therefore, 
quite unnecessary to see the small image. Turn the Microscope so 
that, on looking along the body-tube from below upwards, white 
clouds are seen, and replace the ground glass by an ordinary negative. 
If the operations are carried on on a bench close to a window, the 
window itself may keep the negative in place, otherwise a retort- 
stand, or some such thing, must be brought into requisition. Of 
course if would not entail much trouble to make a special frame, 
fitting on the end of the Microscope, to carry the negative, but in 
omitting this the aim has been to enable the worker to see some 
results as soon as possible. 

Having thus put the instrument and negative into position, take 
away the dark slide, close both shutters, and insert a sensitive plate in 
place of the prepared slide, putting at the back a pad of blotting- 
paper the same size, to absorb superfluous solution, and also to act as 
a spring. Let the dark slide be now placed on the stage in exactly 
the same position as before; and around the objective, and extending 
from it to the dark slide, to cut off all extraneous light, wrap a piece 
of velvet, folded once or twice. This is extremely simple, and is 
done in much less time than it takes to write it. Place a card over 
the negative, draw the upper shutter, and all is ready for exposure, 
which is effected by means of the card. Experience must, as usual, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 333 


be the guide in this. A picture is not spoilt by being exposed even 
twenty times too long. Development is best done while looking 
through the plate, and as soon as the speck containing the picture 
distinctly appears, wash off the developer, and fix. A good magnifier 
will then show how much success has been obtained; if worth 
examining more critically, a second Microscope is a luxury, but, 
unless the magnifier shows a good image, it is certainly not worth 
while to disarrange the Microscope to examine it, if only one is in 
the operator’s possession—especially as another plate can be exposed 
in two or three minutes. In fact, by having a dipper to hold half-a- 
dozen plates, they can be exposed, developed, and fixed in about as 
many minutes. : 

When success is fairly attained, a special negative may be taken 
for reduction, and a mask used to cut off all not desirable to appear 
in the tiny positive. It is needless to say, that this negative must be 
very sharp, and as clean as possible. 


Instantaneous Photo-micrography.* — Mr. D. 8. Holman has 
recently made some experiments in photo-micrography. Having 
succeeded in taking photo-micrographs of rapid vibrations, he deter- 
mined to attempt to photograph Ameba proteus and other low forms 
of life while in motion. His method was as follows :— 

Having inclosed the material in one of the Holman life-slides, 
and allowed it to remain until the Amebx had become accustomed to 
their new home and active, he cast an image of an Ameba on the 
ground glass of a camera, by means of a Holman lantern Microscope, 
which is illuminated with the oxy-hydrogen light. A Zentmayer 1/5 
objective was used. A dry plate picture was then taken with about 
one-hundredth of a second exposure. T'wo exposures were made of 
one Ameba at intervals of three minutes, and one exposure of two 
Amebz in the field at one time. The photographs were a complete 
success, and were shown at a recent meeting of the Franklin Institute 
magnified 10,000 diameters, making a picture of about eight feet on 
the screen, so accurate that the granular appearance of the proto- 
plasm could be distinctly seen. 


“On the possibility of improvement in the Microscope.’’t—Dr. 
R. Altmann discusses the directions in which further improvements 
in the Microscope are likely to be made. 


The absolute efficiency of an objective being HE = Bi a where 
Qa 


2 sin 

a = semi-angle of aperture and A = wave-length of the light 
employed, then in the most favourable case possible (a = 90°) E = : . 
The value actually attainable is limited, by difficulties of correction, 


to an angle of aperture of 120° corresponding to E = 2x 0-866" 
The improvement theoretically possible by increase of aperture is 


* Sci.-Gossip, 1886, pp. 43-4. 
+ Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol, (Anat. Abtheil.), 1886, pp. 64-8 (2 figs.). 


O04 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


therefore about one-seventh of the maximum value, but as it is in this 
last seventh that the difficulties of correction increase most rapidly, 
it is hardly to be expected that the aperture can be much enlarged : 
it remains, therefore, to diminish A by using an immersion liquid of 
high refractive index, and to find a form of objective which will enable 
the corrections to be made with the least difficulty. 

Ifa glass hemisphere be placed with its plane surface on a printed 
page it will be found that the letters are magnified exactly in the 
ratio of the indices of glass and air. The rays which pass through 
the centre of the sphere suffer no aberration, so that in this case it is 
possible to magnify an object without spherical or chromatic 
aberration. 

On the same principle, it will be found that using homogeneous 
immersion and a liquid of high index the absolute efficiency corre- 
sponding to that index can by the alteration of a single surface be 
augmented without involving any essential change in the correction. 

Let B E C D, fig. 69, be the section of a hemspherical front lens, 
A the point of the object which lies in the axis; let a spherical 
surface BFC of radius A B be hollowed out, and the space between 


Fic. 69. Fia. 70. 
E E 


A 


Aand BFC filled with a liquid of high refractive index, then the 
efficiency of the objective is increased in the ratio of the indices of 
the crown-glass and the liquid ; and if the surface B F C is accurately 
formed and the objective previously corrected for homogeneous 
immersion, the rays from A suffer no aberration ; secondary aberrations 
only appear at some distance from A, and may be corrected by a 
slight alteration of the back lenses. 

To strengthen the lens it is better to give it the form of fig. 70, 
the radius of the spherical cavity B” EF’ OC” being immaterial so long as 
its centre is at A. Here B’ EC’ is more than a hemisphere. 

Using oil-immersion lenses of the above form, Dr. Altmann finds 
that without further correction the desired result is in fact attained, 
at least so far that with the same diameter the objective has its focal 
length diminished, and consequently the efficiency increased, in 
proportion to the index of refraction. At the same time he points 
out that three difficulties will be encountered in carrying out the 
conditions required. These are, firstly, the construction of the 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 335 


cavity and the correction of the back lenses; secondly, the discovery 
of suitable liquids; and thirdly, the application of these liquids to 
histological purposes. 

Imperfections in the cavity can scarcely be avoided, and will 
with the secondary aberrations prove a source of some trouble to 
opticians. 

As regards the liquids to be used, methylene-iodide appears to be 
the best at present available ; it becomes brown in the light, owing to 
evolution of iodine, but the colour may be removed by shaking it 
with aqueous potash-solution; it can be applied directly to dry 
diatoms, but histological preparations must be previously treated 
with absolute alcohol and monobromide of napthaline. More suitable 
liquids may yet be discovered. 

With regard to the third point, the cover-glass must be dispensed 
with, and the immersion liquid used in contact with the object ; this, 
however, introduces no innovation for histological preparations, and 
has this advantage that the principle of homogeneous immersion 
suffers no disturbance when the cover-glass is abolished. To get rid 
of difficulties arising from differences of refractive power in the 
tissues and the immersion-liquid it will be necessary to increase the 
cone of illuminating light as far as possible; with a cone of 180° 
this difference would theoretically be eliminated. Abbe’s illuminator 
is not sufficient, and the best plan is to use thin plates of white glass 
as object-carriers, and illuminate them brilliantly from beneath. 

The cavity in the front lens might be dispensed with if the crown- 
glass meniscus could be replaced by a flatter plano-convex lens of 
diamond ; unfortunately it is not possible to give any considerable 
curvature to the diamond. If the diamond lens could be used many 
advantages would be gained even with oil of low refractive power, 
e.g. with an immersion liquid of index 1:5 it would only be necessary 
to correct for 60° instead of 120° as is the case at present with the 
most powerful objectives ; and in addition to easier correction a larger 
aperture would be obtained. 


The Aperture Question.— We were not a little surprised to 
receive lately an elaborate discussion on Aperture and Microscopical 
Vision, written in Spanish, which we should have supposed to be one 
of the most unlikely languages of Western Europe in which such a 
subject would be treated of. It is from the pen of Don Joaquin 
M+. de Castellarnau y de Lleopart,* who in other papers previously 
published has shown himself to be much in advance of the majority 
of his countrymen in a knowledge and appreciation of both theoretical 
and practical microscopy. 

The present work is extremely well put together ; indeed, it is 
quite unique in the completeness of its treatment of the question. 
lf there now remained in this country any microscopists who seriously 
questioned either the fact of an aperture in excess of 180° in air, or 


* ¢Vision Microscdpica. Notas sobre las Condiciones de Verdad de la Imagen 
microscépica y el modo de expresarlas.’ 96 pp., 1 pl., and 3 figs, 8vo, Madrid, 
1885 (sep. repr. from Anal. de la Soc. Esp. de Hist. Nat., xiv. (1885) pp. 257-352. 


336 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the Abbe diffraction theory, a translation of the author’s treatise 
would, we feel sure, have been of benefit to English readers. It is 
divided into three parts, the first dealing with diffraction, the second 
with aperture, and the third with the relation of aperture and power. 

There are some terse passages on the aperture controversy of 
1881, and the part which this Society took in finally elucidating the 
question, one of which we reproduce, though as we do not desire to 
fan into a flame again any of the slumbering embers of the old fires 
—if, indeed, they are not extinct—we leave the passage in its original 
Spanish. 

“ia nueva teoria—la verdadera—sobre la vision microscépica, 
es atin muy poco conicida. A pesar de que su origen data de 1873, 
y de haberse dado cuenta de ella 4 la Real Sociedad de Microscopia 
de Léndres en 1877, su conocimiento no se difundidé mas alla de un 
circulo muy pequeno ; y apénas era conocida en Alemania, Inglaterra 
y los Estados-Unidos de América—paises en donde la microscopia se 
encuentra en floreciente estado—antes de 1881. Desde esta época, 
su conocimiento ha empezado 4 extenderse; y de la lucha entre los 
partidarios de las antiguas y modernas teorias, ha salido victoriosa 
en términos tales, que hoy nadie se atreve 4 disputarle el triunfo. 
Mr. Shadbolt, el mas decidido adversario de la ‘ Teoria Abbe,’ y el 
que, con mas vigor le ha hecho la guerra en la Real Sociedad de 
- Microscopia de Londres, ha tenido que darse por vencido, y nada en 
contra ha vuelto 4 publicar (que yo sepa 4 lo ménos) desde 1881.” 


Fine Platinum Wire and Thin Gold I.eaves.—Mr. H. T. Read 
is said * to have made some wire so fine that it is too thin to be seen 
with the naked eye, though it can be felt. A platinum wire is made 
the core of a silver tube, and then drawn out with the silver to the 
thickness of the original platinum wire. This is in turn made the 
core of another silver tube and again rolled out, and, finally, the silver 
is dissolved off with nitric acid. It is intended to use this wire as a 
substitute for spider-webs. 

Mr. A. E. Outerbridge,t by electro-plating a known weight of 
gold upon one side of a sheet of copper-foil of given dimensions, 
obtains a coating of gold upon the copper whose thickness is readily 
ascertainable by a simple calculation; then, by using a suitable 
solvent, the copper may be removed, when the leaf of gold will 
remain intact. After a series of careful experiments he has obtained, 
in this way, sheets of gold, mounted on glass plates, which are not 
more than 1/40,000 mm. thick; and has some specimens which he 
has good reason to believe are not more than 1/400,000 mm., “about 
the 1/200 part of a single wave-length of light.” 


* St. Louis National Druggist, vii. (1885) p. 308. 
t Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., vii. (1886) pp. 37-8. 


wv 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. S37 


ALTMANN, R.—Ueber die Verbesserungs-fahigkeit der Mikroskope. (On the 
capacity of improvement of Microscopes.) 

[Supra, p. 333.] 

Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Anat. Abth.), 1886, pp. 64-8. 
Baldwin’s (N.) Photo-micrographs. 

[Of Amphipleura in Smith’s medium, showing longitudinal (? diffraction) 
and transverse lines. Also of broken sections of a butterfly’s wing taken 
with the binocular and mounted for the stereoscope. ] 

The Microscope, V1. (1886) p. 16. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) p. 18. 


BEHRENS, W.—Klonne & Miiller’s beweglicher Objecttisch. (Kloénne & 
Miiller’s movable stage.) 
[Ante, p. 127, and supra, p. 327.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., II. (1885) pp. 502-7 (2 figs.). 
Brevoort, H. L.—Illumination by aid of Air-bubbles. [Supra, p. 324.] 
Journ. N. York Mier. Soc., I. (1885) p. 203. 


Bulloch’s (W. H.) Lithological Microscope-stand. [Ante, p. 122.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 10-11 (1 fig.). 
The Microscope, VI. (1886) pp. 12-13 (1 fig.). 
Ca LLIANO, C.—Un nuovo regolatore del preparato al Microscopio. 

[Mechanical stage (removable) with rectangular movements. Also acting 
as a finder by registering the movements on a square (of 2 cm.) divided 
into square millimetres. } 

Giorn. R. Accad. Med. Torino, XLVI. (1883) No. 4. 
Arch. Sci. Med., VII, (1883) p. 167. 


Carpenter, W. B., Death of. Journ. Quek, Micr. Club, II. (1886) pp. 245-6. 

Amer, Mon, Micr, Journ., VIL. (1886) pp. 1-3. 

CASTELLARNAU Y DE LLEOPART, J. M. DE—Vision Microscépica. (Micro- 
scopical vision.) (Concld.) (Supra, p. 335.] 

Anal. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat., XTV. (1885) pp. 289-352 (1 pl.). 

Sep. repr., 96 pp., 1 pl., and 3 figs. (8vo, Madrid, 1885). 

CoueEN, E., and J. Grimm.—Sammlung von Mikrophotographien zur Veran- 

schaulichung der mikroskopischen Structur von Mineralien und Gesteinen. 

(Collection of photo-micrographs for demonstrating the microscopic structure 

of minerals and rocks.) 2nd ed., 80 phot. pls. (4to, Stuttgart, 1885). 


Directory, Our Scientific. 

[Further list of English Microscopical and other Societies. ] 

Sci.- Gossip, 1886, pp. 42, 65, & 88. 
Dv RocuHeER, BorsseAv.—Meégaloscope. 

[‘‘ A Note intended to prove that the optic system of his Megaloscope is 
absolutely different from Trouvé’s Polyscope.’”] 

Comptes Rendus, CII. (1886) p. 403. 
EpmuNpDs, J.—* Microscopical Advances.” 

[Rochon was the originator of the use of a transparent cement between the 
lenses of an achromatic objective, and not Chevalier as suggested by Dr. 
Royston-Pigott. ] : 

Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) pp. 83-4. 

ETERNOD, A.—Tour horizontal pour Microscopistes. (Horizontal lathe for 
microscopists.) [Post.] 

Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., IL. (1885) pp. 507-9 (8 figs.). 

EweELL, M. D.—The relative merits of Filar and Ordinary Glass Eye-piece 

Micrometers. [Supra, p. 316.] Lhe Microscope, VI. (1886) pp. 32-40. 


F.R.A.S.—This Journal. 
[Complaint that he has not received the title-page and index of Vol. V.] 
Engl. Mech., XLAT. (1886) pp. 446 and 489. 


FLEISCHL, E. v.—Das Hamometer. (The Hemometer.) [Post.] 
Sep. repr. Med. Jahrb, K.K, Gesell. Aerzte Wien, 1885, 20 pp. (1 pl.). 


Ser. 2.— Vo. VI. : Z 


388 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Grimm, J.—See Cohen, E. 


GuNDLAcH, E.—Magnification. 
[Reply to Mr. W. H. Bulloch’s queries, ante, p. 148.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VIL. (1886) p. 20. 
The Microscope, VI. (1886) pp. 42-3. 
5 , Astigmatism and its relation to the use of Optical Instruments. 
[Supra, p. 313. ] Lbid., pp. 1--4. 
Bull. Rochester (N.Y.) Acad. Sci. (Sect. of Microscopy), 1886, pp. 4-7. 
Hevron, H. van—lLe Microscope 4 l’Exposition Universelle d’Anvers. (The 
Microscope at the Antwerp Universal Exhibition.) (Contd.) 

[Microscopes of Ross and Zeiss—Trouvé Battery and Helot-Trouvé and 
Van Heurck Photophore— Photo-micrographs. ] 

Journ. de Microgr., X. (1886) pp. 25-32 (7 figs.). 
Hircucock, R.—Photo-micrography. III., IV. 

[2. Apparatus (contd.) (b) Microscope and accessories, Camera, &e.—Body- 
tube should be lined with dead-black cloth. Working with or without 
an eye-piece. Cameras of Scovill, Walmsley, Atwood, Stein, Aubert, and 
Sternberg. Amplifier. Size of plates. Focusing arrangements. 3. Illu- 
mination, with description and fig. of Kiibel’s Heliostat.] 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 5-10 (5 figs.), 48-50 (1 fig.). 


Hoxrcu, E. v.—Die achromatische Wirkung der Huyghens’schen Okulare. (The 
achromatic action of the Huyghenian eye-piece.) 
[It will perhaps be welcome to many to understand the nature of this 
action, especially as in most books it is only stated, and not explained.” 
The explanation is mathematical, and cannot be abstracted. 
Centr.-Ztg. f. Optik u. Mech., VII. 1886) pp. 37-8. 
HoumaAvy, D. S.—Instantaneous Microphotography. [Supra, p. 333.] 
Sci.-Gossip, 1886, pp. 43-4. 
INOSTRANZEFF, A. v.—Ueber eine Vergleichungs-Kammer zur mikroskopischen 
Untersuchung undurchsichtiger Mineraiien, (On a comparison-chamber for the 
microscopical investigation of opaque minerals.) 
{See Vol. V. (1885) p. 1058, and post. } 
Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral., II. (1885) pp. 94-6 (2 figs.). 


IsRAEL, O.—Ueber eine Erwarmungsvorrichtung als Ersatz der heizbaren 
Objecttische. (On a heating arrangement as a substitute for a hot stage.) 
[ Post. ] Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., Il. 1865) pp. 459-63 (8 figs.). 


JADANZA, N.—UVeber die Fundamentalpunkte eines centrirten dioptrischen 
Systems und iiber das anallaktische Fernrohr. (On the fundamental points 
of a centred dioptric system and on the anallactic Telescope.) 

Centr.-Ztg. f. Optik u. Mech., VII. (1886) pp. 13-7 (8 figs.). 

Kewuicott, D. §.—Dallinger’s Moist Chamber. [Supra, p. 326.1 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 26-7. 

LavrRent, L.—Sur l’exécution des Objectifs pour instruments de précision. 
(On the execution of objectives for instruments of precision.) 

(Describes his method of determining whether the defect of an objective is 
incorrect curvature or defective centering of the lenses. | 

Comptes Rendus, CII. (1886) pp. 545-8 (2 figs.). 

Lenses, the best only. i 

[Exhortation to the student in biology or histology to use them. ] 
Journ. New York Micr. Soc., I. (1885) p. 224. 

List, J. H.—Ueber einen Objecthalter mit Kugelgelenk. (On an object-holder 
with ball-and-socket joint.) 

[See this Journal, V. (1885) p. 347.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., IL. (1885) pp. 341-2 (2 figs.). 

Marvrinorri, G.—Di una modificazione all’ Apparato di illuminazione dell’ 
Abbe. (On a modification of Abbe’s illuminating apparatus.) [Supra, p. 322.] 

Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., II. (1885) pp. 500-2 (2 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 339 


Micuakt, A. D.—President’s Inaugural Address. 

[Personal remarks—Future of the Club—Exhortation to younger members 
to communicate the results of their observations to the mectings “ without 
fear of being laughed at.’ 

Journ. Quek, Micr. Club, II. (1886) pp. 215-8. 
Microscope, Microscopic, Microscopical. 

[Recommendation to use “Microscope” for parts of the Microscope, as 
Microscope-stand ; “ microscopic” for objects or features too minute to be 
appreciated by the naked eye; and “ microscopical” for uses to which 
the term “microscopic,” as above restricted, would be inappropriate.] 

Journ. New York Micr. Soc., I. (1885) p. 209. 
Miuuer, M. N.—Photo-micrography. 

[Reply to Editor’s criticism on the author’s methods that they require 
expensive apparatus, &c. The highest results “cannot be got without 
expensive appliances and special surroundings.’’] 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 19-20. 
Monkeying with the Microscope. 
- [Advice to medical readers not to purchase a Microscope to “furnish the 
office,” nor to “‘ mount scores of slides,” which should not be done “ unless 
for recreation or as a hobby.’’] 
The Microscope, VI. (1886) p. 42, from Indiana Med. Journ. 
Newson, E. M.—The Rev. James Campbell’s Fine Adjustment. 
(Supra, p. 324.] Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) p. 443 (1 fig.). 
Central v. Oblique Light. (Supra, p. 322.] 
Lbid., pp. 451-2 (8 figs.), pp. 527-8 (5 figs.). 
[Magnifying Power of Lenses. | Ibid., pp. 515-6: 
The New Abbe-Zeiss Microscope Objective. [Supra, p. 321.] 
Fingl. Mech., XUIII. (1886) pp. 61-2. 


» ” 


” ” 


” ” 


% 5 Historic Microscopy. 
[Brief descriptions of some simple and compound Microscopes from 1590 


to 1831.] 
Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, II. (1886) pp. 222-9 and 247. 
x . On a method of equalizing the thickness of slips when using 
an oil-immersion condenser, [Ante, p. 131. ] 
Ibid., p. 230. 
ONE WHO KNOWS.—This Journal. 
[Reply to F.R.A.S., supra.] Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) p. 474 and 516. 
3s A Central v. Oblique Light. 
[Pointing out that Mr. Nelson’s letter, supra, in stating that the object of 
Mr. Stephenson’s paper (ante, p. 37) was to “discountenance the use of 
central illumination,” &c., was a strange mistake, as the paper “from 
beginning to end contains not a word or a hint on what Mr. Nelson 
declares to have been its object! ”] 
Ibid., p. 469. 
Ovurersrines, A. E., Jun.—Matter, including Radiant Matter. 
[Supra, p. 336. ] Amer. Mon. Micr, Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 37-8. 
PrEeRsoL, J. A.—Photo-micrography at the work-table. [Post.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr, Journ., VIL. (1886) pp. 24-5. 


President’s Address. Times, 15th February 1886; Scz.-Gossip, 1886, p. 67. 
Presidents, Portraits of. Nature, XX XIII. (1886) p. 327. 
Professional Microscopy. 

[There is, then, a science of microscopy. Its mastery is peculiarly difficult, 
requiring rare sagacity and dexterity, and a lifetime of devotion, and its 
study has become a profession. This fact is not known to all, it having 
grown too fast for any but a watchful eye to keep pace with it. ‘There is 
no science of microscopy—the Microscope is only an instrument,’ was said 
in our hearing a few days ago. A gun is but an instrument; yet is there 
not a science of gunnery? and its acquisition is an indispensible part of 

Zz 2 


340 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the professional soldier’s education. The importance of a special and 
systematic course of instruction in microscopy is gaining recognition in 
some of our best institutions of learning.”’] 
Journ. New York Micr. Soc., I. (1885) pp. 210-1. 
REINHARD, C.—Spirituslampe mit constantem Niveau. (Spirit-lamp with 
constant level.) [ Post. ] 
Zeitschr. f. Analyt. Chemie, X XIII. (1884) p. 40. 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., II. (1885) pp. 229-80 (1 fig.). 
Rocers, W. A.—Ruled plate for the study and measurement of blood-corpuscles. 
[ Post. ] lith Ann. Rep. Amer, Post. Mier. Club (Troy, N.Y.), 1886, p. 13. 
Royston-Pieotrt, G. W.—Microscopical Advances—Ancient and Modern. 
V. and VI. 

[V. Compensations for residuary aberrations. Mr. J. J. Lister.] 

Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) pp. 483-4. 

[VI. A new era dawning for minute research. Gradual destruction of 
aberration. } 

Ibid., XLII. (1886) pp. 45-6. 
SCHREIBER, O.—Untersuchung von Kreistheilungen mit zwei und vier Mikro- 
skopen. (Investigation of circle divisions with two and four Microscopes.) 

[ Post. ] 

Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., V1. (1886) pp. 1-5, pp. 47-55, 93-104. 
Scuuuzs, F. E.—Lupenhalter. (Lens-holder.) 

[For passing round in a class. } 

SB. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1885, p. 86. 
SEIFERT.—Demonstration von Beleuchtungs-Apparaten. (Demonstration of 
illuminating apparatus.) 

[A.—Fritsche’s albo-carbon investigation lamp. B.—EHlectric incandescent 
lamps. 

] SB. Phystkal-Med. Gesell. Wurzburg, 1885, pp. 116-9. 
STOCKWELL, J. K.—Astigmatism practically considered in microscopic work. 

[Supra, p. 313.] The Microscope, VI. (1886) pp. 29-32. 

Strasburger, £.—Manuel technique d’anatomie vegétale. Guide pour l’etude 
de la Botanique microscopique. (Technical handbook of vegetable anatomy.) 

[Translation by J. Godfrin of ‘ Das Botanische Practicum.’ ] 

viii. and 405 pp., 118 figs. (8vo, Paris, 1886). 
STREETER, W.—On testing Objects, and resolution of Test Objects. 

(“I tell you that which you yourselves do know, show you sweet Czsar’s 
wounds, poor dumb mouths, and bid them speak for me.” ] 

Bull, Rochester (N.Y.) Acad. Sci. (Sect. of Microscopy), 1886, pp. 7-12. 
Telescope and Microscope. 

[Quotation of Dr. Chalmers. ] 

The Microscope, VI. (1886) p. 23, from Tidings from Nature. 
Trovuvs, G.—[Electro-polyscopie v. Electro-mégaloscopie.] 

[“M. G. Trouvé @ propos of a recent communication of M. Boisseau du 
Rocher on electro-megaloscopy (Vol. V.,p. 1061), recalls the results obtained 
by the method of electro-polyscopy, of which he is the author, and which 
is intended for the exploration of the cavities of the human body.” | 

Comptes Rendus, CII. (1886) p. 274. 

VIALLANES, H.—Microphotographie. La Photographie appliquee aux Etudes 

d’Anatomie microscopique. (Photomicrography. Photography applied to 
micro-anatomical studies.) [Post.] 

vi. and 66 pp., 1 pl. and 4 figs. (8vo, Paris, 1886). 

Wenuam, F. H.—Centering Glass. [Post.] Engl. Mech., XLIL. (1886) p. 516. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 341 


8. Collecting, Mounting and Examining Objects, &c.* 


Net for Catching Small Free-swimming Animals.j—Herr F. E. 
Schulze’s modification of the ordinary gauze net, which, by reason of 
its sides collapsing when withdrawn from the water, damages the 
small animals within it, consists of a hemispherical cap of horsehair 
cloth. Its circular margin is fastened to a light tin ring, and the 
hinder part of the gauze net is sewn to the inside. Although 
stiff, it is perfectly elastic, returning to its original form immediately 
after being tilted forward, which must be done every time the net is 
emptied of its contents. 

As thus adapted, it will be found that the imprisoned animals lie 
on the smooth, outstretched horsehair part of the net. As the 
gauze net also has its own ring of tin, the horsehair cap and ring 
can be pushed over it, and the two are made fast by a kind of 
bayonet-joint and a couple of pegs fitted to the ring. 


Mud Pipette.;—Herr F. E. Schulze employs the following appa- 
ratus on zoological excursions for obtaining small animals :— 

It consists of a glass tube about as thick as the finger, and 
30-40 cm. long. One end is somewhat narrowed, and the other pro- 
vided with a projecting rim. An elastic tube, about as thick as a goose 
quill, is drawn over it, and both are fastened to an ordinary walking- 
stick by bending a piece of brass wire 8 mm. thick into a figure of 8 
shape. The eyes are about 10 mm. in diameter, and are bent towards 
each other at a right angle. Through one eye another brass wire 
ring, 8 mm. in diameter, is drawn, and this is fastened to the stick by 
means of a caoutchouc ring 12 mm. in diameter and 8 mm. broad. 
The figure of 8 thus hangs down free, the lower limb projecting out- 
wards. The elastic pipe is then drawn first through the lower 
horizontal eye, and then through the upper vertical eye. The glass 
pipette depends just beneath the former. The tube is held in the 
left hand, the stick in the right, and the tube having been com- 
pressed, the pipette is sunk into the water. Pressure is now 
relaxed, the water rises, and the animal having been caught, pressure 
is again applied, and the stick removed. 


Method of Spore Germination.s—In view of the difficulty 
experienced in growing the spores of those Pteridophytes whose 
prothallia are destitute of chlorophyll, the following experiments by 
Mr. D. H. Campbell, though incomplete, may perhaps be of service 
for further investigations :— 

The spores were sown upon the surface of fine earth, in shallow 
earthen saucers, and covered with small frames constructed as follows: 


* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects; (2) Preparing, (a) in 
general, (b) special objects; (3) Separate processes prior to making sections; 
(4) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes; (5) Staining and Injecting; 
(6) Mounting, including preservative fluids, cells, slides, and cabinets; (7) Ex- 
amining objects, including Testing ; (8) Miscellaneous matters. 

+ SB. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde, Berlin, 1885, pp. 178-9. 

t Ibid., pp. 179-80. § Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) p. 428. 


342 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


A shallow box, or rather frame, about four inches across, was made 
from four narrow strips of wood, the bottom being constructed of fine 
wire gauze, thus forming a sort of small sieve. ‘This was filled with 
fine earth pressed firmly down, so as to allow as little air as possible 
to get in between the bottom of the box and the surface upon which 
the spores were sown. The spores were thus practically underground, 
and yet could be readily examined by simply lifting the frame. By 
this process a number of spores of Botrychiwm ternatum were made to 
germinate, and small prothallia were obtained. In this case germi- 
nation did not occur until nine months after sowing the spores. 


Germinating Fungus-spores and Pollen-grains.*—Mr. T. J. 
Burrill says that fungus-spores, as a rule, germinate best when sown 
wpon a drop of water in which there is dissolved a small proportion 
of gum. If the aqueous drop is put on a slide, the spores dusted on 
the slightly viscid fluid, and the whole kept in a moist chamber for 
twenty-four hours, at the ordinary temperature of the laboratory, an 
examination will often be rewarded by an instructive exhibition of 
germinal tubes. 

The same may be said of pollen-grains, though the addition of a 
little nectar or sugar to the fluid in this case is useful. 


Cultivation of Pollen-grains.t—In the cultivation of pollen- 
grains, those of monocotyledons are most responsive, and of all that 
have been tried, those of Tradescantia are the most serviceable. The 
pollen-tube begins to develope in a very few minutes, and within an 
hour becomes many times longer than the grains, and has received 
the contents. An ordinary moist chamber can be used, constructed 
cf blotting-paper or cardboard, as suggested by Bower and Vines in 
their ‘ Practical Botany,’ p. 16, and by Goodale in his ‘ Physiological 
Botany,’ p. 480. The points which experience with this special plant 
suggests are, according to Prof. J. M. Coulter :— 

1. The culture drop, for a quick response, should be a saturated 
solution of cane sugar. - 

2. The pollen-grain should be first placed upon the cover-glass, and 
then the culture drop added. If the pollen is sown on the culture 
drop, it will remain too far removed from the objective, and the tubes 
will mostly grow towards the objective, and so be seen in optical 
section instead of in profile. 

3. Pollen should be obtained from flowers that have been open for 
some time. 

“ Tradescantia is so common, the moist chambers are so simple, 
and the response so immediate, that it would seem a pity for any 
student to fail seeing the extine ruptured, and the intine developing 
into a pollen-tube.” 


Silver treatment of Medullated Peripheral Nerves.t—Dr. C. 
Mondino gives detailed instructions as to his modification of Golgi’s | 
silver treatment of peripheral nerves. 

This simpler procedure consists in first moistening the nerves in 


* Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) p. 428. t Ibid., p. 427. 
{ Arch. per le Sci. Med., viii. (1885) p. 45. : 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSOOPY, ETC. 343 


situ with a 2 per cent. solution of bichromate of potassium or ammonia, 
or with Miiller’s fluid. The pieces of the nerve are then hardened 
for twenty-four to forty-eight hours in the same solution, and are next 
placed in 1/2 per cent. solution of silver nitrate. Less permanent 
preparations may be obtained somewhat more quickly by adding to 
10 parts of the first solution 1 part osmic acid. This is dropped on 
in situ, and after ten or fifteen minutes, the nerve (sciatic of dog) 
having been cut out, is divided into pieces 1 cm. long and placed in 
the solution. The after treatment is as before. Hxamination must 
be made every day for the first week to see if the time for silver 
treatment have arrived ; a longer action of the silver than twenty-four 
hours is of advantage. The rest of the procedure consists in teasing 
out under alcohol and mounting in creosote-dammar. 


Preparing Nasal Mucous Membrane. *—Dr. E. Paulsen has 
obtained very satisfactory results in his study of the glands of the nasal 
mucous membrane by the use of Flemming’s osmium mixture and 
1 per cent. osmic acid, or Heidenhain’s alcohol-hardening method,t 
and of de la Field’s hematoxylin solution for staining. Not only the 
nuclei but the protoplasmic network were beautifully stained, while 
the homogeneous intermediate substance remained clear. He dis- 
tinguishes three kinds of glandular epithelium, (a) a portion exhibit- 
ing all the characteristics of secreting mucous cells, (b) a second 
portion resembling the cells of the albumen-glands, and (c) a third 
uniting the characteristics of both. 


Chloral Hydrate for Preserving Lower Animals.t—Dr. A. 
Féttinger has tried chloral hydrate for the preservation of lower 
animals. Complete results were obtained with Alcyonella stag- 
narum ; when all the polyps in a vessel containing 100 cc. of water 
were fully expanded, some crystals of chloral hydrate were dropped 
into the vessel; these dissolved rapidly, and the substance was gra- 
dually diffused through the water; after ten minutes a little more 
chloral was added, and at the end of three-quarters of an hour the 
whole colony had become insensible. When irritation results in no 
retraction, the whole colony may be placed in alcohol without any 
of the crowns of tentacles contracting or losing their normal form. 
Dr. Féttinger is of opinion that the chloral has nothing but a narcotic 
action, for they can recover from it, and their tissues are not affected 
by it. The same result was obtained with the common star-fish, with 
Doris stellata, and with other Polyzoa. Care must be taken that the 
crystals do not come into direct contact with the object. The drug 
succeeds very well with Nemertean worms. 


Collodion for Fixing on the Glass Objects to be preserved in 
Alcohol.s—Dr. A. Foéttinger also describes his method of using 
collodion to fix on to glass objects which it is intended to preserve in 
alcohol. The animal, hardened by alcohol, is withdrawn from the 


* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxvi. (1885) pp. 307-21 (2 pls.). 
+ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 158. : 
t Arch. de Biol., vi. (1885) pp. 115-25. § Ibid. 


344 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


liquid and placed on blotting-paper, so as to withdraw much of the 
alcohol. A drop of collodion having been put on a glass plate, it 
is placed in it; and the plate is laid horizontally into a flat vessel, 
which is slowly filled with spirit; after a few minutes the animal 
adheres sufficiently well to allow of the glass being set vertically. 
When large objects, such as star-fishes, are being set up, it is sufficient 
to put drops of collodion at various points on the glass. One great 
advantage of this method is that the collodion remains transparent 
in spirit. 

Purifying and Hardening Commercial Paraffin.*—A method 
for purifying and hardening commercial paraffin is recommended by 
Dr. A. Foéttinger. The paraffin is heated in a sand-bath with dis- 
tilled water to which a small quantity of solid caustic potash has 
been added. When the paraffin has melted and the potash is entirely 
dissolved, the mixture is well stirred. After a certain time there is 
an abundant precipitate; this is allowed to settle, and the paraffin 
is then poured off, thoroughly washed with distilled water, and then 
heated afresh; but this time the temperature must be considerably 
raised, and kept high for several hours. If the paraffin turns yellow 
it must be washed with a warm weak solution of caustic potash. This 
method gives a white, very hard, and quite homogeneous paraffin, in 
which there is no solution of continuity. 


Bleaching the Arthropod Eye.—Prof. Grenacher, according to 
Prof. J. Carriére,j employed the following mixture (as well as one 
with nitric acid) :—Glycerin, 1 part; aleohol (80 per cent.), 2 parts ; 
and hydrochloric acid, 2-3 per cent. The preparation remains in 
this mixture until the pigment changes colour and becomes diffuse.t 


Separating the Layers of the Wings of Insects.§ — Mr. G. 
Dimmock separates the two layers of the wing of Attacus cecropia by 
the following process:—The wing from a specimen that has never 
been dried is put first in 70 per cent. alcohol, then into absolute 
alcohol, and from the latter, after a few days’ immersion, into tur- 
pentine. After remaining a day or two in turpentine, the specimen 
is plunged suddenly into hot water, when the conversion of the 
turpentine into vapour between the two layers of the wings so far 
separates these layers that they can be easily parted and mounted in 
the usual way, as microscopical preparations on a slide. ~ 


Method of Bleaching Wings of Lepidoptera to Facilitate the 
Study of their Venation.|—In the common method of destroying 
the scales on the wings of Lepidoptera, for the purpose of studying 
their venation, by means of caustic alkaline solutions, there is danger 
of not arresting the action at the proper moment, and consequently 
of destroying not only the portions which it is desirable to remove, 
but also the scale-supporting membrane, and even the delicate veins 
themselves. An application of a modification of the chlorine bleaching 


* Arch. de Biol., vi. (1885) pp. 115-25. 

+ Carriere, J., ‘Die Sehorgane der Thiere,’ 1885, p. 205. 

~ Amer. Natural., xx. (1886) pp. 89-90. 

§ Ibid., p. 92, from Psyche, 1884, p. 170. || Ibid., pp. 204-5. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 345 


process, commonly used in cotton bleacheries, suggested by Mr. G. 
Dimmock, obviates the necessity of removing the scales, and leaves 
the wing perfect. 

The most convenient method for applying the chlorine is as 
follows:—The wings must first be soaked a few moments in pure 
alcohol, in order to dissolve out the oily matter in them. If this is 
not done, the surface of the wings acts as a repellent, and will not be 
moistened by an aqueous solution. When the wings have become 
thoroughly soaked by the alcohol, they are ready to be removed to 
a solution of common bleaching powder. This bleaching powder is 
sold by druggists as “chloride of lime,” but it is really a mixture of 
calcic hypochlorite, calcic chloride, and calcic hydrate. Ten parts 
of water dissolve the first two compounds, leaving nearly all the third 
suspended in the solution. The solution should be made with cold 
water, filtered, and kept in a tightly corked bottle until required for 
use. When the wings are transferred to this solution the bleaching 
commences, and in an hour or two the wings are devoid of markings, 
although the veins retain a light-brown colour. This is due to the 
fact that chlorine cannot quite decolorize animal matter, or any sub- 
stance containing nitrogen, as it does vegetable tissue. 

After the colour has sufficiently disappeared from the wings they 
should be transferred to a wash composed of one part of strong hydro- 
chloric acid to ten parts of water. And here it may be added that 
in case the bleaching does not readily commence upon immersion in 
the bleaching solution, the action may be hastened by a previous 
dipping in the dilute hydrochloric acid. In the bleaching solution a 
crust of calcic carbonate, formed by the union of the calcic hydrate 
of the solution and the carbonic dioxide of the air, is deposited on 
the wings, and this calcic carbonate the final wash in dilute acid will 
remove. As soon as the calcic carbonate has disappeared, and all 
bubbling, consequent upon its decomposition by the hydrochloric acid, 
has ceased,{the wings should be well soaked in pure water. They 
may then be secured on cards with a mucilage of gum tragacanth, or 
upon glass by the proper transfers, through alcohol and chloroform, 
to Canada balsam. 

A solution of sodic hydrochlorite, known as “Hau de Labarraque,” 
or a solution of potassic hydrochlorite, known as “ Hau de Javelle,” 
when used in place of the solution of bleaching powder, do not leave 
a deposit of calcic carbonate on the wings, and thus dispense with 
the wash of dilute acid. A solution of zine hypochlorite acts more 
delicately than a solution of sodic hypochlorite, and may be used in 
place of the latter, as may also solutions of aluminic hypochlorite, or 
magnesic hypochlorite. 

Modification of Ehrlich’s Method for Tubercle Bacilli.*—Dr. G. 
Fiitterer proceeds as follows:—1. Stain sections after Ehrlich’s method. 
2. Decolorize, in alcohol acidulated with nitric acid (8 drops to a 
watch-glassful of absolute alcohol), down to a light rose-colour. 3. 
Immerse for one minute in a well-filtered solution of palladium 


* Virchow’s Arch. f. Path. Anat., ci. (1885) p. 198. 


346 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


chloride (1:500). 4. Wash in water. 5. Then for some minutes 
in acidulated alcohol. 6. Cedar oil. 7. Canada balsam. 

The advantages of this method are said to be more rapid and 
more perfect decolorization ; greater resistance of the bacillar stain to 
the action of alcohol, ether, chloroform, and turpentine oil; and 
greater distinctness of the tissue structure. 

Method for Determining the Acids in Plants when combined 
with Bases. *—Dr. H. de Vries proposes a modification of the 
alcohol method for determining the amount of free and combined 
organic acids in plants. The sap is, when necessary, first freed from 
albuminoids by heating in a closed flask and filtering. In one por- 
tion the acidity is then tested in the ordinary way by curcuma-paper. 
To the other portion 10 to 20 times the volume of alcohol of 90 per - 
cent. is added, treated with 1/10 normal potash-ley, and with phenol- 
phthalein. The deduction of one of the numbers so obtained from 
the other gives the portion of acids combined with organic bases and 
with ammonia. 

By this means it can be determined that in rapidly growing 
organs there is a much larger quantity of organic acids combined 
with organic bases than free, while in mature organs the latter portion 
may be as large as the former. Thus, in the sap of mature apices of 
the stem of Impatiens Roylii there was 1:1 per cent. of free acid, 2°6 
per cent. combined with bases; in mature leaf-stalks of Rheum 
officinale, 8:2 per cent. of free acid, 9°7 per cent. combined with bases. 


Separation of Chlorophyll.t—Herr A. Tschirch proposes a method 
for separating chlorophyll from the other ingredients of plants which 
are soluble in alcohol, ether, carbon bisulphide, &e. The alcoholic 
extract is treated, at the temperature of the water-bath, with baryta- 
hydrate, by which a deep green barium cyanophyllate is obtained, 
_ insoluble in alcohol. The xanthophyll can be separated by saponifi- 
cation. The barium precipitate is also insoluble in water. If dried 
with an excess of baryta, or at a temperature of 100 degrees, it is 
also insoluble in ether and benzin. Dried at a lower temperature, it 
forms black plates soluble in ether. 


Preparing Starch-grains in Potato.{—Prof. T. J. Burrill gives 
the following directions :—Starch-grains in the cells of potato can be 
beautifully shown by first partially drying the part from which 
sections are to be made, thereby aiding materially the process of 
cutting. Remove from a fresh tuber a prism 1/4 in. to 1/2 in. in 
diameter, and 1 in. or more in length. Expose for a few minutes to 
moderate heat (hot air from a register is excellent) until the surfaces 
are quite free from moisture, then allow to remain in the ordinary air 
of the laboratory for twenty-four hours. The consistence will now 
be excellent for cutting, and clean cells without ragged remains of 
ruptured ones may be seen beautifully filled with starch-like baskets 
of fruit. Mount in water. Stain, if desired, with iodine. 


* Maandbl. voor Natuurwet.,1884, No.9. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 249. 
+ Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. Strassburg, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxiv. 
(1885) p. 314. ¢ Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) pp. 424-5, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 347 


Deceptive Results produced by Hardening Solutions.* — For 
the diagnosis of keratin in animal tissues, Dr. H. Steinbriigge has 
applied Ewald and Kiihne’s method to the investigation of the tissues 
of the ear of mammalia for the presence of keratin as a normal con- 
stituent, which was a probability to be inferred from the morpho- 
logical relationship of the tissues to the ectoderm of the ovum. The 
sections were digested in a trypsin solution prepared in the usual 
way from pancreas. Very divergent results were obtained in regard 
to the degree of resistance to the action of this solution, which was 
the criterion adopted by Ewald and Kiihne for the presence of 
keratin. Investigation showed that these divergencies corresponded 
with the degree of action of the hardening solutions employed in 
preparing the tissues for cutting, and that the criterion in question is 
worthless. 


Providence Microtome. t—The original form of this microtome 
was designed by Mr. N. N. Mason of Providence, R.I, U.S.A., and 
was perfected by Rev. J. D. King. In its present form (fig. 71), it 


Bie 7k 


= 


A 


aT re 


is described by the Rev. A. B. Hervey as “perhaps equalled by no 
microtome made, for extreme precision of movement and consequent 
accuracy of performance in cutting sections. With a good knife in 
good order, sections of 10 w to 25 yp thick can be made without 
difficulty, and all alike.” 

It consists of a heavy iron bed B, a knife-carrier A, and the 
usual apparatus for holding and moving the object to be cut, g j. 
The iron bed which furnishes the clamp &, and a solid support for 
the knife-carrier and object-holder, is 13:8 cm. long, 5:7 em. wide, 
and 6-°8 cm. deep. Cemented to its top is a brass plate h, 6°5 mm. 
thick. Rising through and above this is the cylindrical tube or 
object-holder j, 29 mm. in diameter. It projects 10 mm. above the 


* Zeitschr. f. Biol., xxi. (1885) pp. 631-5. 
+ Behrens’ ‘ Microscope in Botany’ (Amer. ed. by Hervey and Ward), 8vo, 
Boston, 1885, pp. 188-90 (1 fig.). 


348 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


surface of the brass plate and to within 0:5 mm. of the upper surface 
of the knife-carrier. It has an inner cylindrical piston 15 mm. in 
diameter and a sleeve around this which may be used with the 
piston, when it is desired to have a larger well, having a diameter of 
19mm. On each side of the brass plate and rising 1 mm. above its 
upper surface is an iron bar, 7 mm. thick, running the whole length 
of the bed and screwed fast to it. These are the ways or tracks 
upon which the knife-carrier slides. The knife-carrier consists of a 
solid plate of brass, 13 cm. long, 8-6 cm. broad, and 8 mm. thick, with 
projections along both sides, 6 mm. thick and 13 mm. deep, which 
fit down over the outside of the iron ways. The inside of these 
projections and the adjoining under surfaces of the brass plate are 
planed and polished so as exactly to fit over and upon the smooth iron 
tracks in such a way that the carrier moves freely, but with the 
utmost precision, back and forth upon them. 

The brass plate A has an oblong opening cut in its middle, 9-6 
em. long and 3°38 cm. wide, through which, when in place, the 
cylindrical object-holder projects, very nearly to the upper surface 
of the plate. The plate is provided along its sides and ends with a 
series of screw-holes, to receive the milled head screws a of the 

clamps 6 d, by means of which the 

Fic, 72. Fic. 73. knife e is made fast to the carrier, 
and may be set at any desired 
obliquity to the line of motion of 
the carrier. The knife has a heavy 
strong plano-concave blade with a 
straight edge, and is laid flat upon 
the carrier and securely clamped 
down at heel and point. It, there- 
fore, will not spring in the least 
and may be depended on to do 
work of very great precision. It is 
used for cutting all kinds of wood 
sections, and such other tissues as 
can be cut by simply packing in 
elder pith or imbedding in paraffin. 


_ Henking’s Simple Microtome 
Knife.*—Dr. H. Henking’s knife 
(figs. 72-74) has a short blade with 
a bifid handle of the same length A. 
The measurements of the blade 
are: length about 5 cm., breadth 
about 28 mm., thickness of back 
about 7mm. Though the back of 
the blade and the handle are in 
one and the same straight line, yet 
the handle diverges from the plane of the blade so that the cutting 
edge is 25 mm. lower than the back B. The knife is supported by 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 509-11 (1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 349 


a brass plate C with a notch to receive the binding screw, and also 
with a cavity for the admission of the knife blade. 

The principal merit of the knife is that owing to the shortness of 
its blade, it may be easily sharpened by the owner. In order to do 
this a wooden grip must be fitted to the handle. 


Ordinary v. Serial Sections.*—A writer in ‘ Nature’ notices 
with regret a tendency “in certain histological schools to neglect 
almost entirely the older and simpler methods of cutting sections. 
Serial section cutting is now such an important item in all morpho- 
logical work, that it is apt to be used to the exclusion of the older 


methods which give in many cases undoubtedly better histological 
results.” 


Serial Sections of Celloidin Preparations of Central Nervous 
System.t{—Prof. C. Weigert gives an account of a method devised by 
him for obtaining a succession of sections, specially adapted for the 
nervous system. The course of procedure is, he says, so very con- 
venient that he can recommend it even when a series of sections is 
not required. 

The process is completed in six steps, of which the first consists 
in preparing the glass plates. These of course may be of various 
sizes ; for large preparations, Koch’s culture plates may be used, while 
for spinal cord a plate 4 cm. broad and 15 em. long suffices. After 
being cleaned, the plate is covered with a thin layer of celloidin, 
exactly as a photographer makes a moist plate. It is then set on 
end and dried. 

The second step is to make the sections and arrange them riband- 
wise on strips of transparent porous paper. In order to withstand 
stretching when damp, tenacity is a necessary quality of the paper. 
The width of the strips should be about double that of the sections. 
The sections are then disposed in a suitable position along the strips 
by carefully removing them with a brush from the knife. It is 
important to keep the strips, when covered with sections, moist while 
their successors are being cut and arranged. This is accomplished 
by laying them on blotting paper placed in a dish containing some 
spirit. 

The third step is to transfer the sections to the celloidin plate. 
The strips, section side downwards, are laid upon the celloidin 
surface just sufficiently moistened, the paper surface is softly pressed 
and then peeled off. Any superfluous fluid is removed with blotting- 
paper, but anything like dryness of the sections must be avoided as it 
is injurious to the after steps of the process, which must be im- 
mediately proceeded with. Not more than one or two strips should 
be transferred to the same plate. 

The fourth step consists in covering the sections with a thin and 
even layer of celloidin. When dry the celloidin may be marked (for 
recognition of series) with a brush dipped in methyl-blue. 

Staining is the next step: immersed in hematoxylin, the celloidin 


* Nature, xxxili. (1886) p. 243. 
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 490-5. 


350 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


mass separates off from the glass plate, thus setting free the two 
celloidin layers with their inclosed sections, the whole forming a 
flexible but tough plate, which may be handled like a rag. Staining 
and washing are carried out in the usual manner, and after differ- 
entiating in the ferrocyanide of potassium, the series are again 
immersed in water, frequently changed, for at least one hour. 

The celloidin section -plate may be now cut up under water into 
as many pieces as there are sections. These are then dehydrated in 
90-96 per cent. alcohol and cleared up in creosote or xylol. Such 
sections must remain in alcohol much longer than ordinary ones, as 
the ceiloidin layers are slow in dehydrating. From the preparation of 
the plates to the immersion in hematoxylin it takes about one hour 
to produce 100 sections. 

The author has recently discovered a medium to replace creosote 
(which is dear and malodorous), in a mixture of benzine and alcohol. 
He hopes to be able to publish his results very shortly. 


Preparation of Picro-carmine.*—Prof. G. Bizzozero prepares an 
excellent picro-carmine in the following manner :— 

A solution of 0°5 grms. carmine, 3 cc. ammonia, and 50 ce. dis- 
tilled water, is made in a mortar. In another mortar is made a 
solution of 0°5 grm. picric acid in 50 cc. water. The picric acid 
solution is then poured slowly into the carmine solution. The com- 
bined solutions are then heated in a water-bath until every trace of 
ammonia has disappeared. By this time the bulk of the fluid is 
reduced to half its previous quantity. It is then allowed to cool, 
and one-fifth of its volume of absolute alcohol is added. The fluid 
must be kept in a carefally corked bottle. It is not necessary to 
filter before using. 


Picro-chromic Acid.j—This is recommended by Prof. H. Fol as 
an excellent hardening agent for very small pieces of tissue. It acts 
slowly, having little power of penetration. It is made as follows :— 
Picric acid (saturated aqueous solution), 10 parts; chromic acid 
(1 per cent.), 25 parts; water, 65 parts. A little osmic acid (-005), 
added shortly before using, is said to strengthen its action much. 

The staining capacity of objects is not impaired by this mixture. 
The objects should be washed in water. The extraction of the acid 
is more complete and rapid if nearly boiling-hot water is used. 


Minot’s Picric-acid Carmine.t—Dr. C. 8. Minot’s carmine is 
made as follows :— 

Boil 1 grm. best powdered carmine with 200 c.cm. of water, plus 
an excess of picric acid for half an hour; allow it to stand and cool; 
decant the clear fluid, add fresh water, and, if necessary, picric acid ; 
boil, cool, and decant; repeat this operation until all the carmine is 
dissolved. Place the decanted fluid in an evaporating dish, add 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii, (1885) p. 539, from Bordoni-Uffredduzzi, ‘I Micro- 
parassiti,’ Torino, 1885, p. 97. 

+ Fol’s Lehrb. d. Vergl. Mikr. Anat., 1885, p. 100. 

{ Whitman’s ‘Methods in Microscopical Anatomy and Embryology,’ 1885, 
p. 42. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 35L 


about 1 grm. thymol, and stand in a warm place until the volume is 
reduced to 25 c.cm.; let the solution cool, filter, wash out the residue, 
which should be on the filter, with 25 c.cm. water; dilute the filtrate 
with 50 c.cm. water. By this means a solution ready for use, which 
will keep indefinitely, and contains carmine and picric acid in good 
proportions, can be prepared with certainty. 

It gives a stronger differential colouring than Ranvier’s picro- 
carmine; but over-staining must be carefully avoided. For staining 
sections, two to five minutes are sufiicient. The fluid stains con- 
nective tissue (fibrous) deep red; striped muscle, deep dull red; 
smooth muscle, blood, and horny tissue, bright yellow; glands, 
reddish yellow. With the kidney it gives a differentiation of the 
different portions of the tubules; for the central nervous system it 
seems to be of little value. If rightly used, it gives a sharp nuclear 
colouring. 

If the aqueous solution is evaporated to dryness, the residue may 
be redissolved in alcohol, giving an alcoholic carmine dye, which has 
not yet been tested sufficiently. Apparently the alecholie solution 
will keep only a few months. The alcoholic solubility of the dye 
offers the advantage that sections stained in the watery solution can 
be washed in alcohol directly. 


Differential Action of Safranin and Methyl-green.*—In studying 
the sexual characteristics of the oyster Mr. J. A. Ryder found that.a 
mixture of these two dyes enabled him to distinguish both ova and 
spermatozoa in the same follicle, the nuclei of the ova being stained 
red by the safranin, and the heads of the spermatozoa bluish-green 
by the methyl-green. 'The method of preparation is as follows :— 

1. After removing the shell the oyster is hardened in chromic 
acid (1 to 2 per cent.) for several days. 

2. Washed in water two days, and then further hardened in 
alcohol. 

3. Soaked for twenty-four hours in water, to remove the alcohol; 
then imbedded in gum arabic and cut with free hand. 

4, Sections freed from imbedding mass by washing in water; then 
stained in a mixture in equal parts of safranin (saturated alcohol 
solution), methyl-green (ditto), diluted with eight times its volume 
of water, two to three hours. . 

5. Decoloured in 95 per cent. aleohol until clouds of colour no 
longer appear (five to fifteen minutes). 

6. Clarified ineclove-oil and mounted in balsam of dammar. 


Staining Spermatogems.t—Herr Benda, in his studies on the 
spermatogenesis of mammals, made use of a modification of Weigert’s 
hematoxylin method. Sections preserved in Flemming’s solution 
were fixed to a cover-glass and placed for twenty-four hours in a 
strong solution of oxide of copper. After careful washing in water, 
repeated several times, they were placed in 1 per cent. watery solution 


* Bull. U.S. Fish Commission, 1883. Cf. Whitman’s ‘Methods in Micro- 
scopical Anatomy and Embryology,’ 1885, p. 52. 
+ Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Physiol. Abth.), 1886, p. 186. 


302 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of hematoxylin, until they became intensely coloured, which 
happened in about five minutes. The sections were then washed 
in a 1/800 solution of nitric acid, which gave a yellow colour to the 
preparation ; it is possible by stopping the action of the acid when 
one pleases to have the nuclei alone coloured, or to have also fine 
shades of colour in the cell-body, ground substance, and so on; the 
action of the acid is best stopped by replacing the preparations in the 
copper solution, where they again take on a violet-grey shade. 


Picro-nigrosin as a Stain for Nerve-centres.*—Dr. G. Martinotti 
prepares this staining fluid by mixing crystals of picric acid and 
nigrosin with rectified spirit in a test-tube and shaking frequently. 
The supernatant fluid, which is of a deep olive colour, is decanted 
off, and if any undissolved crystals remain more rectified spirit is 
added, and so on. Sections obtained in the usual manner are then 
immersed in the decanted fluid, where they may remain for from two 
to forty-eight hours. When removed from the staining bath the 
sections are of a blue colour, and it is impossible with the naked eye 
to distinguish between grey and white matter. At this stage they 
may or not be washed with rectified spirit to remove the superficial 
colouring matter. The sections are next placed in a mixture of two 
parts alcohol and one part formic acid. When by this treatment the 
difference between the white and grey matter is sufficiently marked, 
they are treated with rectified spirit, after this with absolute alcohol, 
and having been cleared up in bergamot oil, are mounted in Canada 
balsam dissolved in xylol. 

On microscopical examination it will be found that the axis 
cylinders and the nerve-cells are stained a deep blue colour, and that 
the processes of the latter may be followed with great ease. The 
walls of blood-vessels are of a dark-blue colour, while connective 
tissue and neuroglia appear of a somewhat lighter hue. Leucocytes 
and neuroglia nuclei are but slightly stained. The myeline sheaths 
receive a deep greenish-yellow stain. Hence in transverse sections 
the blue axes stand out surrounded by yellow areas, and when viewed 
longitudinally the axis cylinder lies between two parallel lines of 

ellow. 

4 For sclerosis of the spinal cord this method has the great merit 
of showing up the affected parts most conspicuously, owing to the 
contrast between the deep blue of the connective tissue and the 
yellow sheaths of the unaffected nerves. Hence the amount of the 
degeneration is easily recognized. The author has compared this 
method against the anilin-blue stain recommended by Schiefferdecker, 
and has no hesitation in saying that the latter method is inferior to - 
his own. 

A special advantage of this picro-nigrosin method is its behaviour 
towards celloidin, for it is possible to stain sections without removing 
the celloidin with which they have been impregnated. Now certain 
stains, and especially some of the anilins, dye celloidin so deeply 
that it is necessary to remove it from the sections, thus surrendering 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 478-84. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 353 


one of the principal advantages of celloidin, while the colour from 
picro-nigrosin completely disappears under the action of the alcohol 
and formic acid. 

Staining Mucous Glands and Goblet-cells.*—Dr. E. Paulsen has 
succeeded in staining deeply the network of mucous glands (lingual 
and submaxillary of calf) with Delafield’s hematoxylin after fixing in 
1 per cent. osmic acid or in Flemming’s osmium mixture and harden- 
ing afterwards in alcohol for some days. Alcohol preparations were 
treated after Heidenhain’s method. The osmic acid mixture is pre- 
ferable to the osmium mixture. Good stainings were obtained in a 
dilute solution after immersion for twelve to fifteen hours; in the 
undilute solution the same effect was attained in about half an hour. 
By this the reticulum of the epithelium of mucous gland was sharply 
stained, while the intervening substance remained clear and un- 
coloured. The receptivity for colour is unequal, some cells staining 
more than others, while some are altogether unaffected by the stain. 

The author has also with 1 per cent. osmic acid and hematoxylin 
staining after Heidenhain’s method, been able to show in Bowman’s 
glands of many mammals that the epithelium unites in itself the 
characteristic properties of both kinds of lingual glands, both kinds, 
and even a third with a central mucous zone, occurring within the 
gland-sheath. 

Goblet-cells, which appear in large numbers in nasal mucous 
membrane, are by the same treatment stained blue or blue-violet. 


Staining Capsule Micrococci.t—Dr. C. Friedliinder recommends 
the following for cover-glass preparations :—Pass thrice through the 
flame; immerse in a 1 per cent. solution of acetic acid for one or two 
minutes ; then blow off the acetic acid with a pipette, and dry in the 
air. Stain for some seconds in the solution of anilin-water and 
gentian-violet. Wash again, and examine. The ground-substance 
is colourless, hence the stained parts, e. g. the capsules, stand out very 
distinctly. 

For demonstrating capsule cocci in sections Friedlander gives the 
following method :—Stain for twenty-four hours in acid solution of 
gentian-violet (concentrated solution of gentian-violet in alcohol 50; 
aq. destil. 100; acid acetic 10). Then decolorize in 1 per cent. 
acetic acid for 1-2 minutes, dehydrate in alcohol, and clear up in oil 
of cloves. Some practice is required to hit off the requisite degree of 
decolorization. 

Staining Spirilla in Blood-preparations.{—Dr. C. Giinther re- 
commends that the cover-glass preparations of blood containing 
spirilla, made in the usual manner and fixed over a flame (or better - 
by five minutes in a thermostat at 75° C.), should be washed for ten 
seconds in a 5 per cent. solution of acetic acid before being stained. 
This drives out the hemoglobin from the blood-dises, which are no 
longer coloured by the stains, so that when the staining of the 
preparations is completed the most highly coloured spirilla no longer 

* Zeitsch. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 520-1. 
{ Fortschr. d. Med., iii. (1885) p. 757. t Ibid., p. 755. 

Ser 2—Vot. VI. 2X 


354 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


meet the eye covered up partly by blue-stained blood-discs, partly by 
the granular opacity of the ground stain. The acetic acid must be 
carefully removed before the staining is undertaken. The greater part 
of the acid is blown off, and after drying in the air the cover-glass is 
held over an open bottle of strong ammonia, in order to eliminate the 
last traces of the acid. The excess of fluid is washed off with water 
and the preparation mounted in Canada balsam. 


Staining Bacillus of Syphilis.*—Herrn Doutrelepont and Schiitz 
have, by a special method of staining, demonstrated bacilli in 
syphilitic indurations, condylomata, papille,and gummata. In form, 
size, and arrangement they perfectly resemble the bacilli described by 
Lustgarten. 

The method is as follows:—The material hardened in aleohol is 
softened in water for about 10 minutes before cutting. Very thin 
sections made with-freezing microtomes are then placed in a 1/2 per 
cent. salt solution, and next are carefully spread out in absolute 
alcohol until all the air bubbles have disappeared. They are next 
stained in a 1 per cent. watery solution of gentian-violet for 24 to 48 
hours. 

Decolorization is effected by waving each section for some seconds 
about in weak nitric acid (1-15 water), and then immersing in 60 
per cent. alcohol for 5 to 10 minutes. When of a pale violet-blue 
colour, the sections are transferred to a weak watery solution of 
safranin, where they remain for some minutes; next to a 60 per 
cent. solution of alcohol for a few seconds, then, having been de- 
hydrated in absolute alcohol, are cleared up in cedar oil, and mounted 
in Canada balsam. 


Giacomini’s Process for Preserving Microscopical Preparations.{ 
—Prof. C. Giacomini’s process consists in imbedding the stained 
sections (which may be coloured by any reagent whatever) in a layer 
of gelatin, backed upon either side by a layer of collodion. As 
many glass plates are required as there are sections. They should 
slightly exceed the size of the sections. They must be most carefully 
cleaned in the ordinary manner (with acids, alcohol, ether), then 
dusted over with tale powder, which is briskly rubbed in with a piece 
of chamois leather, and finally removed with a soft brush. The 
glass plates are then coated with a thin layer of collodion (the author 
uses commercial collodion, and if it be too thick, thins it down with 
a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether). They are then dried 
in a horizontal position, and when sufficiently firm to bear the 
imprint of the finger-nail, they are coated over with gelatin. This 
8 to 10 per cent. watery solution of gelatin must be already prepared 
before the collodion process is begun. ‘The whole of the gelatin is 
placed in half the distilled water for an hour; it is then warmed to 
a temperature of 50° to 55° C. in a water-bath, and the other 
half of the water added until a perfect solution is obtained. This is 


* Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., 1885, p. 320. 
+ Gazzetta delle Cliniche, xxii. (1885) November. Cf. Zeitschr. f. Wiss. 
Mikr., ii, (1885) pp. 531-5. 


. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 3855 


filtered while hot through a suitable apparatus. It is not advisable 
to add any antiseptic. The collodionized plate is now immersed in 
the vessel containing the hot gelatin, and when the collodion and 
gelatin have united (the disappearance of all streaks from the collo- 
dion surface shows this), the section, previously kept in distilled water, 
is placed thereon by means of a fine brush. The plate is then 
removed from the bath, and laid carefully in a horizontal position. 
If the gelatin layer and the section both be thin, 12 to 18 hours are 
sufficient to dry them. Should any part of the section remain un- 
covered, a fresh layer of gelatin solution, at a temperature of 50°, 
may be poured over the plate, held in a sloping position. 

Drying may be considered completed when the preparation is 
quite transparent, and the gelatin surface so firm that it no longer 
receives the indent of the finger-nail. The gelatin layer may now 
be marked, if need be, with ordinary ink. Finally, a second collo- 
dion layer is run over the gelatin. Endeavour should be made to 
keep the second layer about as thick as the first. After drying 
again, the gelatin-collodion layers are stripped off the glass plate by 
cutting first along the edge, and then raising the collodion-gelatin 
layers with a scalpel. If the glass plate have been properly cleaned, 
this is quite easily done. As the collodion-gelatin layers tend to 
curl up, it is advisable to submit them to a certain pressure. This is 
best done by placing them between the leaves of a pretty thick book. 

With care, 200 sections of the pons varolii may be mounted in 
one collodion-gelatin layer. The author’s researches were chiefly 
_ devoted to the central nervous system. He found that preparations 
treated with Miiller’s fluid, and afterwards with perchloride of 
mercury, gave better results than when nervous tissue had been 
hardened in alcohol, and especially if kept for any length of time. 
The chief advantages of this method consist in the transparency of 
the sections and the ease with which they are preserved. Low 
powers are quite sufficient to enable the course and distribution of 
the nervous fibres to be followed with ease. The only inconvenience 
complained of by the author is the impurities which commercial 
gelatin contains. These, however, are no bar to microscopical 
investigation. 


White Rosin as a Mounting Medium.*—Mr. H. L. Brevoort 
reports the results of his experiments in mounting with white rosin 
to be very satisfactory. The method is the following:—On the 
centre of a clean glass slide, laid on the heating table, put a small 
piece of rosin of the purest quality. Heat is gently applied until 
the rosin becomes as liquid as it can be made without burning it. To 
remove air-bubbles, with a pointed glass rod add to the liquefied rosin 
and stir in with it, a half-drop of turpentine. A moment or two 
after the object to be mounted has been placed in the medium, and 
the cover-glass has been dropped upon it, the slide must be removed 
from the hot table, and a spring clip applied. In five minutes the 
mount will be ready for finishing and labelling. For such objects 


* Journ. New York Mier. Soc., i. (1885) pp. 202-3. 
2Aa2 


356 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


as hairs and fur-fibres in particular rosin is preferable to balsam as a 
medium for mounting. 


Smith’s Newer Mounting Medium of High Refractive Index.*— 
Prof. Hamilton L. Smith has recently discovered a mounting medium 
which he regards as superior to any hitherto described. It is even 
superior to the preparations described last year.t These consisted of 
stannous chloride in glycerin jelly, giving a refractive index of 1°7, 
and of realgar in arsenic bromide, with a refractive index of 2:4. 
The new medium, which has a refractive index considerably above 
that of the stannous chloride medium, is prepared in the following 
manner :— 

Dissolve 11 oz. of antimony bromide in two fluid drachms of a 
50 per cent. solution of boro-glyceride. This, when cold, makes a 
very viscid medium, like old stiff balsam, of a dark, sherry wine 
colour. Mounts made with it in the extremely thin film required are 
as colourless as with old balsam, and when laid upon white paper, 
the colour of the medium is scarcely perceptible, if it has not been 
injured by overheating—certainly less than most mounts in styrax. 
It is used precisely like Canada balsam. It works easily at a 
moderate heat, and boils very rapidly. ‘The heat must be continued 
until the boiling is nearly over, but care must be observed not to 
overheat, as the glycerin is likely to burn. When entirely cooled,. 
the cover will be firmly attached, as with balsam, and the slide ma 
be cleaned with moist tissue paper, without fear of disturbing the 
cover. 

A finishing ring may now be applied, but Prof. Smith advises that 
a bit of paraffin should be placed on the slide, melted, and caused to 
flow around the mount, by tilting the preparation. A vigorous 
rubbing with a cloth will remove all excess of paraffin, leaving a 
sloping or bevelled ring round the mount. ‘This operation has 
preserved mounts for two months already, with no indication of 
change. Any finishing cement may then be applied. 

The medium is only slightly deliquescent, but is decomposed by 
water, and injured by contact with immersion fluids—hence some 
protection is necessary. 

We now quote from Prof. Smith’s letter as follows ;— 


“The boro-glyceride which I have used was prepared for me by ~~ 


Mr. C. F. Booth, of Tarrant & Co., manufacturing chemists, New 
York. This substance is a hard, brittle, and glassy compound of 
glycerin and boracid acid, and will no doubt serve an excellent pur- 
pose as a mounting material from its antiseptic properties. I use a 
50 per cent. of this in glycerin. 

I wish to say here that recently, in looking over some of my 
earliest mounts in the chloride of tin and glycerin medium that I 
had thrown aside because of leakage (as this material, before I used 
gelatin, always remained more or less soft, and so made it difficult to 


* Amer. Mon. Mier. Journ., vii. (1886) pp. 3-4. 
+ See this Journ., v. (1885) p. 1097. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 357 


clean off the cover before ringing), I was surprised to find that not 
only had the leakage stopped, but that the drop outside was indurated, 
and when removed the whole scemed perfectly sealed, and showed no 
tendency to the smearing when wiped hard, that had caused me at 
first to suppose these mounts were spoiled, and they remain up to the 
present moment now apparently good. The boro-glyceride 50 per 
cent. solution will not permit as much chloride of tin to be dissolved 
as I mentioned in the directions for the gelatin preparation. A 25 
or 30 per cent. solution will be better here, and this medium still 
answers admirably for ordinary diatoms. 

The gelatin and tin compound is more hygroscopic than the 
compound of boro-glyceride and antimony ; still, if properly made 
and used will answer admirably and remain unchanged, I believe, 
for any length of time.” 


Meates’ New Medium of High Refractive Index.—Mr. W. C. 
Meates describes a still newer medium :—TIn a clean dry test-tube 
put 10 grains of bromine, and 380 grains of sulphur. Boil gently 
until the sulphur is dissolved ; then add 15 grains of powered arsenic 
(metallic); again boil gently until the whole of the arsenic is 
dissolved. The result is a medium of a light yellow colour with a 
high refractive index (2°4), and easily melted at a low degree of 
heat. It does not crystallize. When it is boiling, fumes of bromide 
of arsenic are given off, which are deposited on and forced up the 
sides of the test-tube; therefore, when these fumes nearly reach the 
top of the tube, the boiling should be discontinued for a few seconds 
and the mixture agitated, in order that the bromide may be again 
absorbed. Then boil again, and so on until the arsenic is dissolved, 
when the mixture will be ready for use. 

There is no occasion for making more than the quantity indicated, 
as a small drop, when warmed, no bigger than a small pin’s head, 
taken up ona finely drawn out piece of small tubing, is quite sufficient 
for a slide. When the slide is warmed it spreads into a very thin layer. 


Morris’s Mounting Medium.*—Dr. W. Morris suggests another 
mounting medium, of high refractive index. The method of prepara- 
tion is said to be exceedingly simple, and the whole process need 
not take more than two minutes. To equal parts of sulphur and 
disulphide of arsenic 1/20 part of biniodide of mercury is added; 
the whole is fused on a piece of mica, then sublimed on to the cover- 
glass, finally remelted on the cover-glass and mounted in Canada 
balsam. The very thinnest cover-glass may be used. American 
slides recently received have a cover-glass with the thickness of 0-009 ; 
Dr. Morris’s cover-glasses are only 0° 004. 


Seaman's Mounting Media of High Refractive Index.t—Prof. 
W. H. Seaman has tried oil of cassia (the refractive index of which 
is nearly equal to that of carbon bisulphide) making a saturated 
solution of phosphorus in the oil. This mixture is easier to use 
because less inflammable than carbon bisulphide, but contains less 


* Australasian Med. Gaz., v. (1886) p. 100. 
+ Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ. vii. (1886) pp. 21-4. 


308 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


phosphorus, as the latter is not perfectly soluble in oil of cassia as in 
carbon bisulphide. A ring of liquid glue should be made on the 
slide, and allowed to dry, drying the diatoms on the cover, adding 
the solution, and quickly inverting the cover in its place, then 
removing the surplus squeezed out by blotting-paper, carefully pressing 
down on the glue ring, and then sealing with balsam. The solution 
smokes on exposure to the air, but in these preparations there is no 
evidence of acid flakes. 

On endeavouring to make a good solution of sulphur in carbon 
bisulphide, it did not appear that sufficient dissolved to get the full 
benefit of the high index of sulphur. He therefore sought a better 
solvent, and found it in anilin. On making a test mount of mixed 
diatomaceous material he was surprised at the brilliancy and sharp- 
ness of definition, in which it excels any other medium yet tried. 
The diatoms used were in alcohol. He first placed the required 
quantity on the inverted cover, dried them, added sufficient medium to 
cover them, heated the cover to drive the air out of the cavities of the 
diatoms and cause the fluid to enter, added, if necessary, a little 
more, inverted in place on the slide on a turn-table, and removing 
any surplus by a blotter, put a ring of balsam or shellac cement 
round, thus finishing at one operation. The anilin is not very 
volatile, and the adhesion of the cover very slight, but with care, 
using a long-bristled brush and thin balsam, a coat can be got quite 
sufficient to seal and fix the cover in place, and additional coats may 
be given when convenient. 

Anilin, according to Storer, dissolves its own weight of sulphur ; 
if heat is used it will become supersaturated, and crystals will form 
on the slide, which are very pretty of themselves, but of course are 
not desirable with other objects. As Gladstone and others have 
indicated that high refractive power accompanies complex molecular 
constitution, it is probable the best solvents for this purpose will be 
found among the carbon compounds like anilin, chinolin, &c. 


Black Ground for Opaque Mounts.*—Mr. W. C. Brittan thinks 
that the following receipt for a paint that will give a dead black 
surface as required for the inside tubes of optical instruments, &c., 
should be in the hands of all who work with the Microscope :—Take 
two grains of lampblack, and add three drops of gold-size, mix 
thoroughly, and add 24 drops of turpentine, when again thoroughly 
mixed it is ready for use. Apply it thin with a camel’s hair brush. 
When dry, the articles will have as fine a dead black as when they 
came from the optician’s hands. This paint will also be found 
just the thing where a dead black ground is required for opaque 
mounts. 

Exhibiting the Streaming of Protoplasm.j—The streaming 
motion of protoplasm can be exhibited very satisfactorily, according to 
Mr. T. J. Burrill, in the thin membrane (upper epidermis of scale- 
leaf) found between the scales of the bulb of the common onion. AII 
that is necessary to do is to transfer a piece of the fresh membrane, 


* The Microscope, vi. (1886) p. 41. + Bot. Gazette, x. (1885) pp. 428-9. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETO. 359 


snipped off by a pair of scissors, to a drop of water on a slide, cover, 
and examine with a power of four hundred or so times. The tempera- 
ture of a comfortable room is about right; with less heat the move- 
ment is very slow. Success is more certain if the bulb has started to 
grow, as they often do in a cellar. Care should be taken in removing 
the membrane, for the cell-walls are very delicate, and easily wrinkle, 
forming unsightly and annoying irregular lines, over what should be 
the clear open cell. 

The material commends itself for its accessibility at any time, and 
especially in winter when other things may not be readily obtained, 
and for the extreme ease of preparation. 


Examining Embryo-growth in Birds’ Eggs.*—Dr. L. Gerlach 
describes a successful method which he has devised for watching the 
embryo-growth in birds’ eggs through a small glass “ window” made 
at the smaller end. After detaching the end with a bent pair of 
scissors, a little albumen is taken out, so that the germinal disc of the 
yolk turns upwards ; the liquid is then put back. Gum-arabic solution 
is spread on the opening, and wadding put round it, then a small 
watch-glass is fixed on it with gum; collodion and amber-lac being 
afterwards added. The eggs must lie horizontally in the incubator ; 
development then goes on normally, and may be observed till the 
fifth day (thus comprising the time most interesting to the embryolo- 
gist), the egg being taken out, and the window-end turned up. 


Examining Iron and Steel.t—Mr. F. L. Garrison considers it is 
at present difficult to say what will be eventually the practical value 
of the Microscope in the sciences of engineering. The rdle which it 
seems most likely to play is that of an adjunct to the testing-machine, 
and not (as some have supposed) a rival to the chemical laboratory. 
That it will be a most valuable accessory seems, to say the least, 
highly probable. 

As regards preparing the material for examination, the author 
points out that Mr. J. C. Bayles ¢ has “ described the process in such 
a plain and comprehensive manner, that if his instructions are care- 
fully followed, one need not encounter any serious obstacles after a 
little experience and the expenditure of a considerable amount of 
time and patience. Patience and cleanliness are the two most 
important attributes to be acquired by a student, if he desire success 
in a work of this characrer. A deficiency in either will be sure to 
spoil his work, and in the end he will give it up in disgust, wondering 
what has been the cause of his failures. In grinding the specimens, 
it is quite unnecessary that they should be ground to an extreme 
thinness and mounted in Canada balsam, as microscopical objects are 
usually preserved. This entails a vast amount of labour, to no end 
whatever. A good and accurate photograph, once obtained, is usually 
sufficient for any reference that might be desired in the future; 
besides, with a little care the etched surfaces of the objects can be 


* Nature, 1886, p. 497. See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 784. 
+ Journ, Franklin Institute, cxx. (1885) pp. 300-6 (5 pls.). 
~ See this Journal, iii. (1883) p. 605. 


360 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


preserved from rust by simply rubbing a few drops of kerosene oil 
over them with a soft chamois-skin, and then placing them in a tightly 
corked phial. 

The size of the objects to be examined under the Microscope 
may vary considerably; but the sizes found most convenient range 
from 1/4 in. down to about 1/16 in. in thickness, and from 1 in. to 
1/5 in. in sectional area. If the specimens are extremely thin, 
there is often much difficulty in mounting them properly on a slide, 
and in getting the etched surface perfectly parallel to the object-glass. 
After the surface has been sufficiently treated with acid, and shows 
under the Microscope no further traces of scratches made in the 
grinding, it should be carefully dried and cemented to a glass slide 
with wax or cement, great care being taken to have it in the proper 
plane parallel to the object-glass: otherwise, it will be impossible to 
make a satisfactory photograph. 

The great difficulty encountered in pursuing the study of the 
structure of materials is that of making accurate and satisfactory 
records of what is seen under the Microscope. To effect this, the 
only accurate and quick means is to photograph. Hence the student 
must not only be a good microscopist, but also understand the theory 
and practice of photography, an accomplishment which every engineer 
will find it useful to acquire.” 

Some hints are given for photographing and for selecting a 
Microscope. The use of a condensing lens depends, it is said, upon 
the ability of the etched surface to reflect light. Thus hard steel 
reflects light so well that a condenser is not necessary, while in the 
case of pig, cast, or wrought iron its use is absolutely essential. 
Ten photographs are given of various kinds of iron and steel, with a 
description of the characteristic features of the specimens. 


Draper’s Graphic Microscopy.—Mr. E. T. Draper proposes to 
continue in a separate form the coloured illustrations which were a 
special feature of ‘Science-Gossip’ in 1884 and 1885. The first 
part has been issued with two plates and accompanying description. 
Mr. Draper is well known as one of the most expert artists in draw- 
ing microscopical objects that we have, and we shall be very glad to 
hear that his new venture turns out a remunerative one. For this it 
is necessary that microscopists—who cannot but appreciate such work 
—should give if more than moral support. 


Bantt, G.—Manuale di Technica Batteriologica. (Manual of Bacteriological 
Technique.) From Lo Sperimentale, May, 1885. 


BaRreEGGI.—Modificazione all’ allestimento dei preparati Microscopici tinti con 
colori di anilina allo scopo di renderne piu perfetta e durevole la conservazione. 
(Modification in preparing microscopical objects stained with anilin colours 
in order to make them more durable.) [Post.] 

Gazzetta degli Ospitali, 1884, p. 645. 

BEeLuonol, J.—La terminaison centrale du nerf optique chez les mammiferes. 
(The central termination of the optic nerve in mammals.) 

(Methods, post, ] Arch, Ital. de Biol., VI. (1885) pp. 405, 


BeLtvor.—On staining in toto the Central Nervous System with Weigert’s 
Hematoxylin, [Post.] F Brain, 1885, July. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 361 


BEeNDA.—Ueber die Spermatogenese der Saiugethiere. (On spermatogenesis in 
the Mammalia.) 

[Methods, supra, p. 351.] 

Arch. f, Anat. u. Physiol. (Physiol. Abtheil.), 1886, pp. 186-7. 
BERTRAND, E.—Sur l’examen des Minéraux en lumiére polarisée convergente. 
(On the examination of minerals in polarized convergent light.) 
Bull. Soc. Minéral. France, VIII. (1885) p. 29. 
B1zzozERo.—Ueber die Mikrophyten der normalen Oberhaut des Menschen. (On 
the microphytes of the normal skin of man.) 
[Methods, post.] 
Virchow’s Arch. f. Path. Anat. u. Physiol., XCVIII. (1885) p. 441. 
4 Preparazione del picrocarmino. (Preparation of picrocarmine.) 
[Supra, p. 350.] 
Cf. Bordoni-Uffredduzzi, ‘ I Microparassiti,’ 8vo, Torino, 1885, p. 97. 
Born, G.—Biologische Untersuchungen. I. Ueberden Einfluss der Schwere auf 
das Froschei. (Biological researches. I. On the influence of gravity on the 
frog’s egg.) 

[Methods, post.] Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., XXIV. (1884) p. 475. 

Brass, A.—Mittheilungen zur mikroskopischen Technik. (Communications on 
microscopical technique.) 

[1. Die Einbettungsmethode mit Benzol und das Schneiden leicht zer- 
brechlicher Objecte. (Imbedding methods with benzol, and cutting very 
friable objects.) 

2. Bemerkungen iiber die Mikrotommesser und ihre Behandlung. (Obser- 
vations on microtome knives and their use. 

3. Die Anfertigung von zusammenhangenden Serienschnitten. (Making 
adhering series of sections.) [Post.] 

Zeitschr, f. Wiss. Mikr., IL. (1885) pp. 300-7 (8 figs.). 
Brevoort, H. L.—White Rosin as a Mounting Medium. [Supra, p. 355.] 
Journ. N. York Mier. Soc., I. (1885) pp. 202-3. 
BrEeYER.—Mikromembranfilter. (Micromembrane filter.) [Post.] 
Naturforscher, XIX. (1886) pp. 123-4, 
from SB. Vereins zur Forderung des Gewerbfleisses, 1886, p. 15. 
Brittan, W. C.—A Black Ground for Opaque Mounts. [Supra, p. 358.] 
The Microscope, VI. (1886) p. 41, 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) p. 37. 
from Zhe Locomotive. 


” 


Bulloch’s (W. H.) Combination Microtome. [Ante, p. 166.] 
The Microscope, VI. (1886) p. 14. 
Buysmann’s Medicinal Plants. 

[Dried plants, with the floral and fruit parts dissected and separately 
mounted. Those parts which would be injured by pressure are placed in 
alcohol in small.fiat-sided bottles, so that they can be readily examined 
with a lens. Small parts of flowers are also mounted in the same way, 
and where they require a higher power than an ordinary lens they are 
mounted on glass slides for use with the Microscope.”’] 

Journ. of Botany, XXIV. (1886) p. 96. 
Cox, C. F.—See Leggett, F. W. 
DEANS, J.—Notes on Mounting. 
{Never use asphalt. Directions for making gold-size cells for fluid mounts. ] 
Scientific Enquirer, I. (1886), pp. 5-6. 
DimMock, G.—A Method of bleaching Wings of Lepidoptera to facilitate the 
study of their venation. ([Supra, p. 344.] 
Amer. Natural., XX. (1886) pp. 204-5. 
DouTRELEPONT and Sont'Tz.—Ueber Bacillen bei Syphilis. (Staining 

bacillus of syphilis.) [Supra, p. 354.] 

Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., 1885, p. 320. 
ENGELMANN, T. W.—Zur Technik und Kritik der Bakterien-methode. (On 


the technique and criticism of bacteria methods.) [Post.] 
Bot. Ztg., XLIV. (1886) pp. 43-52, 64-9. 


362 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Enock’s (F.) Entomological Slides. 

[A series of slides, showing the mouth-organs of British Hymenoptera, 
especially bees, accompanied by explanatory drawings, so that a person 
can see at a glance the name of each part. The specimens are mounted 
naturally, and the heads are specially prepared for a paraboloid.] 

Sci.-Gossip, 1886, p. 44. 
ETEeRNOD, A.—Armoire 4 préparations microscopiques. (Cabinet for micro- 
scopic preparations.) [-Post.] i 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., 11. (1885) pp. 511-3 ( figs.). 

F.—UVeber Sammeln von Tieren. (On collecting animals.) 

[Brief directions for preserving—principally insects. ] 

Naturforscher, XIX. (1886) pp. 70-1. 
FARHALL, M.—A simple Cell for Fluid Mounts. 

[Cardboard rings saturated in patent knotting. Fasten to slip with gold 

size and cover the ring with a mixture of gold size and oxide of zine. | 
Scientific Enquirer, I. (1886) pp. 4-5. 
FENNESSEY, E. B.—A new Microscope Slide. 

[Those who delight in looking at the coursing of the blood through the 
web of a frog’s foot, or the motion of the sap as seen in Vallisneria, &c., 
“will be pleased with the spectacle of the flow of oil towards the flame 
of a burning lamp. To see this interesting phenomenon it is only neces- 
sary to raise the burner, partly out of the lamp, then hold it steadily, 
close enough to the Microscope, which ought to be turned horizontally, 
and use a 1 in. or lesser power objective, when the current of fluid will 
be observed writhing and struggling amongst and through the inter- 
stices of the cotton wick. The oil may be coloured if thought 
desirable.” ] 

Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) p. 12. : 
FERRAN, J.—Ueber die Morphologie des Komma-Bacillus. (On the morphology 
of the comma bacillus.) [Methods, post. ] 
Zeitschr. f. Klin. Med., 1X. (1885) p. 361. 
FLemmine, W.—Notizen zur Farbetechnik. (Notes on staining technique.) 
[Post] - ‘(Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., I. (1885) pp. 517-9. 
FLEIscuu, E. v.—Ein mikrostroboskopischer Reizversuch. (A microstroboscopic 
irritation experiment.) [Post] 
Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Physiol. Abth.), 1886, pp. 67—71. 
Fiescu, M.—Zur Kenntniss der Nerven-endigung im quergestreiften Muskel des 
Menschen. (On the nerve-endings in striated human muscle.) 
[Methods, post. ] MT. Naturf. Gesell. Bern, 1885, p. 1. 
5 » Zur Anwendung der Merkel’schen Doppelfarbung mit Indigo und 
Carmin. (On the use of Merkel’s double staining with indigo and carmine.) 
[Post.] Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., Il. (1885) pp. 349-52. 
5 ,  Notiz zur Watney’s Doppelfarbung mit Hamatoxylin. (Note on 
Watney’s double-staining with hematoxylin.) [Post.] 


Ibid., p. 353. 
a ,, Bemerkungen zur Kritik der Tinctions-Praparate. (Remarks on 
staining reagents.) [Post.] Ivid., pp. 464-77 (2 figs.). 


Francorrs, F.—Réactifs colorants. (Staining reagents.) 
[Arcangeli’s four formule, ante, V. (1885) p. 1094, with modifications, post.] 
Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., XII. (1886) pp. 48-51. 
FrirpLinper, C.—Microscopische Technik zum Gebrauch bei medicinischen 
und pathologisch-anatomischen Untersuchungen. (Microscopical technique 
in medical and pathologico-anatomical investigations. ) 
{8rd ed., viii. and 128 pp., 1 pl. (8vo, Berlin, 1886). 
rE, » Notiz, die Farbung der Kapselmikrokokken betreffend. 
(Note on the staining of capsule micrococci.) [Supra, p. 353.) 
Bot. Centralbl., XXV. (1886) pp. 380-1, 
from Fortschr. d. Medicin, III. (1885) p. 757. 
Fricdléinder, C.—Microscopical Technology. Transl. by 8S. Y. Howell. 
x. and 250 pp., | pl. (8vo, New York, 1885). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 363 


FRIEDLANDER, C., and G. MartTinoTTiI.—La technica microscopica ap- 
plicata alla clinica ed all’ anatomia patologica. (Microscopical technique 
applied to clinical work and pathological’ anatomy.) (Ital. transl. from the 
last German ed.) 296 pp., 1 pl., and 66 figs. (Svo, Torino, 1885). 

Firrrerer, G.—Ueber eine Modification der Ehrlich’schen Farbemethode fiir 
Tuberkelbacillen im Gewebe. (On a modification of Ehrlich’s staining 
methods for tubercle bacilli in tissues.) [Supra, p. 345.] 

Virchow’s Arch. f. Path. Anat, u. Physiol., CI. (1885) p. 198. 

GARBINI, A.—G@uida alla Bacteriologia. (Guide to Bacteriology.) 

xy. and 145 pp., 34 figs. (8vo, Verona, 1886). 

GELPKE, T.—Notiz zur Anwendung der Weigert’schen Modificirten Hama- 
toxylin-Farbung auf das periphere Nervensystem. (Note on the use of 
Weigert’s modified hematoxylin stain for the peripheral nerve-system.) 

[Post.] Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., Il. (1885) pp. 484-9. 

GERLACH, L.—{Examining Embryo-growth in Birds’ Eggs.] [Supra, p. 359.] 

Nature, XX XIII. (1886) p. 497. 

Gracomi, Dre.—Neue Farbungsmethode der Syphilisbacillen. (New staining 
methods for bacilli of syphilis.) [Post.] 

Corresponzbl. d. Schweizer Aerzte, 1885, No. 12. 

GIACOMINI.—Nuovo processo di conservazione delle sezioni microscopiche. 
(New process for preserving microscopic sections.) [Supra, p. 354.] 

Gazzetta delle Cliniche, XXII. (1885). 

Gierke, H—Staining Tissues in Microscopy. VII., VIII., IX. 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 13-5, 31-5, 53-4. 

Goua1, C.—Sur l’Anatomie microscopique des organes centraux du systéme 
nerveux. (On the microscopical anatomy of the central organs of the nervous 
system.) 

7 T Methods, pp. 15-41. Post.] 
Arch, Ital. de Biol., TV. (1883) pp. 92-123, VII. (1886) pp. 15-47. 

GortTstTEIN, A.—Ueber Entfarbung gefarbter Zellkerne und Mikroorganismen 
durch Salzlésungen. (On decolouring stained nuclei and micro-organisms by 
saline solutions.) [Post.] Fortschr. d. Med., I11. (1885) p. 627. 

GiuntTuHeR, K.—Ueber die Farbung der Recurrens-Spirillen im Blutpraparaten. 
(On the staining of recurrens Spiril/a in blood-preparations.) [Supra, p. 353.] 

Bot. Centralbl., XXV. (1886) pp. 379-80. 
Fortschr. d. Medicin, IIT. (1885) p. 755. 

GuTTMANN, P.—Ueber Leprabacillen. (On leprosy bacilli.) 

[Methods, post.] Berlin Klin. Wochenschr., 1885, No. 6. 

HANSEN, E. C.—Einige kritische Bemerkungen iiber Dr. Hueppe’s Buch, ‘Die 
Methoden der Bacterien-Forschung.’ (Some critical remarks on Dr. Hueppe’s 
book, ‘ The Methods of Bacteria-research.’) 

Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., IL. (1885) pp. 355-8. 

Harracu, A.—Der Kafersammler. (The Insect-collector.) 

{Contains directions for preparing microscopical slides of insects. ] 
308 pp. (8vo, Weimar, 1884). 

Havser, G.—Ueber Faulnissbacterien und deren Beziehung zur Septicimie. Ein 
Beitrag zur Morphologie der Spaltpilze. (On pathogenic bacteria and their 
relation to septicemia.) [Post.] 15 pls. (Svo, Leipzig, 1885). 
oe 3, Ueber das Vorkommen von Mikro-organismen im lebenden Gewebe 
gesunder Thiere. (On the occurrence of micro-organisms in living tissues of 
healthy animals.) [Post.] 

Arch. f. Exper. Pathol. u. Pharmakol., XX. (1885) p. 162. 

HavsHoFrer, K.—Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Analyse. (Contributions to 
microscopical analysis.) 

[{1. On the use of concentrated sulphuric acid. 2. A microscopical reaction 


for copper. | 
SB. K. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., XV. (1885) p. 403, 
HeENEING, H.—Ein einfaches Mikrotommesser. (A simple microtome knife.) 
[Supra, p. 348.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., II. (1885), pp. 509-11 (1 fig.), 


364 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


HEYDENREICH, L.—UVeber den besten Deckglaskitt. (On the best cover-glass 
cement.) [Post.] Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., 11. (1885), pp. 333-8. 
HiLprsranp, H. E.—Ein vereinfachtes Mikrotom von grosser Leistungs- 
fahigkeit. (A simplified Microtome of great working capacity.) [ Post. ] 
Ibid., pp. 848-5 (1 fig.). 
[Hircucook, R.|—Preserving Urinary Casts. 

[Dilute carbolic acid. Shellac as the cement.] 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) p. 18. 
5 Liquid Preservative. 

[‘ It is frequently desirable to have a liquid preservative of the same 
specific gravity as water. Probably the nearest approach to such a 
medium is the one recommended to be used with Deane’s gelatin medium, 
having the following composition :—rectified spirit 13 oz., water 1} oz., 
glycerin 5 fl. dr.] 

Ibid., p. 38. 


Howell, S. ¥.—See Friedlander, C. 
Huverrreg, F.—Ueber die Dauerformen der sogenannten Commabacillen. (On 
the permanent forms of the so-called Comma Bacillus.) 

(Methods, post. | 

Fortschr, d. Med., III. (1885) p. 619. 
HUNTER, W.—Recent Histological Methods. 

[Hardening —(Q) Weigert’s rapid method in Miiller’s fluid, which is kept at 
a temperature of 30°-40° C. accelerating the process from 6 weeks to 
14 days. It is specially applicable to brain and spinal cord. (2) Gaule’s, 
placing the fresh tissue for 20-30 minutes in a saturated solution of 
corrosive sublimate and then in alcohol. Jmbedding in celloidin. Cutting.— 
In cutting, the so-called dry method must be employed to obtain the full _ 
advantages of this method. Staining in the ordinary way. Jmbedding 
in Paraffin, cutting and staining (alum carmine). For general purposes 
celloidin will be found more generally useful than paraffin, especially for 
nervous tissues. For fine histological or embryological purposes, paraffin 
is by far the best, and can in no way be equalled by any other known 
method. | 

Journ. of Anat. and Physiol., XX. (1886) pp. 307-16. 
Imuor, O. E.—[Turntable.] 

[Description of a simple form devised by the author. ] 

SB. K, Akad. Wiss. Wien, XCI. (1885) pp. 207-8 (1 fig.) 
JENKINS, A. K.—Methods of Study. IV. 

[Staining Methods and Formule. Cochineal (Mayer’s and Alum). Carmine 
(Borax, Bermann’s, Beale’s, Alum-, Acetic Acid-, Acid Borax-, Alcohol-). 
Double Stains (Carmine and Indigo- Carmine, Picrocarmine, Picro-lithia- 
carmine, Palladium chloride and Carmine). ] 

The Microscope, VI. (1886) p. 5-11. 

KALEKOWSEY, [H.—UVeber die Polarisationsverhaltnisse von senkrecht gegen 

eine optische Axe geschnittenen zweiaxigen Krystallplatten.—(On the polar- 
ization relations of biaxial crystal plates cut at right angles to an optic axis.) 

[ Post. ] Zeitschr. f. Krustallog. u. Mineral., 1X. (1884) pp. 486-97 (1 pl.). 

KLEMENT and RENARD.—Reactions microchimiques a cristaux. (Micro- 
chemical crystal reactions.) (Post. ] 

Bull, Soc. Belg. Micr., XII. (1886) pp. 55-6. 

Kocanuzi, J.—Untersuchungen iiber den Bau der Iris des Menschen und der 

Wirbelthiere. (Researches on the structure of the Iris of man and vertebrates.) 

[Methods, yes ] Arch. f. Mikr, Anat., XXV. (1885) pp. 1-48 (1 pl.). 

Korotnerr, A.—Zur Histologie der Siphonophoren, (On the histology of the 

Siphonophora.) 


[ Methods, post. ] UT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, V. (1884) pp. 229-88 (6 pls.). 
KRaAvuSsE, W.—Die Retina. (The retina.) 
[Methods, post. ] 


Internat. Monatsschr, f, Anat, u. Histol., I. (1884) p. 225. 
L., V. A.Cleaning Slides. 
[Bichromate of potash 2 oz., sulphuric acid 3 oz., water 25 oz. 
Scientific Enquirer, I. (1886), p. 3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 365 


Laxer, K.—Die ersten Gerinnungserscheinungen des Saugethierblutes unter 
dem Mikroskope. (The first coagulation appearances of mammalian blood 
under the Microscope.) [Post.] 

SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XC. (1884) pp. 147-58. 

Laruam, V. A—On mounting Pathological Specimens. 

[(1) Examination of fresh Tissues. (2) Hardening. (3) Cutting. (4) 
Staining. ] 
Sci.-Gossip, 1885, pp. 25-6. 

Lavpowsky, M.—Mikroskopische Untersuchungen einiger Lebensvorgange 
des Blutes. (Microscopical researches on some vital processes of the Blood.) 

[Methods, post.] 
Arch, f. Pathol. Anat. (Virchow), LX X XVI. (1885) pp. 60-100 (3 pls.). 

Ler, A. B.—Notiz, das Schallibaum’sche Collodium betreffend. (Note on Schialli- 
baum’s collodion.) [Post.] Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., II, (1885) p. 522. 


LeaaGert, F. W.—Silicate of Soda as a mounting medium. 

[Finds it to be a good mounting medium, transparent, and the mount is 
quickly made. Mr. ©. F. Cox, on the contrary, found the soda was 
deposited in crystals. ] 

Journ. New York Micr, Soc., I. (1885) p. 213. 
List, J. H.—Mittheilungen technischen Inhaltes. (Technical notes.) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., Il. (1885) pp. 514-6. 
Locxwoop, S.—Preparing Feather Crystals of Uric Acid from a Caterpillar. 
[ Post. ] Journ. New York Micr. Soc., I. (1885) pp. 217-8. 
Marms, W.—Lehrbuch der Pharmakognosie des Pflanzen- und Thierreiches. 
(Handbook of animal and vegetable pharmacology.) 

[Contains brief directions for the preparation of each drug for microscopical 
examination. ] 

Part I., 272 pp. (8vo, Leipzig, 1885). 

MartTinotrri, G.—La picronigrosina nello studio delle alterazioni dei centri 
nervosi. (Picronigrosine in the study of the alterations of the nervous 
centres.) [Supra, p. 352.) Zeitschr, f. Wiss. Mikr., II. (1885) pp. 478-84. 


Matrrtrouo, O.—Skatol e Carbazol, due nuovi reagenti per le membrane 
lignificate. (Two new reagents for lignified membrane.) [Post. 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., Il. (1885) pp. 354-5. 
Mayer, S.—Ueber die blutleeren Gefasse im Schwanze der Batrachier-larven. 
(On the bloodless vessels in the tail of Batrachian larve.) 
(Methods, post.] SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XCI. (1885) p. 1. 
Mays, R.—Histophysiologische Untersuchungen tiber die Verbreitung der 
Nerven in den Muskeln. (Histophysiological researches on the extension of 
the nerves in the muscles.) 
(Methods, post. ] Zeitschr. f. Biol., XX. (1885) p. 449. 
Meurzer, 8. J., and W. H. WeL.cu.—Zur Histophysik der rothen Blutkor- 
perchen. (On the histophysics of the red blood-corpuscles.) 
(Methods, post.] Centralbl. f. d. Med, Wiss., 1884, p. 721. 
Mirriewp, E. H.—Turn-table. 
[Lever for holding brush and raising or lowering it. ] 
Engl, Mech., XLII. (1886) p. 451 (2 figs.). 
Mo.utscu, H.—Berichtigung. (Correction.) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., II. (1885) p. 359. 
Monpino, C.—Sulla struttura delle fibre nervose midollate peripheriche. (On 
the structure of the medullated peripheral nerve-fibres.) 
[ Supra, p. 342.] Arch. per le Sci. Med., VIII. p. 45. 
Morris, W.—[New Mounting Medium.] [Supra, p. 357.] 
Australasian Med. Gazette, V. (1886) p. 100. 
New Slides. 
{Hinton’s Trichina—Piffard’s botanical—Collins’s Zozoon.] 
Sci.-Gossip, 1886, p. 67. 
Nissi.—Untersuchungsmethoden der Grosshirnrinde. (Methods of investigation 
for the brain cortex.) 
(Methods, post.] Ber. Naturf.-Versamml. Strassburg, 1885, pp. 506 and 135. 


366 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Ost, J.—Ueber die Leistungsfahigkeit der Mikrometerschraube. (On the 
performance of the micrometer-screw [of microtomes].) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss Mikr., II. (1885) pp. 295-300. 
PAULSEN, E.—Farbung von Schleimdriisen und Becherzellen. (Staining of 
mucous glands and goblet cells.) [Supra, p. 353.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., II. (1885) pp. 520-1. 
PrenGRA, C. P.—Preserving Urinary Casts. 
[“ There is no better medium than the mother liquid.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VIL. (1886) p. 39. 
PrupDEN, J. M.—Delafield’s Hematoxylin Solution. 
[Reply to query as to the discoverer (Prof. J. Delafield) and original direc- 
tions for making. ] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss, Mikr., II. (1885) p. 288. 
RENARD.—See Klement. 
RispBERT.—Zur Farbung der Pneumoniekokken. (On staining pneumonia cocci.) 


[ Post. ] Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., 1885, p. 136. 
Roursecr, H.—Neuerungen an bacteriologischen Apparaten. (Improvements 
in bacteriological apparatus. ) Gaea, XXI. (1885) No. 6. 


R6ssieER, R.—Die Bildung der Radula bei den cephalophoren Mollusken. (The 
formation of the radula in the cephalophorous Mollusca.) 

[Methods, post. ] 

Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., XLI. (1885) pp. 447-82 (2 pls. and 1 fig.). 

SANDMANN, G.—Ueber die Vertheilung der motorischen Nervenendapparate 

in den quergestreiften Muskeln der Wirbelthiere. (On the distribution of the 
motor nerve-end-apparatus in striated vertebrate muscle.) 

[Methods, post. ] 

Arch, f. Anat. u. Physiol.—Physiol. Abthetl., 1885, p. 240. 

Scuuuze, F. E.—Entwidsserungsapparat. (Dehydrating apparatus.) [Post.] 

8.B. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1885, pp. 175-7. 

Arch. f. Wikr. Anat., X XVI. (1886) pp. 539-42 (2 figs.) 

5 5 Neues Netz zum Fangen kleiner frei-schwimmender Thiere. 
(New net for catching small free-swimming animals.) [Supra, p. 341. 

SB. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1885, pp. 178-9 (1 fig.). 

5 = Schlammsauger. (Mud-pipette.) [Supra, p. 341.] 

Ibdid., pp. 179-80. 
Scutitz—See Doutrelepont. 
SEAMAN, W. H.—Mounting Mediums with high Refractive Indices. 

[Supra, p. 357.] Amer, Mon, Mier. Journ., VII. (1886) p. 21-4. 
(Sections, Ordinary v. Serial.] [Supra, p.349.] Nature, XXXIII. (1886) p. 243. 
Seeds of Orthocarpus purpurascens. 

[The fully ripe seed has become a favourite object for exhibition under the 
Microscope. Its chief interest centres in the white net-like sac in which 
the kernel is encased. ] 

Journ. New York Micr. Soc., 1, (1885) p. 224. 

SpRRANO Y FATIGATI, E.—Nota sobre la cristalizacion en el campo del 

microscopio del acetato potasico. (Note on the crystallization of acetate of 
potash in the field of the Microscope.) 

Anal. Soc. Espat. Hist. Nat., XTV. (1885) Actas, pp. 79-80. 


Suack, H. J.—Pleasant Hours with the Microscope. 
[Rotifers. ] Knowledge, TX. (1886) pp. 144-5 (5 figs.). 
Smith’s (H. L.) New Mounting Medium of high refractive Index. 
[ Supra, p. 356, | 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 3-4. 
SpenGEL, J. W.—August Becker’s Schlittenmikrotom. (A. Becker’s Slide- 
Microtome.) [Post.] 
Zeitechr. f. Wiss. Mikr., TI. (1885) pp. 493-9 (2 figs.). 
Srei1n, 8. v.—Einfache Vorrichtung fiir das Mikrotom zur Einbettung der 
Praparate. (Simple contrivance for the microtome for imbedding). [ Post. ] 
— Centralbl. f. d. Med. Wiss., 1884, p. 100. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 367 


Stern, S. v.—Eine neue Methode, Hamoglobin-Krystalle zu erhalten. (A 
new method of obtaining hemoglobin crystals.) 
[Methods, post.] Centralbl. f. d. Med. Wiss., 1884, p. 404. 
Stretzner, A.—Die Entwicklung der petrographischen Untersuchungs- 
methoden in den letzten 50 Jahren. (The development of petrological 
methods in the last 50 years.) 
Festschr, Gesell. Isis, 1885, p. 25. 
SToweE.t, C. H.—How to examine Epithelium. 
[Directions for preparing and examining columnar, ciliated, and pavement 
epithelium. ] 
The Microscope, VI. (1886) pp. 25-8 (6 figs.). 
Srrenc, A.—Ueber einige Mikroskopisch-chemische Reactionen. (On some 
microchemical reactions.) 
{Tests for silver, arsenic, antimony, barium, tartaric acid, and sulphuric 
acid. | 
Ber. Oberhess. Gesell. f. Natur- u. Heilk. Giessen, XXIV. (1885) pp. 54-5. 
[Phosphoric acid, potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium and strontium. 
barium, magnesium, aluminium. | 
Neues Jahrbuch f. Mineral., I. (1885) pp. 21-42. 
To1son, J.—Sur le numération des elements du Sang. (On counting the 
elements of the blood.) 

[Methods, post. ] Journ. Sci. Méd. Lille, 1885, 4 pp. 
Urrrepvuzzi, G. B.—I Microparassiti nelle Malattie da Infezione. Manuale 
technico. (The micro-parasites of infectious diseases. Technical manual.) 

322 pp., 2 pls. and figs. (8vo, Torino, 1885). 
U as ae Farbung der Leprabacillen. (On staining the leprosy bacillus.) 
ost. 
Monatsch. f. Prakt. Dermat. Erganzungsh., 1885, p. 47. 
VinassA, E.—Beitrage zur pharmakognostischen Mikroskopie. (Contributions 
to pharmacological microscopy.) [Post. 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Micr., TI. (1885) pp. 309-25 (4 figs.). 
VircHow, H.—Ueber Zellen des Glaskorpers. (On cells of the vitreous body.) 
(Methods, post. ] Arch. f. Mikr, Anat., XXTV. (1884) pp. 99-109. 
Vries, H. pze.—Over eene methode om im plantensappen gebonden zuren te 
bepalen. (On a method of determining the acids in plants when combined 
with bases.) [Supra, p. 346.] 
Maandblad voor Natuurwetenschappen, 1884, No. 9. 
Watt, O. A.—Glass Slides for Mounting. 
St. Louis Nation. Druggist, VIII. (1886) pp. 24 and 39. 
+ ee Protect Slides against Frost. 
(“It is advisable to take it for granted that frost may injure the slides, and 
to act accordingly by keeping them in a moderately warm room.”] 
Tbid., p, 39. 
Wartomont, R.—Le Bacille de la tuberculose, (Bacillus tuberculosis.) 
[Methods, post. ] 
Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., XII. (1886) pp. 44-8, from Rev. Médicale, Louvain. 
Wericert, C.—Eine Verbesserung der Hamatoxylin-Blutlaugensalzmethode fiir 
das Centralnervensystem.) An improvement in the hematoxylin ferrocyanide 
of potash method for the central nervous system.) ([Post.] 
Fortschr. d. Med., IIT. (1885) p. 236. 
“9 » Ein neues Tauchmikrotom besonders fiir grosse Schnitte. (A 
new immersion microtome, especially suited for large sections.) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., IL, (1885) pp. 326-33 (2 figs.). 
$3 », Ueber Schnittserien von Celloidinpraparaten des Centralnerven- 
systems zum Zwecke der Markscheidenfarbung. (On series-sections of celloidin 
preparations of the central nervous system for staining nerve-sheaths.) 
[Post.] Ibid., pp. 490-5. 
Wetcu, W. H.—See Meltzer, 8. J. 
Wu1TMAyN, C. O.—Osmic Acid and Merkel’s Fluid as a means of developing 
nascent histological distinctions. [Post.] 
Amer, Natural., XX. (1886) pp. 200-3. 


( 368 ) 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


AnnuaL Meetine oF 10TH Frpruary, 1886, at Kine’s Cottecs, 
Srranp, W.C., THE PRESIDENT (THE Rev. Dr. Datiierr, F.R.S.) 
IN THE CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 13th January last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The President said that some of the Fellows present might not 
be aware that they had just lost by death one who was well known 
to them; he referred to the late Mr. P. H. Lealand. His genial 
urbanity to all who came in contact with him, and his long connection 
with his firm of Powell and Lealand (to whom the science of micro- 
scopy was so largely indebted for those optical productions, the 
excellence of which was so well appreciated, and in which Mr. Lealand 
took an honourable part), justified a notice of the fact that he was no 
longer amongst them, and an expression of their regret at his death, 
as well as of sympathy with his surviving relatives. 


Mr. Crisp said that, owing to a curious and probably unintentional 
operation of their bye-laws, it would not be necessary to make the 
meeting special in order to elect Dr. Dallinger as President for a 
third year. While it was provided that a Fellow should not be 
elected for more than two years, it was also provided that at Annual 
Meetings alterations in the bye-laws could be made without notice. 
All that was necessary, therefore, was to pass a resolution, which he 
now proposed, “ That notwithstanding bye-law No. 27, or any other 
bye-law, the Rev. Dr. Dallinger be, and he is hereby declared, eligible 
for election as President of the Society for a third year.” 

Mr. Michael having seconded the motion, it was put to the meeting, 
and carried unanimously. 


The List of Fellows proposed as Council and Officers for the 
ensuing year was read as follows :— 

President—Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D., F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents—*J. William Groves, Esq.; *John Mayall, Esq., 
jun.; Albert D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.; *Prof. Charles Stewart, 
M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 

Treasurer—Lionel S. Beale, Esq., M.B., F.R.C.P., F.B.S. 

Secretaries—F rank Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.A., V.P. and Treas. L.S. ; 
Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A., F.Z.S. 

Twelve other Members of Council—Joseph Beck, Esq., F.R.A.S. ; 
A. W. Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S.; Robert Braithwaite, Esq., 
M.D., M.R.C.S., F.L.S.; *Rev. Edmund Carr, M.A.; *Frank R. 
Cheshire, Esq., F.L.S.; *G. F. Dowdeswell, Esq., M.A.; James 


* Have not held during the preceding year the office for which they are 
n minated. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 369 


Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.; John Matthews, Esq., M.D.; John 
Millar, Esq., L.R.C.P., F.L.S.; Urban Pritchard, Esq., M.D. ; William 
Thomas Suffolk, Esq.; *Charles Tyler, Esq., F.L.S. 

Mr. Guimaraens and Mr. Powell haying been appointed Scrutineers, 
the ballot was proceeded with, and upon the result being subsequently 
reported to the President, he declared that all the Fellows who had 
been nominated were duly elected to serve as Council and Officers 
during the ensuing year. 


The Treasurer’s Account was read (p. 372). The Treasurer 
(Dr. Beale, F.R.S.) said he thought the Fellows would consider this 
to be a most satisfactory account. He was anxious, nevertheless, to 
see their resources still further increased, in order that they might 
be able to do better still. They wanted an increased number of 
Fellows in order to give them the means of improving the Journal, 
although it had already become a most valuable periodical, and had 
attained a very high degree of excellence, mainly through the fostering 
eare of their friend Mr. Crisp. What they wanted now was to see it 
a self-supporting enterprise, and if each Fellow would do his best to 
increase their numbers, the Journal would not only repay its cost, but 
they might have more plates, and in other ways extend its influence. 

A motion for the adoption of the Treasurer’s Report and for a vote 
of thanks to him for his, services was moved by Dr. Millar, seconded 
by Professor Stewart, and carried unanimously. 


The Report of the Council was read (pp. 370-3). 

The adoption of the Report was moved by Mr. W. W. Reeves, and 
seconded by Mr. Spencer, and carried unanimously. 

Mr. Cheshire in eulogistic terms moved that the thanks of the 
Society should be given to the Secretaries for their valuable services 
during the past year. 

Mr. Vezey seconded the motion. 

The President said that the Fellows all knew how much they 
were indebted to the Secretaries for their services to the Society, and 
without being invidious he might say especially to the one on his 
left, and there could be no doubt as to the cordial way in which this 
resolution would be received. The ‘motion was carried by hearty 
acclamation. 

Mr. Crisp said he was sorry that Prof. Bell was unable to be with 
them that evening, being absent from London on account of ill- 
health, and he begged therefore to return thanks on Prof. Bell’s 
behalf, as also for himself, so far as he was intended to be included 
in the resolution. 


The President then read his Annual Address (pp. 193-207). 
Prof. Stewart proposed that the best thanks of the meeting be 
given to the President for his address, to which he had listened with 


* Have not held during the preceding year the office for which they are 
nominated. 
Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. 2s 


370 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


the greatest pleasure, and which it would be contrary to precedent to 
discuss. 

Mr. Crisp, in seconding the motion, thought it would not be out 
of place to point out, in reference to the President’s remarks on the 
benefits derived from wide apertures, that what promised to be 
another very important advance in the construction of objectives had 
just been made. Prof. Abbe had for a long time been trying to 
obtain an optical glass which would get rid of the secondary spectrum, 
and he had recently succeeded in doing this. The secondary spec- 
trum was eliminated, and nothing was now left but a small tertiary 
spectrum. He hoped that before long they would be able to judge of 
some objectives for themselves. The Fellows had already cordially 
approved the announcement that the President had consented to 
accept office for a third year, and they were aware how regularly he 
attended the meetings, though at considerable effort to himself; 
he therefore proposed to add to Prof. Stewart’s motion that their 
thanks be also given to the President for accepting the office for a 
further period. 

The motion was then put to the meeting, and carried unanimously. 

The President said he was much gratified by the very cordial 
manner in which his address and this vote of thanks had been 
received. He could only repeat what he had said before, that he had 
given for many years the whole of his leisure time, and some which — 
had not been quite leisure also, to studies of this kind. He loved . 
the work, and should always feel it to have been a very great honour 
to have held the position he did in connection with a Society which 
made the use of the Microscope its primary object. 


The President moved a vote of thanks to the Auditors and Scruti- 
neers for their services, and 
Dr. Millar having seconded the motion, it was carried unanimously. — 


New Fellows :—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. John Christie, A. N. Disney, M.A., Julio Gardia, W. H. 
Weightman, and R. R. Whitehead. 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR 1885. 


Fellows.—During the year 1885, 53 new Fellows were elected, a 
number in excess of the average of recent years; 25 Fellows have 
died or resigned (2 compounders, and 23 annual subscribers); 3 
Honorary Fellows have also died. 

The deaths of the year, unfortunately, include the names of three 
of the leading authors of works on the Microscope in the English, 
French, and German languages. ‘The President has already ex- 
pressed the sense of the Society at the loss which microscopy has 
sustained in the death of the author of ‘The Microscope and its 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 371 


Revelations, Dr. W. B. Carpenter. Prof. C. Robin, the well-known 
French histologist, and an Honorary Fellow of the Society, was the 
author of the standard work on the Microscope in France, which has 
passed through three editions; while Dr. P. Harting, another 
Honorary Fellow, was the author of the exhaustive and learned 
historical and practical treatise on the Microscope which, originally 
written in Dutch, is better known through its German translation. 
The death of Dr. F. Ritter v. Stein (the third Honorary Fellow) was 
referred to in last year’s report. He was succeeded as there men- 
tioned by Dr. Fligel, whilst the second vacancy has been filled by 
Prof. H. de Lacaze-Duthiers, who is well known as one of the fore- 
most of French zoologists. The third vacancy has not yet been 
filled. 

The number of Fellows now stands as follows :—606 Ordinary 
Fellows, 49 Honorary Fellows, and 82 Ex-officio Fellows, or 737 
in all. 

Finances.—The additions to the List of Fellows represent a net 
increase in the revenue of the Society for the year of 62/. 9s. 6d. 
The total income received, other than for compositions, was 959/. 1s. 8d., 
so that during the current year it is expected that the Society’s 
revenue will reach 1000/., which it will be agreed represents a very 
satisfactory state of the Society’s finances. 

Library and Cabinet.—Owing to the unfortunate, and at one time 
serious illness of .the Librarian, the Catalogue of the Library which 
was just ready, was delayed. It is now, however, again in order for 
printing and will be proceeded with forthwith, when the arrange- 
ments for lending books from the Library will come into force. 

The Cabinet Committee on entering upon their labours found 
that a proper revision of the Cabinet would require a considerable 
amount of time to complete satisfactorily, and they are not at present 
able to present their report. 

Additional shelves have been added to the Library to provide for 
the ever-increasing number of books. 

An Abbe Apertometer has been placed in the Library for the use 
of Fellows who may desire to verify the aperture of their objectives. 

Journal.—The principal improvement in the last volume of the 
Journal is the extension of the Index. The names of the authors no 
longer appear alone, but are followed by the title of the paper or 
article of which they are the authors. Whilst this adds considerably 
to the length of the Index, it will, it is believed, be found of great 
practical use. The contents both of the separate numbers and of the 
whole volume also, now include the names of the authors, while the 
former (on the wrappers) are now classified, much facilitating refer- 
ence to any particular paper. An alteration of typevhas also im- 
proved the Bibliographical lists. 

Mr. E. Thurston, of King’s College, kindly undertook a portion 
of the Microscopy B section during the year, but, on his leaving for 
India, his place has been filled by Dr. R. G. Hebb, and that of Mr. 
B. B. Woodward, who was obliged to resign on account of ill-health, 
by Mr. J. Arthur Thompson. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


372 


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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. one 


The Council considered and ultimately approved a proposal for 
publishing in the Journal the portraits of the Presidents of the 
Society. To issue the whole (21) as full-page portraits involved a 
greater cost than the Council saw their way to undertaking, while to 
spread them over a series of years did not appear to be desirable. It 
was therefore decided that the portraits of 16 of the Presidents, from 
1840 to 1878, should be issued in two groups with full-page portraits 
of the first President of the Microscopical Society of London (Sir R. 
Owen, K.C.B.), and the first President of the Royal Microscopical 
Society (Mr. Glaisher, F.R.S.). No little difficulty was experienced 
in collecting the photographs for the groups, the only ones obtainable 
in some cases being old and faded and in others unsuitable for 
technical reasons. The satisfactory character of the result is due to 
the trouble and attention given to the matter by Mr. J. Mayall, jun., 
one of the members of the Council. 


Meertine or 107TH Maron, 1886, ar Kine’s Cottzaz, Stranp, W.C., 
THE Presipent (THE Rev. Dr. Daiinerr, F.RS.) mw tue 
CaHarr. 

The Minutes of the meeting of 10th February last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) re- 
ceived since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the 


Society given to the donors. 
Hudson, C. T., and P. H. Gosse, The Rotifera or Wheel Ani- From 
malcules. Part 1, pp. 1-40, 7 pls.; Part 2, pp. 41-80, 
7 pls (Svo, MondonsiS86) 2. 2 eee ce co ce . §©=©e Publishers 
William Sharon y. Sarah Althea Hill. Oral Argument for 
Complainant by W. M. Stewart. 106 pp., 13 tables and 
5 letters. (8vo, San Francisco, 1885).. .. .. ..  «. 
Ditto, ditto, Closing Argument for Complainant, by W. H. L. 
Barnes. 224 pp., 55 tables and 4 letters. (8vo, San 
ETAACISCO ESO) Meta arse ake fae aye Winks Berths 
Spruce, R., Hepatice: of the Amazon and of the Andes of Peru 
and Ecuador. xi. and 588 pp., 22 pls. (8vo, London, 1885) The Publishers. 
Walker, W. C., and H. H. Chase, Notes on some New and 
Rare Diatoms. 6 pp. and 2 pls. (4to, Utica, N.Y., 1886) The Authors. 
Viallanes, H., La Photographie Appliquée aux Etudes 
d’Anatomie Microscopique. vi. and 66 pp., 4 woodcuts 
PHOg Dl (OVO aris, ASSO) niles be icclWireced Ess Eues)eunat 


Dr. Hanks. 


” 


The Author. 


Mr. J. Beck said he thought it might be of some interest to the 
Fellows, seeing that they were subscribers to the Marine Biological 
Association, to hear some description of his recent visit to the 
Zoological Station at Naples. Mr. Beck then gave a description of the 
Station, and said it was certainly the most perfect which had ever been 
established. He had seen most of the large aquaria in existence, but 
had never seen one where the arrangements were so complete, or the 
work was carried out in so thorough a manner. Mr. Beck remarked 
particularly on the special attention which was given to the preserva- 
tion of specimens, so as to exhibit them as far as possible in their 


374 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


natural condition. He had brought with him to the meeting a specimen 
of Tubularia and other organisms, to show the way in which they 
were preserved, including some red coral with the polyps extended 
permanently, in a beautiful way. The plan of doing this was practi- 
cally a secret, and the endeavours to imitate it had as yet only met 
with partial success here. The preparations were for sale, and could 
be obtained by any one at an exceedingly moderate price according 
to a published list. The establishment was being enlarged so as to 
afford room for putting up additional tables, and he recommended 
every one to visit it who went near that part of Italy. He proposed 
to deposit in the Library specimens similar to those which he ex- 
hibited, so that they could be referred to by any Fellows who might 
be interested in the subject. 

The President thanked Mr. Beck for the interesting description 
which he had given them as to the station, and also for the promised 
specimens. 


Dr. Crookshank exhibited and described an elaborate and very 
complete photo-micrographic apparatus made for him by Messrs. Swift, 
which possessed some special advantages in the focusing arrangements, 
and in the facility with which it could be used in a vertical as well 
as a horizontal position. 


Mr. Crisp, in exhibiting some Microscopes and apparatus of 
somewhat special construction, said that the Bishop of Oxford had 
recently been extolling the study of language and literature in 
opposition to that of science, on the ground that the one was a study 
of mind, while the other dealt only with matter. If the Bishop were 
asked what the instruments before them represented, he would no 
doubt answer “matter.” In fact, however, the great interest which 
the objects before the meeting had—at any rate to him (Mr. Crisp) 
—was from the point of view of “ mind.’ That they were made of 
wood or iron or brass was entirely a secondary consideration. The 
essential point was the interesting evidence which they afforded of 
the working of the human mind. ‘Take, for instance, the apparatus 
for moving a slide across the field of view. That was a problem 
that had been solved many years ago in this country, first by the 
simple process of two movable plates (the ordinary mechanical stage), 
then by one plate, and more recently without any plate at all. Com- 
pared with this simplicity, how strange had been the workings of the 
mind that had devised Klénne and Miller’s Bacteria Finder, which he 
exhibited. Mr. Crisp then described the following instruments and 
apparatus, commenting upon the evidence they afforded of the 
specialities of the various minds concerned in their production, viz. :— 

Helmholtz’s Vibration Microscope, for observing the mode of 
ee of tuning-forks, strings, and other vibrating bodies (supra, 
p- 305). 

Thoma’s Microscope, for observing the circulation of the blood 
in the mesentery of dogs and other small mammals (supra, p. 309). 

Reichert’s Microscope, with new mechanical stage, allowing the 
slide to move on the surface of the stage, without any intermediate 
plate (supra, p. 807). 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 375 


Jung’s Objective-holder, with an ingenious arrangement for re- 
leasing the objective (ante, p. 132). 

Westien’s Lens-holder, with universal nut for loosening all the 
parts by one turn of the screw (Vol. V. (1885) p. 316). 


Prof. §, Exner’s micro-refractometer was exhibited and described 
by Mr. Crisp. The designer claimed that by a movable diaphragm 
over the eye-piece he was able to detect differences in the structure 
of the different parts of blood-corpuscles, insects’ eyes, &c. (supra, 
p- 328). 


Mr. E. M. Nelson described a Microscope (exhibited by Mr. 
Crisp) fitted by Messrs. Swift with the new form of fine adjustment 
invented by the Rev. J. Campbell, a clergyman in Shetland, which 
consisted in cutting two different threads on the screw—382 and 30 
respectively—giving a rate of motion corresponding to the difference 
between the two (supra, p. 324). 

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., understood that Mr. Swift thought the 
arrangement would hardly be likely to serve its purpose for students’ 
Microscopes, for which it had been more especially recommended, as 
it could not be produced cheaply.* 


Mr. J. Mayall, jun., described a new form of fine adjustment 
(exhibited by Mr. Crisp) applied to the ordinary Jackson form. It 
had been designed by Messrs. Anderson and Sons to give two different 
speeds by means of threads having a pitch of 40 and 100 threads to 
the inch (supra, p. 825). 

He also exhibited a Huyghenian eye-piece which had been made 
by Mr. Hilger, with lenses of rock crystal. It had been expected 
that it would give good results; but having tried it carefully, he 
could hardly tell the difference between this and others of similar 
power with glass lenses by Messrs. Powell and Lealand. 


Mr. Crisp reported the discoyery by Prof. Abbe and Dr. Schott 
(after several years of work) of a new optical glass, by which the 
secondary spectrum in objectives was eliminated. Two objectives 
made from it were exhibited (by Mr. Stephenson and Mr. Crisp) with 
the special eye-pieces which were designed for use with them (supra, 

16). 

Mr. Stephenson, in reply to the President, said that to enable the 
Fellows to judge of the excellence of the new objectives—one of 
which had been very handsomely presented to him by Mr. Zeiss—he 
had brought it to that meeting. He had placed under the instrument 
a slide of Amphipleura pellucida in phosphorus, and there could be no 
question, in his opinion, of the fineness of the definition, while the 
colourless image and great flatness of field could not fail to strike the 
observer. The President, in his last address, spoke of the great 
advantage to practical observation which he had experienced in the 
increased aperture of modern objectives, and, just in the same way, 


* Mr. Baker informs us that he finds the arrangement works admirably, and 
that he applies it to all his Students’ Microscopes. 


376 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


it would, he believed, be found that the greater refinement of defini- 
tion, incident to more perfect achromatism, must, when combined with 
the present enormous apertures, yield, in future research, results still 
further in advance. He congratulated Prof. Abbe, and microscopists 
in general, on the happy combination from which so much might be 
expected. 

Mr. E. M. Nelson said that the opportunity had been afforded him 
by Mr. Crisp of trying the other objective. He first used it upon 
P. angulatum, and found that it gave a very beautiful picture. He 
was able to use a larger cone, and to see much more clearly the 
small bar of silex which he had mentioned on a former occasion. On 
trying Isthmia nervosa with the whole aperture of Powell’s condenser 
and a solid cone, the secondary markings came out remarkably well, 
and he was able to trace a fracture most beautifully. He next tried 
Coscinodiscus, and here there was a great change observed, for instead 
of the silex coming out a pinkish colour, as usual, it was grey. He 
then examined Amphipleura pellucida with an oblique beam of light 
(1:4.N.A.). The diatom was mounted in Prof. Smith’s medium, and 
he never saw such a picture—so sharp and distinct. 

The President said that they had been for some time anticipating 
the pleasure of seeing these lenses, and particularly so after what 
was mentioned about them at their previous meeting, but it was a 
pleasant surprise to him to find them in London on his arrival that 
afternoon. It was a matter of much satisfaction to have the opinions 
of Mr. Stephenson and Mr. Nelson, and still more so to hear from 
them that the good reports which had already reached them had not 
been exaggerated. There was no doubt a great field opened up by 
this new departure, and he might say for himself that, although he 
had spent a great deal of money in obtaining the most perfect lenses © 
possible for the purposes of his own investigations, he should be very 
glad to avail himself of any advantages which might be offered by 
the new objectives. 


Mr. A.D. Michael gave a résumé of his paper “On the Life- 
history of an Acarus, one stage of which is known as Labidophorus 
talpe ; and on an unrecorded species of Disparipes.” The subject was 
illustrated by drawings upon the black-board, and by mounted pre- 
parations exhibited under Microscopes. 

The President, in expressing the thanks of the Society for this. 
communication, said it was very pleasant to see the earnest work 
which was being done around them, especially when it was so successful 
as it was in the hands of Mr. Michael. 


Mr. W. C. Meates’ note on‘ A new Medium of High Refractive 
Power for Diatom Mounting’ was read (supra, p. 357). 


Mr. A. Y. Moore’s slides of stained Amphipleura pellucida were 
exhibited, and the advantages of staining as applied to diatoms 
discussed, Mr. Stephenson pointing out that diatoms had been stained 
many years ago, but that the result had not been found sufficiently 
satisfactory to warrant a repetition of the experiment. 


ope CN ec ee Sn 


West, Newnuan: & Codith- 


gat.cdel 


4 
Aa x 


AT). Mich ».el 


Glyciphagus Cramer. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


JUNE 1886. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. 


tO 


VIII.—Upon the Life-history of an Acarus one stage whereof is 
known as Labidophorus talpe, Kramer; and wpon an 
unrecorded species of Disparipes. 


By Aupert D. Micuast, F.LS., F.Z.S., F.R.MS. 
(Read 10th March, 1886.) 
Puates X. anp XI, 


In the year 1877 Dr. Kramer of Schleusingen published a paper 
upon two Acari which he had discovered parasitic upon the mole.* 
It was freely asserted by some acarologists that neither of these 
species were adult, and that they were but immature hypopial 
forms. The question of what a Hypopus really is, and what were 
true Hypopi and what were not so, was less understood then than 
now. ‘Time, however, showed most satisfactorily that one of Dr. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


PLATE X. 
Fig. 1.—Glyciphagus Crameri, female, dorsal view x 130. 
eS = = a ventral view x 130. 
ge Ae? » male, dorsal view x 160. 
ge _ 2 5, ventral view x 160. 
AE 4 Ha fully grown nymph. 
Sony - a hypopial nymph, dorsal view x 160. 
Ply fe = 5 6 ventral view x 160. 
ae 3 gl a » adult female; hood of rostrum x 450. 
ae o »» male; mandible x 380, 
» 10.— =A s » female; Ist left leg from above x 200. 
ies Poe 7 3 S 3 4th right leg from the inner side 
x 200. 
abe | ee a ns > Ss a hair from the 1st lez x 500. 


* “Zwei parasitische Milben des Maulwurfs,” Archiv f. Naturg., xliii. 
pp. 249-59. 
Ser. 2—Vot. VI. 2c 


378 Transactions of the Society. 


Kramer’s species, Pygimephorus spimosus, was an adult creature, 
and a perfectly good and very interesting species. With regard to 
the other Acarus, which Kramer called Labidophorus talpx, it 
appeared probable that this really was an immature (hypopial) 
orm. 

Before proceeding further, I may as well, for the sake of clear- 
ness, remind my readers what a Hypopus is. I trust that I 
have elsewhere * satisfactorily shown that the hypopial stage is one 
assumed by some of the nymphs of certain Acarz for the purpose 
of enabling them to endure more adverse conditions of heat and 
drought than the ordinary nymph can survive, and thus adhere to 
insects, &c., which may be exposed to hot sunshine, &c., and be 
transferred by them to new localities ; whereby the distribution of 
the species was ensured ; and that the hypopial stage occupied the 
period between two ecdyses in the ordinary nymphal life-history, 
and also, I think, showed that some Acar? which were adult sexual 
forms assumed a very close resemblance to the true Hypopus, 
except in the mouth-organs, with the object of ensuring distribution 
in the same manner as the hypopial nymphs. 

What rendered it almost certain that Labedophorus talpxe was 
a hypopial nymph, was that in 1879 Dr. G. Haller, then of Bern, 
discovered, parasitic upon the squirrel, an Acarus of which the 


Puate XI, 
Fig. 13.—Glyciphagus Crameri, adult male; 1st right leg from without x 380. 
» 14— 3 1 cA 2nd left leg from within x 450. 
” 15.— ” 0 ” 3rd oY) ” x 490. 
» 16.— cy & hypopial nymph; Ist tarsus. 
Racer Uli pal 5 pe om 3rd left leg from without. 


» 18— 3 #5 ge 2 4 4th tarsus, showing the two 

claw-like hairs turned upward. F 

19.—Glyciphagus Crameri, hypopial nymph, posterior apparatus for holding 
hairs on the ventral surface. (a) anus; (6) channel wherein the hair 
lies; (c) large lips or wing-like processes, which lie over the hair, 
and usually overlap each other a little when there is not any hair 
there (they are not drawn so for the sake of clearness) ; (@) chitinous 
plates on the inner side of the lips; (¢) chitinous band near the 
edge of the inner surface of the plate, with hard transverse ridges 
on its inner side, which are only seen through in the figure from 
the transparency of the chitin; (f) circular chitinous plates with 
radiating ridges on the under side of the abdomen; (gq) plate 
sloping down, which serves to turn the hair away from the anus. 
On the right side is indicated the retractor muscles of the 


labia, &e. 
» 20.—Disparipes exhamulatus, adult female, dorsal view x 250. 
iy. 2k 33 bs a - ventral view X 290. 
a i % » male, dorsal view x 350. 
» 2.— ro a larva. 


* “The Hypopus question,’ Journ. Linn. Soc.—Zool., xvii. (1884) 
pp- 371-94. 


. 


AD Michael ad nat.del. West Newman &Colith 
Glyciphagus Crameri. 13—19. 
Disparipes exhamulatus. 20-23. 


The Life-history of an Acarus, &e. By A. D. Michael. 379 


hypopial nymph closely resembled Labidophorus talpe, almost 
the only differences being size, and that the hind tarsi of Haller’s 
species terminated in very long single spines, whereas Kramer's 
terminated in a 1 ach of short, fine hairs. Haller found his Acarus 
in great numbers and in all stages on the squirrel, and called the 
adult Dermacarus sciurinus, and he gives an exhaustive description 
and illustration of his creature at all ages in his paper.* The 
hypopial nymph, however, was not first discovered by Haller ; it 
had been figured and described, somewhat imperfectly, long before 
by C. L. Koch,} a fact which Haller is careful to point out. Koch 
had treated it as a separate species, and classed it among the 
Dermaleichi ; it was Haller who traced its life-history, and assigned 
to it its proper place. 

During some investigations which I made into the life-histories 
of Pygmephorus spinosus, Kramer’s other mole-parasite, I very 
frequently met with his Labidophorus talpx ; I felt that this must 
probably be a hypopial nymph, and that it would be very in- 
teresting to trace its life-history ; but, less fortunate than Haller 
with his squirrel-parasite, I was not even able to find on the mole 
any Acarus which was at all likely to be the adult form; and, 
indeed, except the species I was investigating, I could not find on 
it any Acarus, the whole life-history of which was not well known 
tome. I tried, therefore, to rear the Hypopus in confinement and 
observe what adult form it changed into. I was not, however, 
as successful in this as I have been in similar efforts with other 
species ; I could not get the Hypopus to live away from the mole, 
and of course I could not keep the mole under observation. For 
some years I have, from time to time, continued this inquiry ; 
catching moles when I had the chance, and usually obtaining the 
Hypopus ; but still failing to rear it. 

As I was spending the Christmas of 1885 in one of our 
Midland counties, I again utilized the occasion to pursue the 
subject. I caught twelve moles, and obtained plenty of Labido- 
phorus, but there the matter ended. I was still unable to discover 
any conditions which would enable me to keep them in health away 
from the mole. At last it struck me that if I obtained and searched 
the mole’s nest instead of the moles themselves, I might possibly 
find the creature in the adult stage, or in some stage which would 
be easier to rear than the Hypopus. I therefore proceeded to dig 
up moles’ nests, and obtained about a dozen. I was careful to 
mark those which, from external appearances, I thought were fresh 
nests; in these nests I found several species of Acarz, and among 


* «Zur Kenntniss der Tyroglyphen und Verwandten,” Zeitschr. f. Wiss. 
Zool., xxxiv. (1879) pp. 261-73. 
+ ‘Deutschlands Crustaceen, Miriapoden, und Arachniden,’ Regensburg, 
1834-9, Heft 33, fig. 7. 
2c 2 


380 Transactions of the Society. 


them was one which struck me as being likely to be the adult 
form of Labidophorus, but the question was how to prove this and 
to ascertain whether what was merely a conjecture would turn out 
to be an actual fact. The mode which I adopted for this inquiry 
was twofold; in the first place I put some adults of the newly 
found species in a cell, hoping to breed the larva; then the young 
nymph, and then the Hypopus from them. In the second place 
I found in the mole’s nest, with these adults, an immature Acarus 
in the ordinary nymphal stage; which, although it was very 
different from the adults, I suspected was the nymph of the species. 
I found these of various ages, quite young, and nearly full grown. I 
selected a number of specimens which I thought would soon 
undergo their final ecdysis and become imagos, and placed them in 
a cell by themselves; I also selected a number of young specimens, 
which I put in a separate cell; I did my best to keep the 
inhabitants of both cells in a healthy condition, and I submitted 
each to very frequent and careful microscopical examination. This 
last method had the desired result before the first process had 
time to be completed. I was soon very pleased to see that some of 
the older nymphs became inert, and by watching them while in 
this condition 1 was enabled to see the nymphal skin split in some 
instances and to see what I had suspected to be the adult actually 
emerge from the nymphal skin; so that this part of the investiga- 
tion was complete. The cell of younger nymphs was equally 
fortunate; these arrived in a healthy condition at the period of 
ecdysis, and, to my great satisfaction, I actually saw, in one or 
two instances, the hypopial nymph, Kramer’s Labidophorus talpz, 
emerge from the skin of the young ordinary nymph, just as the 
imagos had done from the full-grown specimens. Thus the life- 
circle was traced, and it was at last certain what was the adult 
form of Kramer’s Hypopus. 

It now remains to say something as to the position of the 
creature among the Acar7, and as to its more interesting features. 
It would seem at first natural to place it in Haller’s genus Derma- 
carus, it being decidedly allied to his species; on the other hand, 
I found with it two other new species which I think fairly belong 
to the genus Glyciphagus. Although not very typical species of that 
genus, they are certainly so closely allied to the Glyctphagi of 
Robin’s second sub-genus, viz. G. palmifer and G. plumiger, that it 
would scarcely be desirable to place them in a different genus. On the 
other hand, they are as closely allied to the present species as that 
species is to Haller’s Dermacarus, and the present species possesses 
the principal characters of the genus Glyciphagus, except the 
strongly developed hairs; it has the rough skin like shagreen, the 
tubular projection (bursa copulatrix) in the middle of the hind 
margin of the females, which is so characteristic of the genus, but 


The Life-history of an Acarus, &c. By A. D. Michael. 381 


which was absent from Haller’s species, and most of the other 
generic characters. The species also possesses some features not 
characteristic of the genus, because they are not found in all species, 
but which, as far as I know, have not hitherto been observed in 
any other genus. Therefore, although Haller was right in making 
a new genus for his Dermacarus sciwrinus at the time when he 
did so, yet he might possibly desire to reconsider the question now 
that intermediate species have been found, and I think it safer, at 
present, to place the new species in the genus Glyciphagus, but I 
have given Dermacarus in a bracket as a note of the close 
connection. 

With regard to the specific name, I should have wished to 
retain Kramer’s name, but it is obviously impossible to retain his 
generic name, and as the description attached to his specific name 
is based entirely on the Hypopus, which is totally different from 
every other stage, I fear it would be unwise and misleading to 
retain it; moreover, I have not ever found the adult form or 
ordinary nymph or larva upon the mole. I wish still somehow to 
retain in the name of the species something to connect it with 
Dr. Kramer, as that excellent acarologist was the first to draw 
attention to any stage of the creature; therefore, although I do 
not ordinarily think it desirable to call species after men, I propose 
to call this “ Crameri.” 

With regard to the more interesting features of the creature 
itself, irrespective of its life-history, probably the most striking 
is the armature, or ornamentation, whichever it may be, of the first 
two pairs of legs of the male, and this is, as far as I know, quite 
without parallel in the Acarina, except that a development of the 
same class, but far less in degree, exists in one other species of 
Glyciphagus, viz. G. ornatus, a species discovered and described 
by Kramer in 1881,* in which the tibial joints of the first and 
second legs of the male bear at the distal edge of their under sides 
an appendage which Kramer describes as a comb-shaped hair, of 
which the stem is feathered along the median line, like the other 
hairs of the creature, but on each side stand out a close single row 
of flat spikes, exactly like the teeth of a comb; there are five to 
six of these teeth on each side of the hair on the first leg, and ten 
to eleven on each side of that on the second leg. 

In the present species (male only) the first two pairs of legs 
are remarkably strong, thick, and curved; the tarsus is con- 
siderably and gradually diminished in thickness from the proximal 
toward the distal end, but the actual distal end is suddenly 
thickened to form a recurved hook in the median line on the under 
side. Along the median line of this joint, both above and below, 


* “Ueber Milben,” Zeitsch. f. d. Gesammt. Naturw., liv. (1881). 


382 Transactions of the Society. 


runs a strong chitinous blade, which is widest at the proximal end. 
On the tibia this blade is replaced above by a great chitinized 
papilla which bears the very large tactile hair; below, however, 
the blade is present along the anterior part of the leg, but is cut at 
its edge into about seven great comb-like teeth radiating like a 
fan, but directed downward. 

It will be seen that the difference from Kramer’s species here 
is that this comb-like arrangement is in single row directed down- 
ward along a median blade on the joint itself, instead of being on 
each side of a hair springing from the distal edge, and this differ- 
ence is kept up in the still more curious second leg, in which case 
the blade is present on the upper and under sides of the tarsus and 
on the upper side of the tibia, but on the under side of the latter 
joint is a fan-shaped comb-like blade, similar to that on the first 
leg, but more projecting, and on the under side of this leg the 
comb-like blade is carried all along the great second joint of the 
leg, and is there cut into two divisions, the proximal having the 
teeth (about eight) radiating from an almost semicircular blade, 
and the distal being long, with the teeth (about twelve) directed 
more forward. ‘The whole forms a very singular leg. That these 
blades and comb-like processes may in their origin be modified 
hairs seems probable, both from Kramer’s species and from the 
position of some curious serrated hairs in the present species 
(fig. 13, second joint above ; fig. 15, third and fourth joints below). 

The curious apparatus at the posterior end of the hypopial 
nymph, apparently for holding the hairs of the mole, seems to 
differ somewhat from the corresponding part in Haller’s species. 
It consists of a median concave channel in which the hair lies 
longitudinally ; this is overlapped by a flexible, lip-hke organ on 
each side, the two lips slightly crossing when there is not any hair 
beneath them. They are provided with powerful retractor muscles, 
which draw them closer to the body. Hach lip bears a large 
chitinous plate on its inner surface, and on the inner side of this 
plate is a strong chitinous band with transverse ridges; on the 
abdomen, immediately below each band, is a circular chitinous 
plate with radiating ridges, and the hairs are firmly held between 
the bands and the circular plates. 

I have utilized the present paper to illustrate and describe 
another unrecorded species, the life-history of which I worked out 
some time since, and which is so far connected with that hitherto 
referred to that it forms a good example of a species which in the 
adult form assumes the hypopial appearance, as contrasted with 
the foregoing species, which has a true nymphal hypopial stage. 
In the paper before referred to, I gave the life-history of an Acarus 
which I called Disparipes bombi, the adult female being found on 
humble-bees, and having an extremely hypopial appearance. It is, 


The Life-history of an Acarus, &e. By A. D. Michael. 383 


moreover, provided with a remarkable hooked holding claw on the 
front leg, which resembles those found on Pediculus, Pygme- 
phorus, and other creatures living more or less parasitic lives on 
hairy animals. Neither the male nor the immature stages of this 
Acarus have, to my knowledge, been found on the bee. At the 
end of that paper I ventured to suggest that there were many 
undescribed species belonging to the same genus; the present 
species is one of these. I have not, however, found the adult 
females in any parasitic or semi-parasitic condition. All the 
specimens of that sex which I have found have been free-living 
creatures, inhabiting moss from old wood, &. The adult male 
and the larva I have not ever found at all; the way in which 
I obtained them was as follows:—In the spring of 1885 I 
obtained some adult females of the species at the New Forest. 
I did not obtain them there for the first time; I knew the species 
well before, but I took advantage of having a good many healthy 
specimens to endeavour to trace the life-history; I concluded 
that they were adult females, from their resemblance to those 
of D. bombi. I had traced the history of that species by confining 
the adult females in a cell, the bottom of which was covered with 
damp blotting-paper, and into which I placed a small piece of 
cheese. I tried the same plan with the present species, but the 
Acari did not seem to take kindly to the cheese. I then took out 
the cheese, leaving the blotting-paper, which had become smeared 
with cheese, and was kept damp; in this way a fungoid growth 
was promoted, upon which the creatures throve well: they now 
laid eggs, and I was able to breed the larvee from these eggs, and 
the adult male and female from the larve. I have not ever obtained 
the larva or the adult male any other way. In this species, as in 
D. bombi, there is not any nymphal stage; the change from 
hexapod larva to imago being direct, without the intermediate, 
immature, octopod stage usual in the Acarina. 

Although the female is, as far as I know, a free-living creature, 
yet its hypopial appearance suggests that it may probably use other 
animals as a means of conveyance; but on the other hand, the 
front leg is without the great claw adapted to hold hairs; the claw 
is almost abortive on that leg, which has become a tactile organ. 
I have utilized this absence of the hook for the name which I pro- 
pose for it, viz. Disparipes eahamulatus.* The absence of this 
hooked claw may of course mean that during its parasitic period 
its host is hairless; but when taken in conjunction with the fact 
that I have not hitherto found it parasitic on anything, and that I 
do find it in a non-parasitic condition, it may not improbably 
indicate that the creature, although descended from a species like 


* Exhamulatus, deprived of a hook (hamula, a little hook), 


384 -‘Transactions of the Society. 


bombi, has abandoned its parasitic life, and has lost the need for 
the hair-holding claw, which has become obsolete, but has not yet 
lost the hypopial form. I fear that the course of development will 
hardly assist in this inquiry, as the hypopial form is only present 
in the adult, even in bombz, and is quite absent both from the male 
and the immature stages. 

The male and the nymph of the present species -will be found 
sufficiently curious. 


GuiycrpHaGcus (DERMACARUS) CRAMERI 0. 8. 
Pl. X. and Pl. XI. figs. 13-19. 


3 
Average length, about 36mm. °25 mm. 
» breadth ,, Dea “132 
» length of legs, 1st pair, about +15 ,, “12 
3) 93 99 nd 33 3+ ; 13 > ‘ 10 3” 
33 oP) 33 ord. 39 99 4 7, 33 ; 12 39 
Pd 39 3 4th 39 39 : 20 33 5 14 9 


Colour dull reddish-brown, of medium depth of tint; the 
male a trifle darker than the female. When the creature has just 
emerged from the nymphal skin the hinder part of the abdomen of 
the female is lighter than the anterior portion; at this time, in 
both sexes, there is a pinkish shade, and the tint of course is 
lighter. 

Texture dull and rough, rather granular, the female more 
strongly so than the male. 


Female (figs. 1 and 2). 


Cephalothorax as seen from above, about one-fifth of the 
total length; narrow; lateral margin (behind the rostrum) con- 
cave; the posterior part of the cephalothorax is, however, as wide 
as the anterior margin of the abdomen, or nearly so. Rostrum 
slightly truncated, or concave anteriorly. There are two very 
short rostral hairs. A narrow, raised, longitudinal ridge starts 
from near the rostral hair on each side, and, after following the 
line of the rostrum for a short distance, curves toward the median 
line, and after the middle of the cephalothorax curves outward 
again and runs as far as the abdomen. Mandibles short, powerful, 
chelate ; tridentate on each limb of the chela. The mandibles do 
not usually project beyond the rostrum when not in use. ‘There is 
a strongly chitinized concavity at each side of the cephalothorax 
near the base, which holds air when the creature is immersed in 
liquid. It appears to be partly closed by a membrane, and to have 
a nerve running to it, possibly it may be a sense organ. It is found 
in both sexes. The chitinous skeletal pieces of the under surface of 


The Life-history of an Acarus, de. By A. D. Michael. 385 


the cephalothorax are as follows :—Some short distance behind the 
labium is a curved transverse band concave anteriorly; from the 
centre of this band the sternum runs straight backward in the 
median line; just passing an imaginary line drawn so as to join 
the hind edges of the coxe of the second pair of legs; then the 
sternum bifurcates; the branches are much narrower than the 
true sternum, and they join the vulval ring (hereinafter spoken of) 
at its antero-lateral part. The epimera from behind the first pair 
of legs join the lateral branches of the sternum a little in front of 
the centre; those from behind the second pair of legs, or the 
apodemata prolonging them, join the vulval ring almost at the same 
point as the same branches. The short epimera from behind the 
third legs do not join any other sclerites. 

Legs of moderate length, the fourth pair about reaching the 
posterior margin of the abdomen. The two front pairs thicker 
than the two hind pairs. The first joints (cox) rounded, the 
proximal ends of the second joints small, thence the leg is gradually 
increased in thickness until the distal ends of the bell-shaped third 
joints, whence it gradually becomes thinner up to the distal end of 
the tarsus. The tarsus is nearly as long as the three joints pre- 
ceding it, varying a little in the different legs. There is a setiform 
tactile hair on the fourth joint (tibia) of each leg, those on the two 
front pairs being the largest. There are two strongly serrated 
hairs on the second and one on the third joint of the first leg, and 
one on the third joint of the second leg; the serration of these 
hairs is usually coarser at the distal than at the proximal ends 
(fig. 12). There are also a few fine hairs on the tarsi, and one or 
two on some of the other joints. The tarsi are terminated by a 
long-shaped caruncle and fine single claw (as usual). 

Abdomen a long heart-shape, with the point anterior, and 
the two rounded lobes forming the hind margin; between them, 
slightly on the dorsal surface, is the little tubular projection (bursa 
copulatrix) characteristic of the females of the genus. ‘The lobes 
are considerably raised and rounded on the dorsal surface; they 
occupy the whole central part of nearly half the abdomen ; anterior 
to them is a single broad lobe, less raised, occupying the central 
part of the greater portion of the rest of the abdomen with two 
irregular ridges upon it and a depressed trench outside it. Exterior 
to this the abdomen (except its posterior part) has a broad raised 
band, sloping upward towards its outer edge; this band has a 
small raised lobe in the centre of its anterior part. There are four 
minute points round the hind margin and a pair near the anterior 
margin. The vulva of oviposition is very large ; placed far forward, 
between the coxz of the third and fourth pairs of legs, and is sur- 
rounded by a strong, chitinous, elliptical ring, the transverse axis 
of which is the longer; this ring has a short, blunt, anterior, 


386 Transactions of the Society. 


central projection. Inside the ring are the labia; the two ordinary 
(lateral) labia are very widely separated posteriorly, and between 
them is an unpaired, posterior, almost triangular labium opening 
downward and backward. ‘The anus is far back, much smaller 
than the vulva, and is a long-shaped ellipse; there are a pair of 
short spines behind it. 


Male (figs. 3 and 4). 


It will be seen by the measurements that this sex is considerably 

smaller than the female, but not more so than is usual in the 
genus. 
- Cephalothorax. This does not differ much from that of the 
female, except in being somewhat shorter and broader in propor- 
tion—a remark which will also apply to the mandibles. There 
are, however, necessarily some differences in the epimera apodemata 
and sternal sclerites as follows. ‘lhe band behind the labium and 
the sternum are nearly similar, the latter being rather longer and 
its posterior bifurcation forms a small close arch instead of the 
wide open arch formed by the corresponding parts in the female. 
The epimera from behind the first, second, and third legs, with the 
corresponding apodemata, join this arch. There are short epimera 
from behind the fourth leg not joined to any other sclerite. ‘The 
intromittent organ is placed in the median line between the cox 
of the fourth pair of legs; it is large, somewhat conical, and points 
forward; its point, when at rest, lies within the above-named 
sternal arch. Itis divided-proximally into two diverging blades, 
and is protected on each side by a small, curved, chitinous band. 

Legs. It is here that the main difference from the female 
will be found ; and, moreover, these organs are probably the most 
singular and interesting part of the creature, except its life-history ; 
the first two pairs are very remarkable. Instead of the compara- 
tively thin legs of the female, those of the male are extremely 
thick and heavy ; the coxe, tibiee, and third joints being thicker 
than they are long (figs. 13 and 14). The most remarkable feature, 
however, consists in certain projections from the under side of the 
two front pairs of legs. From the median line of the under side of 
the tibia of each of these legs there stands out a projection bearing 
a flat, fan-shaped blade of clear colourless chitin edged by seven to 
nine very deeply cut teeth or spikes, radiating outward. On the 
under side of the second joint of the second leg are two blades of 
similar texture ; the proximal round, with a thickened central boss ; 
the distal curved but longer in shape; and both these are edged 
with radiating spikes similar to those on the projection from the 
tibia. The tarsi of the two front pairs of legs have broad curved 
blades, both above and below, in the median line; and there is one 


The Life-history of an Acarus, de. By A. D. Michael. 387 


on the upper side of the tibia of the second leg ; but all these have 
plain edges without spikes. The under side of each tarsus termi- 
nates in a short, stout, recurved point or hook. There isa very long 
tactile hair on the tibia of each first leg, springing from a large 
papilla; and there are a few other fine hairs on the tarsi, and a 
short thick hair on the upper side of the tarsus of the second leg. 
There is a curved, strongly serrated hair on the upper side of the 
second joint of the same leg ; a curious curved hair with a few very 
long pectinations on the under side of the tibia of the third leg ; 
and a rough, club-like hair on the under side of the third joint 
of the same leg. There are a few other hairs of minor im- 
portance. 

Abdomen almost elliptical, but somewhat prolonged an- 
teriorly, the hind margin rounded and entirely devoid of the bi-lobed 
shape of the female. ‘The centre of the notogaster is arched, but 
not strongly so; the margin is very slightly raised, and usually has 
a few wrinkles in addition to its otherwise rough texture. There 
are a pair of short points at the antero-lateral angles, and two pairs 
round the hind margin. The anal arrangement is similar to that 
of the female, but smaller. 


The Nymph (fig. 5). 


Colour pure white when young, rather yellowish-white when 
fully grown. 

Texture dull, semi-transparent, finely but irregularly 
wrinkled. 

Cephalothorax large, fully one-third of the total length ; 
its hinder part as wide as the abdomen. Rostrum rather concave, 
blunt ; rostral hairs thick, almost leaf-like. -~Behind the rostrum is 
usually a transverse ridge with returned ends. The dorsal surface 
of the hinder part of the cephalothorax is ornamented or protected 
by numerous small plates of clear colourless chitin, of various shapes ; 
the arrangement of these plates is usually about as follows, viz.: 
commencing from the rostrum, a comparatively large shield-shaped 
plate in the median line with a curved, more or less triangular 
plate on each side of and partly behind it; then a transverse row 
of about five smaller round or oval plates; and further back still, 
close to the abdomen, a second row of about eight plates, of which 
the two outer are the largest and are usually oval; the next pair 
smaller, and of the pine-shape, common in the patterns on Indian 
textile fabrics ; and the two inner pairs very small and round. 

Legs of moderate length, the fourth pair not reaching the 
hind margin, thinnish, coxe rather large, other joints of about 
even thickness throughout, except the tarsi, which diminish gradu- 
ally. There are the usual tactile hairs on the tibie of the first two 


388 : Transactions of the Society. 


pairs ; and a short, thick, curved hair on each third joint of the 
first pair, and each second and third joint of the second pair of 
legs; a few other fine hairs. Claws and caruncles as in the 
perfect forms. . 

Abdomen almost square, except that the hind margin is 
cut into four rounded lobes, of which the central pair are the larger 
and further back. Above these two central lobes, and a little 
further forward, are two large conical papilla, or apophyses, directed 
upward and backward. In front of these is a transverse ridge 
with the ends turned forward, and bearing two large rough hairs. 
The notogaster is nearly, but not quite, flat; the central part being 
slightly arched and divided by a narrow and shallow depression 
from the slightly raised and rounded edge, which is also rather 
lobed at the anterior and posterior ends. The notogaster bears a 
number of plates of a similar nature to those on the cephalothorax ; 
the forms and arrangement of which are usually much as follows, 
viz.: two longitudinal rows, each of about four pine-shaped plates, 
on the arched central portion ; and on each lateral border, proceed- 
ing from before backward, first two pine-shaped plates turned 
different ways, then two small roundish plates, then two more pine- 
shaped plates, and finally a single layge irregular-shaped plate. 
There are three pairs of broad, spatulate hairs, or scales, on the 
hind margin; and one pair on the antero-lateral angles. 


Hypopial Nymph (figs. 6 and 7). 


This, as before stated, has been carefully described by Kramer ; 
and the almost precisely similar hypopial nymph of Dermacarus 
scvurinus has been most elaborately described and figured by Haller ; 
I therefore do not think it necessary to repeat the descriptions 
here; but for the benefit of those who cannot readily refer to the 
papers of these Acarologists, and to complete the plates, I have 
figured the hypopial nymph, which is an extremely interesting 
creature. 


DISPARIPES EXHAMULATUS 0. 8. 


Pl. XI. figs. 20-23. 


4 b 
Average length, about ‘18mm. ‘14 mm. 
yy « Dreadth’ "14 , OSee 
» length of legs, 1st pair, about -06_,, "09. 3 
” ” ” 2nd oy) “07 ” "06 9 
oP) ” 2 rd ” “07 ” “07 ” 
4th 5 09 Obie. 


oy) 99 ” . 9 
The main differences from D. bomb: beyond size are in italics. 


The Life-history of an Acarus, de. By A. D. Michael. 389 


Female. 


Colour yellowish chitinous brown, of medium tint; the white 
excretory organs show through the dorsal surface. 

Texture polished, particularly the anterior part of the cara- 
pace, which is slightly transparent. 

General Form oval; not quite so short and broad as in 
D. bombi when living, but becomes so after death. Form varies a 
little according to the action of the muscles. 

The anterior portion is covered by a semi-lunar carapace resem- 
bling that of Limulus; this projects beyond the body anteriorly 
and laterally, and extends about to the insertion of the third legs. 
The three anterior pairs of legs are covered by the carapace when 
the creature is at rest, but project further beyond it than in bombi 
at other times. Body behind the third legs covered by a projecting 
carapace divided into four segments. 

Cephalothorax small, distinctly divided from the abdomen 
(when seen from below). Rostrum short, broad, folded down on 
the ventral surface, and similar to other species of the genus. 
The ventral surface has a median straight sternum, with apodemata 
running to the epimera of the legs as in D. bombi. At the edge 
of the body between the first and second pairs of legs are two small 
globular organs on short peduncles very similar to the pseudo- 
stigmatic organs of the Oribatidz. 

Abdomen smaller than the carapace, but large in proportion 
to the cephalothorax, approaching the circular form. There is a 
large serrated hair at each antero-lateral angle of the carapace, one 
pair of similar hairs on the hind part of the lateral, and two on 
the hind margin, but all springing from the dorsal surface some 
distance within the margin. There are also four pairs of unser- 
rated curved spines on the actual margin. 

The Legs. The first leg has not got the enlarged and fused 
tarsal and tibial joints, nor the great holding claw which are 
found in D. bombi ; the absence of these characters forms the prin- 
cipal distinction between the species. The first leg of this species 
appears to be a tactile organ, the claw is quite rudimentary. The 
fourth leg has what appears to be some indication of a caruncle. 
In other respects the legs correspond fairly to those of bombi. 


Male. 


Colour semi-transparent white. 

Texture rough and leathery, not hard nor chitinous. 

General Form an oval, with the broad end foremost and 
the small end produced so as to be rod-like, or it might be called 
peg-top shaped, if so homely a comparison be admissible. 

Cephalothorax divided from the abdomen by a line, but 


390 oy Transactions of the Society. 


without breaking the shape of the whole. Rostrum small and 
colourless, articulated as in the female, fairly corresponding to that 
of D. bombi, but with spatulate or leaf-like rostral hairs, which 
give a singular appearance. One pair of long hairs on the dorsal 
surface of the cephalothorax. 

Abdomen the same width as the cephalothorax anteriorly, 
but after less than two-thirds of its length becoming much narrower, 
almost rod-like, and ending in a point posteriorly. There are four 
pairs of very long spines round the oval part, the fourth pair being 
at the commencement of the rod-like portion. 

Legs. First pair long, nearly straight, with very small 
single claw and numerous spines and hairs. Second leg shorter 
and more recurved. Hach leg of these two pairs bears a large and 
singular sausage-shaped projection from the upper portion of the 
tibia, which is most unusual. Third pair very similar to the second, 
but straighter ; both these pairs have the usual double claw. Fourth 
pair thick, incurved, about reaching the end of the abdomen ; blunt- 
ended; clawless, but with three very large curved sete on the 
outer side near the end of the tarsus and one smaller seta on the 
tibia. 

Larva. 

This is very different from that of D. bomb. White, not very 
transparent. Rostrum very distinct, rounded, with one pair of 
short, curved, rostral hairs; remainder of the cephalothorax much 
broader ; sharply divided from the abdomen by a nearly straight 
constriction. On its dorsal surface are two papille bearing 
very long, straight hairs; and two similar hairs stand out laterally 
from about the middle of the, edge. The abdomen widens and 
thickens rapidly after the line of juncture with the cephalothorax 
until it has attained about one-third of its length; after which it 
diminishes eqv’.'ly rapidly ; this produces the effect of two paired, 
and extremely large, mamillary projections from the side of the 
abdomen; and from the point of each of these springs a hair, which 
is considerably the largest on the body, and quite straight. These 
hairs stand out horizontally and laterally, giving a very strange 
effect. The posterior angles of the abdomen are produced, forming 
large papilla, from which long curved hairs spring; there is 
another large hair just below them, and there are two pairs of 
papilla bearing long straight hairs on the notogaster. On the 
hind margin, but lower in level, are a pair of papille, produced 
into short tube-like structures, each of which bears a long incurved 
hair, and hasa shorter downwardly curved hair at its base. Between 
the two last-named papille is an unpaired projection in the median 
line bearing two short recurved hairs at its tip. 


IX.—On Micrococcus Pastewri (Sternberg). 


By Grorce M. Srerneerc, M.D., F.R.MS, 
Major and Surgeon U.S. Army. 


(Read 12th May, 1886.) 


At the January meeting of this Society, an interesting paper was 
read by Mr. Dowdeswell* upon the microbe of fowl-cholera. His 
microscopical and experimental researches have led him to the 
conclusion that the microbe of fowl-cholera is identical with that of 
the form of rabbit-septicaemia described by Davaine. 

It is not quite certain that “ Davaine’s septicemia ” is identical 
with that form of rabbit-septiceemia which Koch, Gaffky, Dowdes- 
well and others have induced by injecting putrefying infusions of 
beef, &c., beneath the skin of a rabbit. According to Klein, 
“ Davaine’s septicemia is distinguished from Koch’s septicemia in 
the rabbit by this, that Davaine’s septicemia is easily transmissible 
to guinea-pigs, but not to birds.” f 

But there can be little doubt as to the identity of that form of 
septicemia which Mr. Dowdeswell has studied experimentally with 
the infectious disease which Koch { and Gaffky § had previously 
induced in rabbits by injections of similar material; and also with 
the microbe of fowl-cholera. 

Toussaint insisted upon the identity of the microbe of fowl- 
cholera with that of experimental septicemia in a communication 
to the French Academy of Sciences made in 1880,|| and in 
Germany this identity is, I believe, senerally conceded by bacteri- 
ologists. Mr. Dowdeswell’s experimental researches] and the 
figures illustrating his recent paper, published in +his Journal, fully 
sustain this view. 

But the inference made in the same paper that the micrococcus 
which I have described under the name of M. Pasteuri, is also 
identical with the microbe of fowl-cholera and of that form of 
rabbit-septiceemia which he has studied, is a mistake, which has 
evidently arisen from an imperfect acquaintance with the morpho- 
logical and physiological characters of M. Pastewrz. 

The object of the present paper is to call attention to those 
characters which distinguish this mcrococcus in a very definite 


* See this Journal, ante, p. 32. 

+ ‘Micro-Organisms and Disease,’ London, 1885. 

¢ ‘ Untersuchungen iib. d. Aetiologie d, Wundinfections-Krankheiten,’ Leipzig, 
1878. 
§ MT. a. d. K. Gesundheits-amte, Berlin, 1881, pp. 93-114. 
|| Comptes Rendus, xci. (1880) pp. 301-3. 
{| Proc. Roy. Soc., Nos. 221 and 223, 1882. 


392 Transactions of the Society. 


manner from the bacterium, or “ bacillus” which has occupied the 
special attention of Mr. Dowdeswell. It differs from the latter not 
only in its morphology, but in the fact that 2t 7s not fatal to 
Souls. 

I shall refer to these points of difference later, but desire first, 
as briefly as possible, to record the history of this organism as 
known to us by experiment. 

In September 1880, while engaged in certain investigations in 
New Orleans, I injected a little of my own saliva beneath the skin 
of a rabbit, as a control experiment. ‘To my surprise the animal 
died, and I found in its blood a multitude of oval micro-organisms, 
united for the most part in pairs or in chains of three or four 
elements. Further experiments showed me that the blood con- 
taining this organism was infectious in the smallest amount, and 
that its infectious and pathogenic properties were due to the presence 
of this oval micrococcus; which, moreover, préduced identical 
results when isolated in pure cultures. My first’ paper giving an 
account of these experiments was published in April 1881.* I 
have since repeated the experimental injections with saliva, blood, 
and pure cultures of the organism, over and over again, and have 
recorded my results in various published papers, and in ‘ Bacteria.’} 

Shortly before the publication of my first paper, Pasteur 
announced to the French Academy of Sciences his discovery of a 
“new disease” which he had produced in rabbits by injecting sub- 
cutaneously a little saliva obtained from the mouth of a child who 
died from hydrophobia in one of the hospitals of Paris. I at once 
recognized this “new disease’ of Pasteur as identical with the in- 
fectious disease in rabbits, which I had previously induced by the 
subcutaneous injection of my own saliva. In my book referred to I 
say, “There can no longer be any doubt that this disease was 
identical with that which the writer has previously produced by 
inoculating rabbits with his own saliva; and, consequently, that 
the natural inference of Pasteur that this ‘new disease’ was due 
to the fact that the child from whom the material which produced 
it was obtained, had died of hydrophobia, was an error. Subse- 
quent experiments by Vulpian and others soon made it plain that 
a mistake had occurred, and nothing more has been heard from 
Pasteur concerning his new disease. But the results reported are 
entirely in accord with the deductions of the writer as to the 
etiological véle of the micrococcus.” t 

On another page (369) of the same work I give an account of 
Koch’s experiments, in which he induced fatal septicaemia in 
rabbits by injecting a putrid infusion of beef beneath their skin. 

* Nat. Board of Health Bull. Washington, ii. (1881) p. 781. Also in 


Studies from Biological Lab, Johns-Hopkins Univ. Balt., ii. (1882) pp. 183-200. 
+ New York, 1884. t Op. cit., p. 367. 


On Micrococcus Pasteurt. By Dr. G. M. Sternberg. 393 


Here I fall into the same mistake which Mr. Dowdeswell has made, 
in assuming that the infectious disease which resulted from such 
injections is identical with that which I have described, and that it 
is due to the same micro-organism. 

My own earlier experiments showed that there is a difference in 
the pathogenic potency of the saliva of different individuals, and I 
haye since learned that the saliva of the same individual may differ 
in this respect at different times. Thus during the past three years 
injections of my own saliva have not infrequently failed to cause a fatal 
result, and in fatal cases death is apt to occur after a somewhat 
longer interval, 72 hours or more; whereas in my earlier experi- 
ments the animals almost infallibly died within 48 hours. This 
difference is also shown by the experiments of Clapton * and of 
Frankel.t The results obtained by these observers are entirely in 
accord with those which I had previously reported, and show that 
the buccal see“ tions of healthy individuals in various parts of the 
world contain this micrococcus, but that it is not uniformly present 
in these secretions ; or, if so, that it has not in all cases that degree 
of pathogenic power which is required to insure a fatal result when 
it is introduced beneath the skin of a rabbit. 

Recent experiments have shown that this micrococcus is usually, 
if not uniformly, present in the sputum of patients suffering from 
pneumonia, and that the rusty sputum characteristic of this disease, 
when injected beneath the skin of a rabbit, induces the form of 
septicemia which I have described with greater certainty than does 
the injection of the buccal secretions of persons in health. I can- 
not in the present paper go into details with reference to this 
interesting and significant fact, nor would it be proper here to 
discuss the etiological question involved. I must refer the reader 
who is especially interested in this question to my papers published 
in the ‘American Journal of the Medical Sciences,’t and especially 
to a paper which will appear in the next number of that Journal 
(July 1886). Also to the recent paper of Frankel,§ and to the 
experiments of Zalamon, || and of Salvioli,4] who have injected 
pheumonic exudate into rabbits, with results which are identical 
with those obtained by me in experimental injections of the same 
material, and of my own saliva. 

In my paper above referred to (July 1885) I have given the 
name M. Pastewrz to this micrococcus, which has so long occupied 
my attention. In the same paper I make the mistake of assuming 
the identity of this micrococcus with that described by Friedlander, 
and generally known as the “ pneumonia-coccus of Friedlander.” 


* Medical Times (Philad.), June 17, 1882, pp. 627-31. 

+ Zeitschr. f. Klin. Med., x. (1886) pp. 401-61. t July and October 1885. 
§ Op. cit. || Progrés Médicale, 1883, No. 51. 

4 Arch. per le Scienze Med., viii. (1884) No. 7. 

Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. 2D 


394 Transactions of the Society. 


This inference was based upon morphological resemblance, as 
indicated by Friedlander’s description of his coccus, and upon the 
fact that I had demonstrated the frequent, if not constant, presence 
of my M. Pastewri in the rusty sputa of patients with pneumonia. 
I have since had an opportunity to study the characters of Fried- 
lander’s coccus in a culture obtained from Mr. Watson Cheyne, and 
also in one presented to me by Dr. Frobenius during a recent visit 
to Berlin, and I recognize essential differences in the mode of 
growth of the two organisms, which make it apparent that they 
are not identical, or, as I suggested, simply “ pathogenic varieties 
of the same species.” 

Friedlander has shown that his coccus, or “ bacterium,’ does 
not kill rabbits, and it grows readily at comparatively low tem- 
peratures, 20° to 25° C. On the other hand, M. Pastewrz is fatal to 
rabbits and requires for its development a temperature not obtained 
in temperate climates, except by the use of an incubating oven, 
30° to 85° C. Moreover, the nail-shaped growth of the cultures 
in gelatin, which Friedlander’s coccus presents, is quite different 
from the appearance presented by a culture of M. Pastewri in 
agar-agar. ‘The fact that a temperature above the melting point 
of gelatin is required for the development of the last-mentioned 
organism makes it impossible to cultivate it in solid gelatin, but it 
grows readily in an incubating oven in liquefied flesh-pepton- 
gelatin, or in an infusion of the flesh of a chicken or rabbit which 
has been rendered neutral or slightly alkaline, or in veal broth. 
On the surface of agar it forms a slightly elevated, nearly trans- 
parent film, and in “stick-cultures” in the same material it grows 
to a limited extent along the line of the needle, forming a rather 
nebulous and colourless line, not unlike that produced in the same 
material by the “ bacillus” of rabbit septicemia. It is distinguished 


Micrococcus Pasteurt from blood of UM. Pasteuri from blood of rabbit 
rabbit inoculated subcutaneously with inoculated subcutaneously with fresh 
normal human saliva (Dr.8.). Mag-  pneumonic sputum from a patient in 
nified 1000 diameters. the seventh day of the disease. Same 

amplification as fig. 75. 


from the last-mentioned organism by the fact that it does not kill 
fowls or pigeons; by its failure to grow in suitable culture-media 
at the ordinary room temperature ; and by its morphology. 

Figs. 75 and 76 are from camera lucida drawings, and represent 


On Micrococcus Pasteurt. By Dr. G. M. Sternberg. 395 


the organism as it appears in the blood of an infected rabbit, or 
in active growth in a culture-medium, when stained with one of the 
anilin colours. There is no localization of the staining material at 
the ends, as in the microbe of fowl-cholera and rabbit septicaemia ; 


Fic. 78. 


od ° 
Oo @ 50 
o® oo 


Fic. 77. 


Surface culture of W/. Pasteuri from 
blood of rabbit injected with pneu- 
monic sputum, showing the so-called 
“capsule” of Friedlander. Same 
amplification. 


Surface culture of UW. Pasteuri show- 
ing development of long chains. Same 
amplification. 


and the appearance of diplococci is not deceptive as in the case of 
that organism. Our M. Pasteur, although when in active growth 
of an oval form, and often so elongated as to be lance-oval or rod- 
shaped, is nevertheless a micrococcus. In surface cultures, where 


Fic. 80. 


From a photo-micrograph made by 
the author of this paper in 1881, and 
used in April of that year to illustrate 
a paper on ‘ A fatal form of septiczemia 
in the rabbit induced by the sub- 
cutaneous injection of human saliva.” 
The preparation is from the blood of 
a rabbit recently dead, and is stained 
with an aqueous solution of iodine and 
potassic iodide. Magnified 1000 dia- 
meters. Photographed with Zeiss’s 
1/18-in. hom. im. objective. 


Copied from illustration accom- 
panying the paper of Salvioli in the 
‘Archivio per le Scienze Mediche,’ 
Turin, vol. viii., No. 7, fig. 2. »* Cells 
of the pleuritic exudation containing 
pheumonia-cocci, mounted in Canada 
balsam.” Stained with gentian violet. 
Amplification not stated (about 1000, 
G. M. 8.). 


the development is less rapid than in the blood of a rabbit or in a 

suitable liquid culture-medium, it commonly approaches more 

nearly a spherical form, and frequently grows into chains of con- 
2D2 


396 Transactions of the Society. 


siderable length (fig. 77). If we adopt the classification of Zopf, it 
should be placed in the genus Streptococcus. In fig. 78 we have 
represented the mucinous envelope or “capsule” which Fried- 
lander for a time supposed to be peculiar to his so-called “ pneu- 
monia-coccus,’ but which is now known to be present under 
certain circumstances in several different micro-organisms of this 
class. When we examine with a good objective a drop of blood 
obtained from an infected rabbit just dead, or a drop of a fiuid 
culture, this mucinous (?) envelope appears as a transparent halo 
surrounding the cocci; and in stained preparations it is more or 
less apparent according to the method of staining employed, and 
certain circumstances not well determined. I have very rarely 
seen it developed to the extent shown in fig. 79, which is copied 
from the photo-micrograph to which Mr. Dowdeswell refers in his 
paper. The more usual appearance is that seen in fig. 80, which 
indeed may be taken as a typical representation of the organism as 
seen in stained preparations. 


( 397 ) 


X.—New Polarizing Prism. By C. D. Aunens. 
(Read 14th April, 1886.) 


I once more trespass upon the time of the meeting by bringing to 
the notice of the Fellows a new polarizing prism, and I do so 
because it has been much commended by some of the leading 
physicists. 

The prism, although constructed on the same general principle 
as the Nicol prism, has the great advantage over the latter of being 
much shorter, while giving about the same angular field. It may 
be described as consisting of two Nicol prisms placed side by side, 
the plane of junction between the eet 
two being abolished by making ae) 
the middle portion out of one 
wedge of cale-spar. The actual 
mode of construction will be seen 
from fig. 81. 

A rectangular parallelopipe- B c 
don is cut from a natural crystal 
of cale-spar in such a direction 
that the optic axis lies at right 
angles to its length, the propor- 
tion of the length to the breadth 
being as 1:1°8. This block ig oft ABS 
then divided into three wedges by 
cuts made in the directions A B 
and AC, the acute edges of the 
wedges being at right angles to 
the optic axis. The planes of 
section are next polished and _ 
cemented together with balsam, 
so as to make up again the original parallelopipedon. Finally, the 
ends are polished, the bottom end in the figure being carefully 
ground away until the edge A of the middle prism just appears as 
a fine line. 

If, now, a beam of common light enters normally the face B C, 
that component of it which forms the ordinary ray is, when it 
reaches the balsam film, totally reflected towards the sides of the 
prism, while the extraordinary component passes on and emerges 
as a plane-polarized beam. The same result occurs in the case of 
all rays incident within a certain range of the normal ; in fact, the 
prism acts precisely like a Nicol prism, but the totally reflected 
rays pass off towards both sides of the prism, and not towards one 


only. 


398 Transactions of the Society. 


This prism possesses the following advantages:— _ 

(1) The terminal faces are at right angles to its length; hence 
there is very little loss of light through partial reflection of the 
incident rays, and the lateral displacement of the transmitted beam 
is scarcely perceptible when the prism is rotated. 

(2) It gives about the same angular field of plane-polarized 
light as an ordinary Nicol prism, viz. 26°, while it is very much 
shorter, its length being little more than 134 times its breadth. 
The actual dimensions of one of the finished prisms are 
30 mm. x 20 mm. 

One or two points must be attended to in using it. 

(1) It should be so placed that the beam of light may enter 
the face B C, and not the face in which the edge of the middle prism 
lies ; otherwise, the emergent beam is mixed with light which has 
entered on either side of the line of junction, and been partially 
reflected at the balsam film.* 

(2) The prism must be so placed that the edge A of the middle 
wedge does not come into focus. This edge can with care be 
reduced to a line no coarser than a hair, but it eannot be abolished 
entirely. Hence the prism is not adapted for use as an analyser 
for the Microscope, the junction-line interfering with the distinct- 
ness of the image. As a polarizer it answers perfectly if placed in 
the proper position below the stage, transmitting a broad, clear 
beam, while it takes up less than half as much space in length as 
a Nicol prism of the same breadth. As an analyser for the 
lantern it has been tried by Mr. Lewis Wright and others, and 
found to answer extremely well. 

* This, however, may be avoided by mounting the prism in a tube which 


projects about an inch beyond its end, like the hood of a photographic lens; but 
this is not required, of course, if the prism is placed as above directed. 


( 399 ) 


SUMMARY 


OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


AQ0-0;b OGY sAcN,D)..B OW A NY 
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), 


MICROSCOPY, &c., 


INCLUDING ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM FELLOWS AND OTHERS* 


ZOOLOGY. 
A. VERTEBRATA :—Embryology, Histology, and General. 
a. Embryology.t 


Origin of the Amnion.{—Mr. J. A. Ryder points out how, on a 
mechanical principle, the amnion may have arisen during “ develop- 
ment of development.” 

In those Teleostei in which the zona radiata closely surrounds 
the ovum, the embryo becomes slightly pushed into the yolk, so that 
a fold is produced at each end, which the author regards as a com- 
mencement of the amniotic folds of higher forms. In those fishes in 
which the zona is not so firm, the embryo can enlarge outwards, but 
in others, as above, the embryo has to push its way into the yolk, 
and partly takes its place as the yolk is absorbed. When, as in 
mammals, there is no yolk in the yolk-sac, there is a greater space 
for the embryo to be inpushed. The presence of a highly developed 
brain necessitates an inpushing anteriorly, and gives rise to a more 
marked and earlier “ headfold.” The amniotic folds never meet in 
the Teleostei, because of the early escape of the embryos from the 
egg, and also on account of the large amount of yolk which prevents 
the complete inpushing. 

The author describes the mechanical cause of the inversion of the 
layers in guinea-pigs, &c., which he regards as one extreme stage of 
this series; the Teleostei forming the opposite extreme. 


Germinal Vesicle.S—M. C. van Bambeke discusses the various 
opinions of v. Wielowiejski, E. Zacharias, and Ed. van Beneden, as 


* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they 
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers 
noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of 
this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published, 
and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new 
or have not been previously described in this country. 

+ This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so 
called, but also those dealing with processes of Evolution, Development, and 
Reproduction, and with allied subjects. 

$ Amer. Natural., xx. (1886) pp. 179-85 (8 figs.). 

§ Bull. Acad. R. Sci, Belgique, xi. (1886) pp. 14-28. 


400 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


to the meaning of the structures observed in the germinal vesicles of 
various animals, and the relation of this ovarian nucleus to the 
nuclei of ordinary cells. 

It is found that acidulated methyl green stains the chromatin or 
network of the germinal vesicle, but leaves uncoloured certain struc- 
tures within it. The nuclei of male cells are rich in chromatin, 
which is stained by methyl green; and they have no nucleolus, or 
only a very small one. On the other hand, the nucleus of the 
female cell has one or several large nucleoli, and is poor in chro- 
matin. Erom this v. Wielowiejski confirms, by micro-chemical tests, 
the homology between the polar bodies of the egg-cell, and the 
cast-off remnants of division of the sperm-mother cell. M. van 
Bambeke studied the germinal vesicle in a large number of Arach- 
nids, Isopods, and insects, and confirms to a certain extent the results 
of previous observers. He describes the varieties of the germinal 
vesicle in different Arachnids; and concludes that this structure is 
a nucleus, the characters of which differ notably from those of 
ordinary nuclei. 

The objects were prepared by the following methods, either 
stained with methyl green direct, or after certain fixing reagents :— 
(1) osmic acid, 1 per cent.; (2) glacial acetic acid; (3) Fleming’s 
mixture 8; (4) mixture of 3:5 grm. chromic acid; 14 grm. acetic 
acid in 700 gr. water. The author considers methyl green the 
staining agent, par excellence, for chromatin, though it is not an 
absolute test for its presence. : 


Development of the Mole,*—Mr. W. Heape finds that the ripe 
ovarian ovum of the mole is surrounded by a thick zona radiata, 
pierced by fine canals, and a very delicate vitelline membrane ; nothing 
comparable to a micropyle in the zona, nor any follicular cells 
within it were observed. ‘The yolk consists of homogeneous vesicular 
bodies, and of minute highly refractile granules, contained within 
the meshes of a protoplasmic reticulum. 'The nucleus is rounded or 
oval, and contains a single central nucleolus, together with a vary- 
ing number of smaller or larger granules. Beneden’s description of 
the ejection of the vesicle to form the polar bodies and the subse- 
quent non-nucleated condition of the ovum appears to be erroneous. 
Segmentation commences with the appearance of two and then of four 
segments, and is afterwards irregular; the segments themselves are 
of irregular size, and do not appear to be divisible into two kinds 
(epiblastic and hypoblasts) as Beneden supposes. After entering the 
uterus the segments divide into an outer hyaline layer, and an inner 
deeply granular mass. Mr. Heape suggests that the vitelline matter 
which was originally contained in all the segments alike, has passed to 
the inner ones, so as to allow of the outer multiplying more rapidly 
and flattening out to form the wall of the blastodermic vesicle. The 
epiblast of the vesicular embryo is derived from the whole of the 
outer layer, and by far the greater part of the inner mass of segments, 
the rest of which forms the hypoblast; the mesoblast arises from 
both primitive layers. 


* Quart. Journ. Micr, Sci., xxvi. (1886) pp. 157-74 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 401 


Ovary of Echidna.*—Dr. G. A. Guldberg finds that during the 
whole of its development the ovarian egg completely fills the ovarian 
follicle, and is only surrounded by a unilaminate layer of follicular 
epithelium ; this, later on, forms a permanent investment round the 
egg, and is distinguishable from all known forms of eggs in other 
orders of mammals. During development the protoplasm of the egg 
undergoes a differentiation into small and larger yolk-spheres; then 
increases in size until at last only a small part of the less differen- 
tiated protoplasm surrounds the peripherally placed nucleus. Two 
poles can then be distinguished in the egg, one the nuclear, and the 
other the vitelline. The egg is generally at least 2°5 mm. in 
diameter before it leaves the ovary, and it may be as much as 3 mm. 
The ovarian membrane then chiefly consists of a “chorion,” which is 
formed by the follicular epithelium. The nucleus is distinguished 
not only by its size, but also by the number of smaller paranuclear 
spots. 

The observations of Dr. Guldberg show that the egg of the 
Echidna approaches in many points to the Sauropsidan type, and 
the view of Poulton that we have here to do with unequal segmenta- 
tion appears to be correct. 


Monstrosities with Double-hearts.;—M. 8. Warynski records 
various experiments, undertaken by himself and Prof. H. Fol, on the 
production artificially of double hearts in chicks, and gives a résumé 
of the various works on the development of the heart from Pander, 
1817, to Kélliker, and Hensen in 1876. 

The union of the pair of “cardiac blastemas” takes place about 
the thirty-sixth hour of incubation; and it was between the twenty- 
fourth and thirty-sixth hour that the author’s experiments were made. 
While the earlier authors, holding the idea that the heart was formed 
from a single “blastema,” considered that a double heart was pro- 
duced by the subsequent division of the organ, the later observers, 
finding the double origin, explain the monstrosity by a non-union of 
the two halves, owing to some arrest in normal development. The 
cause of this arrest or interference was unknown. 

This form of monstrosity ordinarily has some other abnormality 
associated with it, so that the embryo usually dies before being 
hatched ; but the author was able to produce a double heart in a chick, 
which was otherwise normal. The mode of procedure is as follows :— 
The blunt edge of a scalpel is carefully and lightly drawn backwards 
along an embryo, between twenty-four and thirty-six hours old, from 
just behind the head, without injuring any tissues; the duration and 
force of the pressure must be carefully regulated, as otherwise the 
embryo will present various abnormalities. If all goes well, the 
embryo will continue to develope normally, with the exception of 
possessing two hearts. 

But this normal development is very exceptional, as the duality 
of the heart is usually accompanied by some such abnormality as 


* Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xix. (1885) Supp. ii., pp. 113-22 (1 pl.), 
+ Recueil Zovl. Suisse, iii. (1886) pp. 261-311 (1 pl.). 


402 SUMMARY OF GURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


omphalo-cephaly, acephaly, heterotaxy, curvature of the spine, &c. 
Now, the author was able, by varying pressures on different parts of 
the embryo, to produce such monstrosities, which he describes and 
figures. 

e The older observers considered that the amnion was in some way 
connected with these teratological phenomena, but M. Warynski, 
in the course of his experiments, destroyed the amnion, and yet the 
embryo continued to develope normally. By means of transverse 
sections through later stages of embryos, in which duality of the heart 
was suspected, the author was able to study the vascular system: 
each heart consisted of an auricle, a ventricle, and a bulbus; the two 
bulbi unite to form a truncus, which then divides to form the aortic 
arches. 'There existed some asymmetry in the venous system. 

The reasons are given at some length for the opinion that the 
curvature of the body is due to rapidity of the increase of growth ; 
moreover, the arrest of development of one part of an embryo having 
a given rapidity of increase, induces an exaggeration of this rapidity 
in some other part. By pressure on an embryo before any curvatures 
have made their appearance, he obtained a vermiform embryo, which 
normally should have exhibited well-marked cranial and dorsal 
flexures. By injury to the fore-brain a very much greater dorsal 
flexure was caused, whereas the cranial flexure was absent. In natural 
conditions the pressure on the embryo is probably caused by the 
cooling of the egg during incubation; by means of removing a 
portion of the shell from an incubated egg, and letting the egg cool, 
the author found that the yolk gradually approaches the shell on 
the side of the blastoderm, as the cooling goes on, till ultimately 
the whole blastodermic surface presses close against the shell; in 
this way the duality of the heart, arising from the cooling of the 
ego, is usually accompanied by other teratological effects, since the 
pressure has occurred over the whole embryo. 


Eggs of Bony Fishes.*—Herr P. Owsiannikow first describes the 
egg-capsules of the perch and of the trout; and in the course of his 
account he remarks that he has never observed the entrance of leuco- 
cytes, as described by His and others. The egg-membranes of Lota 
vulgaris are next described, and then the ovaries of those that have 
spawned are considered; the author discusses the eggs of Osmerus 
eperlanus, and the egg-membranes and yolk of Acerina vulgaris. Gas- 
terosteus, Coregonus, Hsox, and Anguilla fluviatilis are next taken in 
hand; and then the formation of the ova in the ovaries of Perca 
flwiatilis. The eggs of the lamprey, their fertilization and early 
development, form the subject of the concluding part of the essay, 
which is essentially descriptive, and requires the assistance of the 
plates to be adequately understood. 

Pelagic Stages of Young Fishes.}—Prof. A. Agassiz describes 
the pelagic stages of young fishes, which, for the sake of convenience, 
he divides into (1) those with one or more oil-globules, and (2) those 


* Mem. Acad. Imp. St. Petersbourg, xxxiii. (1885) 54 pp. (3 pls.). 
+ Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Cambridge, xiv. (1885) (19 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 403 


without oil-globules. Most eggs are laid singly, when they have a 
better chance of escaping their enemies than those that are laid in 
masses surrounded by a jelly. The eggs are at first transparent, but 
as development proceeds chromatophores appear, which then become 
pigmented. The eggs, except those in masses, float at the surface with 
the embryo downwards. The first fins to appear are the pectorals: 
after the closure of the blastopore and the disappearance of Kupffer’s 
vesicle, the tail and caudal fin appear. Immediately on leaving the 
egg the embryo is mainly dependent for locomotion on the dorsal 
and ventral fins (leptocardiac fin); as growth proceeds, the pectoral 
fins become more useful. The comparatively large size of the noto- 
chord is a marked feature. A striking regularity is observed in the 
appearance of the same stages of development of identical species, as 
well as in the spawning and rate of development. 


A Suggestion from Modern Embryology.*—Mr. H. W. Conn 
thinks that recent observations and theories may explain the difficulty 
in the doctrine of descent, which is caused by the appearance of a 
highly developed fauna in the Silurian epoch; about five-sixths of 
the orders and sub-orders now existing being represented in it. 
Modern embryology teaches us that the various sub-kingdoms are 
all direct modifications of the most primitive multicellular animal ; 
the recent theories of Sedgwick “would make the history of all 
animals much shorter by showing that all the sub-kingdoms may be 
regarded as resulting directly from modifications of the gastrula by 
slight changes in its shape.” As slight variations at the bottom of a 
diverging series produce much greater effects than variations higher 
up, we may shorten the time necessary to be assumed prior to the 
Silurian, and explain the presence of such a large number of our 
present existing types. It must have taken a long time to develope 
the Protozoan into the gastrula, but as soon as the latter was developed 
various great types arose, not serially but simultaneously. Slight 
variations in simple types would cause the descendants to separate 
still further; later on there would be an increase in the abundance 
and diversity of small branches. Mr. Conn thinks that Silurian 
vertebrates were more abundant than our present knowledge would 
lead us to suppose. 


Evolution without Natural Selection.;—Mr. C. Dixon, basing 
himself on a number of ornithological data, urges that isolation, 
climatic influences, use and disuse of organs, sexual selection, and 
interbreeding, are the determining factors in natural selection; but 
he forgets that the first four of these are, in the Darwinian sense, 
factors in “natural selection.” Dealing with interbreeding, he distin- 
guishes (1) interbreeding among the individuals of a species ; (2) that 
between sub-species, local races,and representative forms ; and (3) inter- 
breeding “which, by absorbing a closely allied form, gradually 
works the extinction of a species.” The book appears to be most 


* Science, vi. (1885) pp. 481-2. 
¢ Dixon, C., ‘Evolution without Natural Selection; or, the Segregation of 
Species without the aid of the Darwinian Hypothesis.’ 8vo, London, 1885. 


404 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


valoable for the number of observations which it contains on the 
variations of birds in connection with their geographical distribution. 


Experimental Testing of the Theory of the Regulation of the 
Relation of the Sexes.*—Herr C. Diising has for eight months 
experimented with guinea-pigs. When there was a want of males, 
69 males and 80 females were produced; when of females, 10 males 
and 11 females; and under normal conditions 12 males and 20 females. 
The only conclusion to be drawn from these observations is that, as a 
rule, more female than male guinea-pigs are born. For four months 
experiments were continued with white mice by Herr Dising, and for 
seven by Dr. Walter. The result of these experiments were—with a 
want of females, 71 males and 74 females; with a want of males, 
114 males and 112 females ; and under normal conditions, 2 males and 
5 females were born; here again the numbers are too small to allow 
of any further conclusion than that, as a rule, the numbers of white 
mice born are nearly equally divided between the two sexes. 

Herr H. Hoffmann has for seven years been making with plants 
experiments to test the influence of food on sex, and he comes to the 
conclusion that when there is plenty of nourishment the female, and 
when there is a scanty supply of it the male sex predominates; this 
is a result which is in accordance with those of preceding observers, 
and with Diising’s theory. 


8. Histology.f 


Organization of the Cell.{—Prof. O. Biitschli has a criticism of 
Herr A. Brass’s essay on the organization of the animal cell, in which 
he points out the vagueness with which Brass mentions the forms 
that he has examined, and urges that the species of ciliate infusorians 
are quite definite and constant in their special characters. Brass’s 
statement that Infusoria are able to alter the form of their body is 
contrary to the experience of every one who has made himself ac- 
quainted with the group; no one has, as Brass asserts, definitely 
given the name of spermatozoa to the “ Nebenkernen ” ; the statement 
that the chromatin of the nucleus consists of reserve material is not 
demonstrated, and is quite incorrect. The objections raised by 
various observers to the views taken by Ehrenberg as to the organ- 
ization of Infusoria have been justified by all subsequent research. 
It is not correct to say that the protomerit of Gregarines is always 
imbedded in the walls of the intestine, though it is true of what 
Schneider called the epimerit; no competent observers support the 
statement that there is a nucleus in the protomerit; and all known 
evidence is against the view resuscitated by Dr. Brass that the conju- 
gation-stages are rather evidences of division by fission. 


Structure of the Nucleus.§—Mr. A. Bolles Lee, in a notice of 
Prof. J. B. Carnoy’s ‘ Biologie Cellulaire, shows that the usual views 
as to the structure of the nucleus are erroneous. 


* Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xix. (1885) Suppl. ii., pp. 108-12, 
¢ This section is limited to papers relating to Cells and Fibres. 

{ Morphol. Jahrb., xi. (1885) pp. 228-42, 

§ Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., xiii. (1885) pp. 119-27. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 405. 


After pointing out that the cell consists of a membrane inclosing 
a reticulated protoplasm, the “cytoplasm,” containing in its meshes 
numerous granules, the ‘‘enchylema,” he describes in greater detail 
the structure of the nucleus itself. This too consists of a membrane 
inclosing a protoplasmic reticulum, the “caryoplasm,” in which is a 
continuous and greatly twisted filament of “nuclein.” Carnoy gives 
numerous figures of the nucleus in many different varieties of cells. 
The “nuclein ” (or “ chromatin ”) exists as a continuous filament, and 
not as a network, as is usually stated and figured; it consists of a 
wall or case with contents. The wall is readily seen in cells of the 
tissues of insects, and is rendered very distinct by means of methyl- 
green; by chemical tests it is found to consist of plastine. The 
contents are sometimes homogeneous, sometimes formed of rings or 
discs. As a rule this “nuclein” is coiled throughout the nucleus; 
but it may sometimes be centralized and then forms a nucleolus. 

The “caryoplasm,” like the “cytoplasm,” which it resembles in 
chemical composition, consists of a reticulum of protoplasm, in the 
meshes of which is the “‘enchylema.” No “ chromatic reticulum ” is 
really present, such an appearance being due to faulty methods of pre- 
paration or of staining. Methyl-green is the best staining agent for 
the purpose. When the nucleus divides, the cytoplasm becomes 
part of the caryoplasm of the new cells, and part of the caryoplasm 
of the old cell becomes the cytoplasm of the new nuclei. The 
nuclear membrane is completely closed ; the appearance of pores in 
it is due to a reticulum on its surface. Thusa nucleus differs from a 
cell only in having the “nuclein ” instead of a nucleus. 


Goblet-cells and Leydig’s Cells.*—Dr. J. H. List emphasizes 
the frequent ambiguity in the use of the term “mucous-cells ” 
(“Schleimzellen”), and proposes the disuse of the phrase, and the 
consistent distinction of (a) goblet-cells and (b) Leydig’s cells. 

(a) The goblet-cells, distinguished by F. E. Schulze into those 
with, and those without a definite’ basal portion containing the 
nucleus (“ befusste” and “ unbefusste”), are first discussed, and the 
various modifications due to constriction, presence or absence of neck 
and of stoma, &c., are noted. In those without a definite basal por- 
tion the nucleus lies in the theca close to the basal wall, and two 
types are distinguished, according as the thecal wall is or is not 
continued into a stalk. In some cases Dr. List saw hints of a con- 
nection between the stalk and nerve-fibres. The best instance of 
goblet-cell with a distinct basal portion containing the nucleus was 
afforded by the cells in the upper lip of Cobitis fossilis. Within the 
theca he distinguishes the threadwork of chromophilous strands 
(“ Filarmasse”’), and the apparently homogeneous, viscid, less readily 
stainable intermediate substance (“ Interfilarmasse”). No direct con- 
nection between the cellular threadwork and the nuclear network 
was observed. The best results were obtained by double-staining 
with hematoxylin-glycerin and eosin. 

(b) Leydig’s cells may be thus summarily distinguished from the 


* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxvi. (1886) pp. 543-52 (1 pl.). 


406 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ordinary goblet-cells:—(1) In the former no stoma could be detected, 
(2) nor appendages like the stalk or the basal process of the latter ; 
(8) in the goblet-cells the nucleus always lies (in the unstalked 
types) close to the base of the theca, in Leydig’s cells it generally 
lies centrally, distant from the membrane; (4) on the external 
surface of the smooth thecal wall in the goblet-cells those markings 
were never apparent which are characteristic of Leydig’s cells, those 
namely which were long since described by Langerhans as rib-like, 
and which have been interpreted by Flemming as the expression of 
intercellular bridges; (5) the goblet-cells empty their contents by 
the stoma, and are to be regarded as unicellular glands, while the 
function of Leydig’s cells still remains doubtful. 


Mucous Threads of the Sea-stickleback’s Nest.*—Prof. K. Mobius 
has traced to their origin the mucous filaments which bind together 
the nest of the marine stickleback (Spinachia vulgaris Flem.). 

The mucinous substance, whose chemical characteristics are de- 
scribed, is formed from the epithelial cells lining the canals of the 
kidney. Some of these epithelial cells are at the time of mucin- 
production even morphologically modified—the nucleus becomes flat 
and retreats to the base of the cell. The product which first appears 
in the meshes of the cell-network is not stained by hematoxylin 
(mucogen), but this is changed from within outwards, first into 
granular and then into hyaline mucin. After the mucin is excreted 
the cell-nuclei disappear and the cells degenerate and probably 
perish. Prof. Mébius compares the micro-chemical and histological 
changes of the mucin-producing cells with Heidenhain’s general 
theory of the differences between actively secreting and quiescent 
glandular cells, and indicates the relative interest of his observation. 
He notes the probably similar origin of the nest filaments of Chiro- 
nectes pictus, and suggests that the pathological “ fibrin-cylinders” in 
human urine may possibly have a similar history. 

He also indicates the possible evolution of the instinct; a state 
of renal hypertrophy is associated with reproductive functionality in 
the testes, the enlarged kidneys cause an abnormal pressure, from 
which the stickleback tries to relieve itself by rubbing against foreign 
objects, to which the squeezed-out mucin adhered. At this time, 
however, he is in close company with the female and near the bunches 
of eggs glued to water-plants; there, therefore, he found the nearest 
and most convenient place for getting rid of the burdensome mucin, 
and thus became a nest-spinner. 


y. General.t 


Geographical Distribution of Pelagic Marine Animals.{t—Herr 
C. Chur ascribes the wide distribution of pelagic forms to four 
causes; they are of great geological age, and existed long before the 
elevation of the continents, while the appearance of the latter has 
given rise to currents which are of great significance in distribution ; 

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxv. (1885) pp. 554-63, 

+ This section is limited to papers which, while relating to Vertebrata, have 


a direct or indirect bearing on Invertebrata also. 
t Zool. Anzeig., ix. (1886) pp. 35-9, 71-5. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETO. 407 


they are provided with powerful locomotor organs; they or their 
germs may become attached to powerful swimmers, wood, or the feet 
of swimming birds; and, lastly, they are aided by the wind, for when 
floating on the water they offer a broad surface. 

The author then proceeds to discuss the results of recent ob- 
servations which confirm the idea just enunciated; as examples of 
geologically old forms we may take the Protozoa, and especially the 
Foraminifera, several of which have been found by Brady to be 
cosmopolitan in their distribution; the Cetacea and perhaps some 
Cephalopods are good examples of strongly swimming forms; the 
cosmopolitanism of many pelagic Crustacea and the localization of 
Coelenterata is explained by the resistent chitinous shell of the one 
and the delicacy of the tissues of the other set of forms; at the same 
time, some ccelenterate species are very widely distributed. 


Influence of High Pressures on Animal Tissues.*—M. P. 
Regnard has investigated the increase of weight in organs and 
tissues subjected to high pressures (100-400 atmospheres), and he 
finds a great increase in the quantity of water in the tissues; it is 
not yet certain whether this is due to water directly entering, or 
whether it combines with the albuminoids, and, after the removal of 
the pressure, escapes and infiltrates the tissues. 


B. INVERTEBRATA. 
Mollusca. 


Formation of Chromatophores in Cephalopoda.t—In working 
out the development of the chromatophores in Sepiola Rondeletii 
M. C. Phisalix comes to the same conclusion as Blanchard, Girod, and 
others, that the fibres radiating from the cell are not muscular but 
connective tissue. In the centre of a mass of yellowish pigment a 
large rounded vesicle appears, with the nucleus at the periphery of 
the protoplasm, as in a fat-cell; in this cavity refringent coloured 
granules collect. The cells surrounding this vesicle equatorially are 
arranged in a radial fashion; their nuclei elongate, and their proto- 
plasm becomes converted into fibrils, while their central ends become 
continuous with the protoplasm of the central cell. The nucleus of 
this latter soon loses its structure, but retains its size and shape; the 
large vacuole of the cell is surrounded by a ring of smaller vacuoles, 
and the coloured granules in this vacuole move about; this has given 
rise to the idea that the chromatophores may be amceboid. 


Embryology of Patella.tj—Dr. W. Patten communicates a most 
interesting investigation on the embryology of Patella. 

1. Preparation of the embryos.—The opaque, blueish-green ova 
were rendered partly transparent by a preparation of acetic acid and 
glycerin. For studying the more complicated internal changes, 
sections were made of embryos killed in acetic acid, preserved in 
alcohol, and stained with alcoholic borax-carmine or Kleinenberg’s 
haematoxylin. 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 173-6. t Ibid., pp. 775-7. 
+ Arbeit. Zool, Inst. Univ. Wien, vi. (1886) pp. 1-26 (5 pls.). 


408 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


2. Fecundation of the ova—The mature ova, which measure 
0:12 mm. in diameter, are protected by a very thick transparent 
chorion, whose surface is covered with shallow indentations, and 
between these a larger number of smaller dots, also pits, but, unlike 
the former, in connection with fine lines or canals which extend 
radially from the outer to the inner surface of the chorion. The 
micropyle at the animal pole is a funnel-shaped projection, with a 
large irregular opening, within which lay a number of highly re- 
fractive globules. From the bottom of the micropyle two very large 
polar globules arise, of which one, becoming much the larger, exhibits 
a globular distal enlargement, in which an indistinct nucleus may be 
detected. Four or five may be present, but only one has this globular 
extremity. A layer of finely granular protoplasm was frequently 
observed at the animal pole, where the polar globules arise. After 
the detachment of the globules, a remnant is still seen, persisting as 
late as the stage with eight segmentation-spheres. 

3. SegmentationThe ovum divides after the general molluscan 
type, the earlier stages much resembling those of Planorbis. A 
meridional division into two unequal parts, is followed by a successive, 
not simultaneous, meridional division of the larger and smaller sphere, 
at right angles to the former; a third division parallel to the equator, 
a little nearer the animal than the vegetative pole, acts successively 
on the four spheres, producing stages with five, six, seven, and eight 
spheres. Beyond this stage the rhythm was not followed owing to 
the abundant percentage of abnormal types. A blastosphere with a 
slightly excentric and oval cavity results. Four large, coarser cells 
at the vegetative pole constitute the beginning of the endoderm. The 
thick chorion falls away at an early stage in segmentation. 

4. Gastrulation.—The beginning of gastrulation is marked by the 
increase in size and inward growth of the four primitive endoderm- 
cells above-mentioned, of a wedge-like shape, at the end of segmenta- 
tion; they assume an oval form, and expand inwards into peculiar 
club-shaped cells which nearly fill the segmentation-cavity. During 
the inward growth, at first two, and then four or five cells at the 
apical pole, becoming ciliated, form the beginning of the apical plate ; 
and at the same time the velum is established by the appearance of 
cilia upon each one of a double row of cells round the equator. ‘The 
radial symmetry of the embryo is soon disturbed by the appearance 
of two large cells, one on each side of the four endoderm-cells, which 
begin the transformation of the embryo into a bilateral organism. 
These two “endo-mesoderm” cells divide, and one half becomes the 
primitive mesoderm-cell, while the other, after remaining some time 
in the mouth of the blastopore, is pushed in to become one of the 
endoderm-cells lining the cavity of the mesenteron. The embryo 
becomes somewhat lengthened through the elongation of the endoderm- 
cells and the increase of the ectoderm-cells between the velum and 
the mouth of the gastrula. The cells of the embryo-cap lose their 
wedge-like form, and become somewhat flattened. 

5. Migration of the blastopore and appearance of the dorso-ventral 
axis—The cells filling the mouth of the blastopore divide per- 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 409 


pendicularly to their long axis, and the outer parent cells divide 
again parallel to the same, thus increasing the number of cells at the 
mouth of the gastrula to eight. About the twentieth hour the blasto- 
pore begins to shift from its basal position towards the future ventral 
surface. It comes to occupy the apex of a V-shaped furrow directed 
towards the velum, and is much reduced in size. The rest of the 
furrow is occupied by ectoderm-cells, which arrange themselves 
regularly, circularly at the apex. The diverging arms of the V 
become parallel, the furrow is deepened at the basal end to form a 
round opening like that at the apex, only smaller. When the blasto- 
pore is closed, the ectoderm-cells, which formed the sides and floor of 
the furrow, constitute the walls of the stomodeum. The endoderm- 
cells, resulting from the division of the primitive four, are at first 
irregularly arranged in the segmentation-cavity, but are finally dis- 
posed as the walls of a slit-like cavity appearing in the centre of the 
mass. The endo-mesoderm cells leave their median lateral position, 
approach one another on the future dorsal side, and dividing at right 
angles to their long axis form the primitive mesoderm-cells. The ends 
of the endo-mesoderm cells persist on the dorsal edge of the blastopore, 
and are forced, by its closure, inwards to form part of the endoderm- 
lining of the mesenteron. The mesoderm-cells come together in the 
median longitudinal, dorso-ventral plane, and give rise to two V-shaped 
rows of smaller cells, which afterwards divide to form double rows. 
Two lateral swellings on each side of the blastopore, as it becomes 
ventral, unite as the latter moves forward, and form a median pro- 
tuberance which developes into the foot. The mechanism in the 
shifting of the blastopore is traced to the changes in cells on the 
dorsal side of the embryo. The velum increases greatly ; on each side 
of the main median band of cilia there is a band of support-cells, the 
anterior due to the decrease of the original anterior band of cilia, 
the posterior, a new development specially well marked on the dorsal 
side of the embryo. The shell-aland appears shortly before the 
closure of the blastopore as a plate of thickened cells, including most 
of the dorsal surface posterior to the velum. The cells of the embryo- 
cap increase in number and decrease in size. Two cells, one on each 
side of the apical plate, project conspicuously, retaining their rounded 
ends, which become filled with highly refractive granules, and covered 
with extremely fine, straight, motionless, radiating hairs. At the very 
pole a tuft of fifteen to twenty. long inactive cilia is formed. To 
these larger and longer hairs, as distinct from the smaller, probably 
directive cilia, Dr. Patten would ascribe sensory functions. 

6. From the closure of the blastopore to the formation of the nautt- 
loid shell—The endoderm-cells arrange themselves more regularly, 
though very unequally, round the mesenteric cavity. The body- 
cavity appears as a space between the walls of the mesenteron and the 
ectoderm. The further development of the mesenteron and the ceso- 
phagus is described. The mesoblastic chords grow forward as far as 
the velum, where the cells become isolated, and elongated with pointed 
ends. Some mesoderm-cells freed from this anterior extremity of the 
chord, form a layer on the dorsal surface of the mesenteron, and 


Ser, 2.—Vot. VI. Qk 


410 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


gradually grow toward the ventral side. Half-a-dozen or more of 
these are specially modified as muscle-cells which serve to draw the 
embryo into the shell. Another group extends forward and ventrally, 
surrounding the cesophagus and the probable auditory sacs. A 
few arrange themselves around the inner wall of the velum, and others 
connect these with the cells round the cesophagus. Some are also 
always found in the spaces between the outer walls and the mesenteron, 
probably forming blood-corpuscles. The primitive mesoderm-cells 
persist as late as the twentieth hour. The invagination of the shell- 
gland, and the formation of the nautiloid shell are then described, 
as also the changes in the foot, the appearance of the auditory organs, 
and further progress which it is impossible to summarize. Owing to 
the rapid abnormal development of the embryos, Dr. Patten has not 
yet been able to contribute any definite results as to the development 
of the nervous system. 


Development of the reproductive elements in Pulmonata.*— 
Herr G. Platner continues his researches on the development of the 
reproductive elements in Pulmonates. He has been able to watch 
the process of copulation in confined Arions, and to trace the stages 
in the maturation and fertilization of the ova. In Heliz, even when 
copulation had been observed, atrophy always set in, and the ova 
never reached maturity. 

1. Karyokinesis in the sperm-cells of Helix.—To what he has pre- 
viously communicated on this subject, Herr Platner adds the follow- 
ing account of the origin and fate of the spindle-fibres. When the 
chromatin of the regular coil is about to concentrate itself in the 
granular equatorial plate, the spindle-fibres are seen neither meeting 
at the poles, nor pursuing a straight course, but extending from the 
equator towards the poles, and instead of ending sharply, bending 
round to be continued on the other side. The spindle-fibres are 
really the persistent framework of the regular coil, the chromatin 
of which has been concentrated at the equator, while the unstained 
ground-substance persists in toto. It seems probable that the micro- 
somata are not solid, but disposed on the framework of the coil like 
pearls on a string. The spindle is formed from the coil framework 
by the concurrence of the individual segments of the latter in one 
point at the poles, thereby becoming more stretched and entering 
into intimate connection with the protoplasmic masses. In the usual 
rapid division, the spindle-fibres seem suddenly to disappear, but 
when division is slow their history can be traced. The pole-plates 
separate from the spindle-fibres, fall into granules, and become 
regular nuclei; the spindle-fibres contract more and more towards 
the equator, fuse together, and form triangular or hook-shaped 
structures, attached by their apex to the equator. After division 
this structure retires from the periphery towards the centre; the 
limbs of the hook become longer and more distinct, diverging towards 
the centre and then bending in and finally meeting. The closed 
figure thus formed from the spindle-fibres is the accessory nuclear 


* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxvi. (1886) pp. 599-621 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 41] 


body—the ‘“‘ Nebenkern.” An exactly analogous process is observed 
in cases where the division of the protoplasm does not occur; here 
also the accessory body arises directly from the spindle-fibres. 
Between the framework of the coil, the spindle-fibres, and the 
accessory body, there is thus a genetic connection; all three are 
modifications of the same element. The process is probably as 
follows. After the chromatin of the nucleus has divided into micro- 
somata, these arrange themselves in regular curved rows; the 
accessory body enters the nucleus and forms the framework of the 
coil; the latter persists as the spindle-fibres, while the chromatin con- 
centrates in the granular equatorial plate ; the spindle-fibres come into 
direct connection with the protoplasm at the poles; after division of 
the chromatin substance, the resulting pole-plates form anew regular 
nuclei, and the “anaphasis” either repeats inversely the stages of 
the “ prophasis,” or the accessory nuclear body arises directly from 
the spindle-fibres. Which of these two cases occurs depends upon 
the degree in which the protoplasm is associated with the division. 
Herr Platner adds some further remarks on the number and origin of 
the elements of the equatorial granular plate, and a critical notice of 
recent contributions by Carnoy and Gilson. 

2. Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis in Arion—The earliest stages 
of the reproductive organ exhibit primitive sexual-cells, or rather 
irregular nuclei imbedded in a homogeneous substance. In the 
centre of the nuclei a formation of granules occurs, and a finely 
granular protoplasm begins to be formed round about. These 
elements increase considerably in number, and apparently directly ; 
they form (a) primitive ova; (b) spermatogonia and basal cells; 
(c) nutritive cells furnishing the yolk; and (d) nuclei of the alveolar 
wall and of the follicular membrane. The latter are reserve germs, 
and form a new generation after the expulsion of the contemporary 
sexual cells. The sexual cells in the alveoli are distinctly separable 
into a peripheral layer consisting chiefly of ova, and a central zone 
of spermatogonia. The latter are characterized by the presence of a 
single large nucleolus, which appears along with the bent rods form- 
ing the accessory body. ‘The origin of the latter as an outgrowth 
from the nucleus has been already described. Becoming gradually 
rounded off, if exhibits a distinct membrane, and internally an 
irregular distribution of chromatin over a network of faintly stained 
strands. ‘The ova are at first distinguished from the spermatogonia 
only by their peripheral disposition, the greater development of their 
protoplasm, and their much larger, more oval nucleus. A rapid 
growth is the natural result of the direct supply of abundant food 
insured by their peripheral position. They increase in number in a 
manner exactly analogous to that above described in the case of 
Helix. Within the nucleus are seen not only the proper germinal 
spot, of a roundish form, at first interrupted by projecting elevations, 
but another round body, which Platner terms the nucleolus. He 
compares the presence of these two bodies with similar phenomena 
observed by Leydig, Trinchese, Van Beneden, and V. la Valette St. 
George. When the ova of Arion have attained their final form, the 


2Eu 2 


412 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


accessory nuclear body is no longer visible, having probably remained 
as a portion of the nucleus at the last division. In the formation of 
the spindle, the origin of the fibres from the unstained substance 
was clearly seen, and this is, in developing ova, contained in the 
germinal spot. In progressive changes the spot exhibits a variable 
but small number of clear vacuole-like bodies ; a clearer stained and 
a darker portion become distinguishable, the latter representing 
Van Beneden’s “ corpuscule germinatif.” Meanwhile, the surround- 
ing protoplasm is becoming modified; within the meshes of the 
network of fine granular threads, yolk-granules appear, from the 
centre outwards. This differentiation of the protoplasm is for the 
most part effected at the cost of the nutritive cells. The mature ova 
no longer form a continuous peripheral layer, but lie in scattered 
clumps, with the spermatogonia between them. The intermediate 
substance between the clumps is composed of the connective-sub- 
stance cells described by Leydig or the plasma-cells of Brock. 
With the growth of the alveoli these gradually degenerate and. 
disappear. The nuclei of the alveolar wall which furnish the reserve 
germs, do not, therefore, originate from the intermediate substance, 
but from the sexual cells. The basal cells are formed from sexual 
cells with granular nuclei, which after serving for a time as the 
nutritive centres of spermatocyte groups, degenerate and disappear. 

3. Oogenesis in Helia.—In Helix the ova are formed at intervals, 
there is no strict peripheral disposition, the primitive ova multiply 
with mitosis, and their final form exhibits a single germinal spot. 
The function of the nutritive cells is beautifully seen. At first 
directly apposed to the ova, they come gradually to lie in cavities, 
and are finally indistinguishable from the surrounding protoplasm. 
The assimilation takes place rapidly. These so-called yolk-nuclei 
are, in this case, at least, in no way parallel to the accessory nuclear 
body of sperm-cells. Herr Platner agrees with other investigators 
as to the absence of a vitelline membrane. 


Parasitic Gastropods.*—Drs. C. F. and P. B. Sarasin state that 
the Linckia multiformis of Ceylon has two parasites, one internal and 
one external, both of which are prosobranchiate gastropods. The 
ectoparasitie form is always found on the lower surface of an arm, 
and is so set that the anterior portion of the right margin of the 
shell has free communication with the outer world. The surface of 
attachment is almost as large as the wide mouth of the shell, and it 
is fixed by a number of elevations which make their way into the 
cutis of the Linckia ; this surface is not, however, the true foot, for 
its centre is occupied by the pharynx, which acts like a proboscis and 
makes its way perpendicularly into the skin of the host. The true 
foot is a small semilunar fold on the hinder surfaee, and the remnant 
of the velum forms a second semilunar fold on the anterior surface. 
There are no tentacles, but auditory vesicles are present. The 
muscular pharynx has a pumping action, and the radula is wanting. 
There are well-developed salivary glands, which, possibly, have an 


* Zool, Anzeig., ix. (1885) pp. 19-21. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 413 


acid secretion which acts on the carbonate of lime of the star-fish 
host. There is one gill. The adult has a shell about 1 centimetre 
long, and is, on the whole, like Ancylus ; it appears to belong to the 
genus Concholepas. 

The presence of the entoparasitic form may be recognized by a 
conical swelling on the arm of a Linckia, and close examination will 
reveal the presence of a small round hole from which the apex of 
the shell of the gastropod projects; it is without doubt a Stylina. 
The adult shell is a centimetre long and has eight coils; it has an 
extraordinarily long and muscular proboscis, which may extend for 
1-5cm. At the base of the proboscis is a false mantle which clearly 
acts as a respiratory pump. The proboscis itself extends along the wall 
of the ccelom of its host; there is no pharynx and no radula. Nor is 
there any operculum. There are eyes and auditory vesicles, but no 
tentacles; the sexes are separate, and the genital products appear to 
escape into the sea. Only about two per cent. of the Linckiz are 
troubled by these parasites. Further details and figures are promised. 


Spawning of Doris.*—By carefully watching the eggs as they 
passed down the oviduct, M. E. Bolot was able to ascertain the 
function of the various regions of the “ albuminous gland ” of Doris. 
The eggs were seen to receive their various coats in different regions 
of the gland, which is therefore really made up of glands which in 
other gastropods are usually separated from one another. The 
fertilized ovum enters a large canal beset with branching tubes, 
which are lined by large irregular nucleated cells; this region is the 
true albuminous gland, where the first coat is deposited round the 
ovum. In the next part of its course the shell is deposited in the 
“‘shell-gland,” the cells lining which differ from the albuminous cells 
only in their smaller size. These two regions constitute Hancock’s 
“opaque portion ” of the albuminous gland. Following this is the 
“jelly-gland,’ made up of convoluted tubes, forming the external 
edge of the whole gland; the cells lining this region are elongated, 
very granular, and arranged in a single layer; they deposit a jelly 
(“masse glaireuse”) which binds the eggs together in a cylindrical 
string, which passes into a slit-like cavity and passes out of the body 
as a ribbon-shaped string. It is possible to separate the eggs of 
Doris from this jelly, when laid, by carefully acting on them with 
acetic acid. D. testudinaria is remarkable amongst Nudibranchs for 
possessing a “prostate” on the vas deferens, such as occurs in other 
gastropods. 


Central Nervous System of Tethys leporina.t — Prof. H. de 
Lacaze-Duthiers points out that the difficulty with regard to the 
central nervous system of Tethys lies not in the topography of its 
lozenge-shaped central mass, but in the interpretation of the morpho- 
logical value of its constituent parts. He regards it as being com- 
posed of three groups of ganglia; the cells of which it is made up 
are contained in pyriform sacs, arranged in a racemose fashion ; the 
largest pouches are central and inferior, the smallest on the superior 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 829-31. + Ibid., ci. (1885) pp. 135-9. 


414 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


margin and in the middle. After maceration six secondary groups 
—two superior, two inferior, and two lateral—can be made out. We 
have to do here with a remarkable approximation of the cerebral, 
pedal, and asymmetrical ganglia, for nerves converge to this central 
mass from all the organs of the body. The author describes in 
detail the careful dissections which were necessary to elucidate the 
structure of this complex mass, and, comparing it with those which he 
has previously described, says that, whereas in all of them all the 
pedal and asymmetrical ganglia were found on the anterior surface of 
the cesophagus, they are, in Tethys, with one exception, all united into a 
dorsal mass; that exception is the extremely small genital asymmetrical 
ganglion. 


Shell-formation in Lamellibranchs.* — Dr. F. Miller describes 
the mode of shell-formation in Lamellibranchiata. His investigations 
relate chiefly to Anodonta, Unio, and Cyclas, of which chipped-off edges 
and sections were studied. ‘The decalcification was effected by means 
of dilute chromic acid, picrocarmin was used for staining, and cel- 
loidin was found to be the only satisfactory imbedding material. 

The general result of Dr. Miiller’s research is to corroborate 
Nathusius in his account of the shell-growth by intussusception and 
not by secretion. He does not, however, exclude the possibility that 
apposition of organic elements may occur on the inner surface of the 
shell, at those places where the shell is permanently united with the 
body, i.e. from the muscles. The outer margin of the shell, that is 
the thickened periostracum, and the inner surface next the mantle 
are always soft. The calcification both of the prismatic and mother- 
of-pearl layers, is due to small, roundish, irregularly distributed 
bodies, which gradually increase in all dimensions, and become 
prismatic by mutual pressure. 

During the metamorphoses of the young mussel, the shell has a 
fibrillar structure; the lamellation is secondary, probably beginning 
along with the calcification. The original fibrillar structure is 
associated with the development and differentiation of the shell- 
muscles. The organic substance of the shell has a cellular origin. 

In their development the fibrils follow the directions of the mantle- 
muscles. They assume a radial course at the ligament, but elsewhere 
run parallel to the surface of the mantle, following the direction of the 
muscle-fibres which run transversely round the animal, just under 
the epithelium, and which uniting with the tooth-pad, the pallial line, 
and the periostracum, thus exert influence on the fibrils. 

These transverse muscle-fibres aid in the opening of the shell. 
Those radially disposed on the back of the animal flatten the liga- 
ment in contracting, and thus also aid in opening, as those also do 
which ascend on each side from the foot and are attached to the tooth 
or tooth-pad. The muscle-fibres uniting the dorsal-muscle insertions 
on either side act as adductors. The bundles of cross muscles on the 
margin of the mantles, which are by one end attached to the shell 
on the pallial line, and by the other to the free portion of the perio- 


* Zool. Beitr. (Schneider), i. (1885) pp. 206-46 (8 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 415 


stracum, effect by their contraction the apposition of the soft shell 
margins, and a consequent perfect closure of the shell. 


Opening of the Shell of Mussels.*—Dr. J. Pawlow has investi- 
gated the mechanism of the opening of the shell in Anodonta cygnza. 
There is a nerve-ganglion 6-8 mm. in front of the anterior adductor 
which gives off several branches. Some of them go to the ganglion on the 
ventral surface of the posterior adductor. Observations were made by 
clamping one valve of the shell to a firm board and connecting the 
other by a silk thread with the short arm of a lever, the longer arm 
of which works on a slowly rotating drum. An uninjured mussel 
makes spontaneous movements, the valves being slowly opened a 
little and closed again more quickly. After separation or irritation 
of its proper ganglion, each muscle can be studied separately. 

The author sums up his conclusions as follows :—*“ Two classes of 
nerve-fibres supply the adductor muscles,—(a) motor causing con- 
traction, and (b) inhibitory interrupting the contraction and effecting 
relaxation. The motor nerves of each muscle spring from the nearest 
ganglion; but all the inhibitory fibres originate in the anterior 
ganglia. The latter pass to the anterior adductor by the short nerve- 
branches which pass to it from the anterior ganglia. They reach 
the posterior muscle through the connectives. The posterior ganglion 
thus functions as motor centre for the posterior adductor; and the 
anterior ganglia act similarly on the anterior adductor. The motor 
cells of the ganglia on either side may be stimulated to activity, 
either by peripheral nerve-fibres (of the mantle or gills), or by 
certain fibres of the connectives. The anterior ganglia are able to 
produce relaxation in either anterior or posterior adductors.” 


Resting position of Oysters.;—Mr. 8. Saunders considers that 
Mr. J. T. Cuningham{ is right in stating that oysters are usually 
found with the left (convex) valve uppermost; and that Prof. Huxley 
is also correct in stating that young oysters are invariably attached 
by this left valve. The discrepancy is explained by the fact that the 
oyster, during its first or second year, becomes detached either by 
the dredger or by natural means. The oyster, falling on its convex 
valve, will get turned over by the motion of the water, and then 
remain on its flat valve, being now free from disturbance by the water. 
Moreover, if it remains attached by the convex valve, the mud, &c., 
would tend to remain in its concavity and thus injure the soft parts, 
whereas if the flat valve be undermost the motion of the water can 
more easily sweep away any foreign matter from the shell. 


‘Challenger’ Lamellibranchiata.§—Mr. E. A. Smith confines 
himself chiefly to descriptions of the shells of the Lamellibranchs 
collected during the voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger.’ He urges the 
priority of the term Pelecypoda given to the group by Goldfuss. 
Only about 500 species were obtained, and the greater number came 
from shallow waters; only one new genus is described. Lamelli- 


* Pfluger’s Archiv, xxxvii. (1885) pp. 6-31 (1 pl.). 
+ Zoologist, x. (1886) pp. 114-5. ¢ See this Journal, ante, p. 52. 
§ Reports of the Voyage of H.MLS. ‘ Challenger,’ xiii. (1885) 341 pp. (25 pls.). 


416 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


branchs seem, in many cases, to have wide areas of distribution and 
to be found also at very different depths; as a rule, very deep forms 
tend to be colourless and of thin structure; on the whole, Mollusca 
seem to be comparatively scarce at great depths. 


Molluscoida. 


a. Tunicata. 


Alternation in the Heart of Tunicates.*— M. F. Lahille gives 
the results of numerous experiments on the reversal of the action 
of the heart in Salpa maxima and Phallusia mamillata. 

The number of beats in each direction is not regular, but it is 
found that the number of “ cardio-visceral ” beats is greater than that of 
“ cardio-branchial ” beats, before a reversal takes place: he gives tables 
showing these numbers under various circumstances. Immediately 
after its capture, the beats varied from 4 cardio-visceral and 2 cardio- 
branchial, to 9 and 7 respectively. As the length of captivity 
increased, the number of pulsations before a reversal took place 
increased ; but still the cardio-visceral beats were in excess: for 
instance, 26 beats before a reversal; then 12 cardio-branchial beats ; 
or even 60 and 48. Under the influence of a current of oxygen, the 
number of pulsations decreased, and tended to become normal: with 
carbonic acid, the inverse result was obtained: the number of pulsa- 
tions increases, and the cardio-branchial exceed the cardio-visceral 
pulsations, e. g. 60 and 52 between reversals. The same thing 
happens as the captivity is prolonged ; from which he concludes that 
the difficulty in keeping Salpz alive in aquaria arises from their great 
need of oxygen. The pulsations, either visceral or branchial, occur once 
in every 24 seconds, either normally, or with oxygen, or with carbonic 
acid. 

With Phallusia mamillata the same general results were obtained ; 
but the number of pulsations between reversals is greater, and more 
irregular; sometimes the cardio-visceral pulsations exceeding the 
branchial ; sometimes the reverse is the case. The time between 
each contraction varies from 9 to 11 seconds. Carbonic acid does 
not seem to influence the number of pulsations, but the intervals 
between contractions are longer. The removal of the intersiphonal 
ganglion sometimes increases, sometimes diminishes, and at other 
times does not affect the number of pulsations; but in all cases it 
appears that the passage of blood to the branchia is more difficult 
than towards the viscera; the blood seems to flow back slightly 
from the branchia. The author intends to explain these results in 
a future paper, and to try the action of alkaloids and anesthetics, &c., 
on these forms and on the Synascidiz. 

Budding of Salpe.|—Herr O. Seeliger, after an historical review 


of what is known with regard to the budding of Salpe, gives a 
detailed account of the formation of the stolo prolifer. 


* Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Toulouse, xix. (1885) pp. 13-23. 
+ Jenaisch. Zeitschr, f. Naturwiss., xix. (1885) pp. 573-677 (10 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 417 


This first appears as a small elevation just behind and to the 
left of the end of the endostyle; it soon consists of two cell-tubes, 
one within the other, and having the intermediate space filled by a 
cell-mass. The outer layer of the stolon is clearly an evagination of 
the ectodermal tegumentary epithelium of the embryo; the space is 
a continuation of the primary ccelom, and the cells that fill it are 
mesodermal in origin. Huxley’s account of the endoderm of the 
stolon as arising from the pericardium of the embryo is explained by 
the observation that the endodermal evagination extends to and fuses 
with the pericardium; the characters of the mesoderm are described 
in detail, and the author then passes to an account of the growth 
and torsion of the stolon; as it grows it surrounds the hind-body, and 
as it twists its distal end comes to lie ventrally to the nucleus. As 
the stolon and its buds grow, the solitary animal also increases con- 
siderably in size. The buds are not formed by special outgrowths of 
the stolon, but by metamorphoses of the whole of it; the ectodermal 
tube of every young bud contains six separate structures; neurally is 
the ganglion, two endodermal sacs, two mesodermal bands, and 
hemally the ovary and rudimentary oviduct; along the whole 
length of the germ-stock there extends two blood-passages common to 
all the buds, and these, enclosed by a flattened epithelium and a 
layer of cellulose, lead directly into the lacunar system of the embryo ; 
they are separated by two horizontal layers of cells which are derived 
from the endodermal tube of the stolon. Owing to the presence of 
the endothelial wall the blood cannot pass directly into the young 
buds. 

In the last period of development the primitive connection between 
the separate individuals is lost, and they are only connected by a 
fresh set of attaching processes. This separation becomes so com- 
plete that there is no structure which is common to all or even to 
several chain-salpe; the young animals cut themselves off from the 
region of the two blood-passages, so that these come to lie quite out- 
side the body of the Salpz. The tube in which they are enclosed 
may be regarded as the remains of the stolon, and it gradually 
decreases in size. By the outgrowth of the attaching processes the 
chain-stage becomes possible, and the single structure becomes con- 
verted into a number of parts. The histological and structural 
changes which take place during this stage of development are fully 
described, and the whole may be thus summed up :— 

The ectoblast of the embryo forms the ectodermal cell-tube of the 
stolon, the tegumentary epithelium, and the outer cellulose mantle of 
the chain-salpa; the mesenchym of the nucleus, which is perhaps 
partly derived from embryonic mesoblast, gives rise to the two paired 
lateral cords (which divide into the lateral end which belongs to that 
side of the stolon on which the chain-individuals will lie later, and 
the hemal part of the opposite cord), the cord of the ovary, and the 
nerve-tube of the stolon; the lateral cord forms the inner cellulose 
mantle, the connective-tissue cells, the muscular bands and fibre-cells, 
the blood-cells, the dorsal wall of the gill-band, and the wall of the 
cloaca in the chain-salpa ; the hemal part forms the pericardium, heart, 


418 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


and eleoblast; the ovarian cord, the male and female organs, and 
the nerve-tube, the ganglion, the sensory organ, and the ciliated pit. 
The endoblast of the embryo forms the endodermal tube of the stolo 
prolifer, and this the wall of the respiratory cavity, the ventral wall of 
the gill-band, the digestive tract with the gland that surrounds it, 
and the dorsal process. ‘The pericardial cavity is at first a special 
portion of the primary ccelom, in which there are no isolated cells; 
one wall goes to form that of the heart, and the other that of the 
pericardium ; it is stated that the finer histological characters of the 
muscles appear to deserve further investigation. 


Individual Variations in the Structure of Simple Ascidians.*— 
Herdmann was the first to notice that the “ vibratile organ ” forming 
the opening of the duct of the hypoganglionic gland in Ascidians varies 
in form in different species. In general the aperture is single, but 
in Phallusia mamillata and in Ascidia Mariont the duct of the gland 
branches, and each branch opens into the branchial chamber.by a 
separate pore. M. L. Roule now finds that a similar condition occa- 
sionally occurs in Ascidia elongata Roule, and Cynthia papillosa L. 

In the former species each of the eight branches of the duct opens 
by a pore, and the eight pores are placed on a rounded prominence ; 
but in C. papillosa the sixteen pores are each on a separate papilla ; 
the group of papille forming the “vibratile organ.” ‘The difference 
between this organ in the first two species and in these latter forms, 
is that, in A. Marionis and P. mamillata, the branches arise from the 
main duct throughout its course; whereas in the other two the 
branches arise only from the peripheral part, near the apertures. 
While this arrangement of the duct is a constant character in the first 
two, it is only an occasional teratological phenomenon in the other two 
forms. As to the cause of its presence in the latter case, the presence 
of parasites or of debris, in the branchial cavity does not seem to 
offer a sufficient explanation, for there is a remarkable regularity in the 
arrangement of the pores. It is necessary to “look deeper into vital 
manifestations, and to recognize that certain organs, although placed 
in the interior and far removed from all direct external influence, can 
vary in their structure to a considerable extent; and this naturally, 
without the embryo having experienced any artificial teratogenic 
influences.” 


The Phallusiade of Provence.{—M. L. Roule describes five genera 
of the family Phallusiade. The family is divided into the sub-family 
Cionidee, in which the visceral mass is placed behind the branchial 
sac; and into the sub-family Phallusiade, where the visceral mass 
is at the side of the branchial sac. 

Of the Cionide, two forms, Rhopalona neapolitana Philippi, and 
Pleurociona Edwardsii n. sp., are described. RB. neapolitana is pure 
white near its free end, and has a very characteristic shape, being 
divided into a branchial region and a visceral region, connected by a 
narrow, elongated cesophageal region. The two siphons are near one 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 831-3. 
+ Recueil Zool. Suisse, iii. (1886) pp. 209-58 (4 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 419 


another at the free end, and the fixed extremity is mamillated and 
expanded. The arrangement of the bars in the pharynx or branchial 
sac is given in detail. The ccelom is fairly well developed. The 
ovary and testis are, as in Ciona, a good deal mixed up together, but 
each has its own duct. No renal organ was found, though numerous 
yellow cells are present in the visceral mass. The author places the 
genus near Herdmann’s Ecteinascidia, in the family Clavelinide ; it 
forms a connection between KHeteinascidia and Ciona; and thus also 
between the simple and the compound Ascidians. 

A new species of the genus Ciona, viz. Pleurociona Edwardsit, is 
formed. The sub-genus includes those forms of which the whole of 
one side is fixed. This species is very nearly cylindrical, and 
yellowish green in colour. An important point of difference between 
this subgenus and Ciona is that the peritoneal fold which separates 
the general body-cavity from the peribranchial cavity is oblique to 
the long axis of the body, instead of being perpendicular to it. 

Amongst the sub-family Phallusiade the species of the genera 
Ascidia and Ascidiella are described; of the latter, a new species, 
A, lutearia, is formed, in which the body is fixed by a posterior peduncle. 
Of the genus Ascidia, sensu stricto, the author gives a description of 
A. involuta Heller, in which the tunic is very thin and completely 
covered by débris of shells, Bryozoa, &e. The “ vibratile organ” is 
very large, and its edges are much and irregularly folded. A new 
species is found for A. elongata, in which the anal siphon is about 
midway between the oral siphon and the fixed base; the siphons are 
rose-pink in colour, the whole tunic being reddish. The branchial 
sac resembles that of A. mentula. The “vibratile organ” is usually 
fairly simple, but in some individuals the aperture gets much sub- 
divided by the unfolding and fusing of the edges. 

A table is given, showing the geographical distribution of those 
Phallusiade which oceur on the coast of Provence, and there are 
some excellent figures showing the natural colours and appearance of 
the forms described. 


Arthropoda. 


Claus’s Classification of the Arthropoda.*—Prof. E. Ray Lankester 
has published a statement as to Prof. Claus’s classification of the 
Arthropoda, in which he shows that his own already-published con- 
clusions have been largely borrowed, but without acknowledgment, 
by Prof. Claus. 


a. Insecta. 


Development of the Reproductive Organs in Insects.{—Prof. 
A. Schneider continues his previous researches on the development 
of the reproductive organs in insects. In the first part of his memoir 
he gives an outlined attempt towards a connected view of the develop- 
ment and comparative anatomy of these organs; in the second part 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1886) pp. 364-72. 
+ See this Journal, ante, p. 240. 
¢ Zool, Beitr. (Schneider), i. (1885) pp. 257-300 (4 pls.). 


420 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


details as to peculiarities observed in some of the groups, and as to 
the opinions of some of the numerous other investigators of this 
subject are discussed. 

(a) Rudiment of the sexual organs.—The first rudiment of the 
sexual organs appears as a muscle-fibre which branches off from an 
alary muscle. It is inserted posteriorly and anteriorly on the 
hypodermis. An accumulation of nuclei forms a median swelling, 
which is defined off from the anterior and posterior terminal threads, 
which he terms Miiller’s filament and the primary efferent duct 
respectively. Both of these exhibit nuclei, especially the latter, but 
both may be structureless. 

(b) Nuclei of the genital rudiment and efferent duct.—The germinal 
epithelium is not definitely cellular, but consists of nucleated proto- 
plasm. These nuclei are of two kinds, spherical and vesicular. The 
former are larger and probably originate from the latter, from which 
they differ in the disposition of their nuclear fluid. Both divide, and 
from such nucleated protoplasm not only the sexual rudiment, but the 
so-called duct of Herold are formed. By mutual pressure the large 
nuclei become polygonal, and form the well-known epithelium of the 
ovarian tubes, which is thus not strictly composed of cells. The 
smaller nuclei usually become squeezed in interspaces, and have been 
described as amceboid “ wandering cells.” 

(c) Direct development of the reproductive rudiment.—(1) In the 
viviparous Cecidomya larve, in Collembola, Campodea, Coccus, Lecanium, 
Aspidiotus, and male Diptera, the reproductive rudiment forms the 
sexual organs directly. In the Podure the ova and “spermatoblasts ” 
arise directly from the differentiation of cells from the large spherical 
nuclei of the protoplasmic mass. In other cases a simple terminal, 
or a manifold yolk-chamber is formed. In the female Coccus, Leca- 
nium, and Aspidiotus, lateral germinal tubules are formed, while the 
median portion of the rudiment remains as the efferent duct. (2) In 
all other insects the sexual organs are formed from a differentiation 
of the rudiment, within which long round tubules, limited by a mem- 
brane, are formed. These usually lie, at first, at right angles to the 
longitudinal axis of the rudiment, but in most cases they afterwards 
radiate out in fan-like fashion from the secondary efferent duct. 'The 
envelope of the rudiment persists for a while as a structureless mem- 
brane with an apposed nucleated layer of protoplasm, but is in most 
cases absorbed before the imago is perfected, though remaining as the 
muscular egg-sac in Diptera, and as an interrupted, nucleated, net- 
like membrane in Blattide and Saltatoria. A peritoneal envelope is 
formed round the tubules, and another portion of the protoplasm forms 
special terminal filaments, connecting the ends of the tubules with 
Miiller’s filament. The secondary efferent duct appears and remains 
in Orthoptera, Thysanura, Thyrepsida, and Hemiptera; appears and 
disappears in Diptera ; while in Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Neuropiera, 
and Lepidoptera, it is not formed at all, the tubules coming into direct 
connection with the primary efferent duct. In the males the peri- 
toneal sheath and the special terminal filaments are generally absorbed, 
and the tubules become spherical. The primary efferent ducts unite 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 421 


terminally with the secondary ducts if such exist, and at the external 
end the ducts unite in a median portion. 

(d) Herold’s duct is formed independently of the generative 
organs, from the hypodermis; into it the primary efferent duct opens. 
At first simple, it soon forms diverticula, receptacula seminis or 
glands. In female insects the unpaired duct of Herold communicates 
with the median portion of the primary efferent ducts. In the males 
of Collembola, Campodea, Thysanura, and perhaps in Orthoptera and 
Hemiptera the communication is similar, but in the other insects the 
duct of Herold forms paired diverticula, into which the primary ducts 
open, though apparently in earlier stages the direct communication 
obtains. 

(e) Oogenesis.—The two types (a) without and (b) with the par- 
ticipation of yolk-cells are described. In (a) the nuclei and pro- 
toplasm of the tubule are divided into two layers—the outer, with 
smaller nuclei forming the epithelium, the inner, with larger spherical 
nuclei, forming the ova, which are differentiated in order from the 
efferent duct towards the blind end, where a multiplication occurs in 
those which deposit their ova singly over a considerable period. In 
(b) the yolk-cells which become associated with the ova are found 
either in a single terminal chamber or in several successive chambers, 
in each of which an ovum is differentiated. The terminal chamber 
consists at first of the same blastem as the tubules; the internal 
nuclei become larger, the superficial remain small; the epithelial 
layer is separated from the yolk, which may remain undivided or form 
cells with one or more nuclei. From the protoplasm of the efferent 
portion, adjacent to the yolk-chamber, a nucleated portion is separated 
off to form an ovum. The surrounding nucleated protoplasm forms 
an epithelial envelope. As the portion between the ovum and the 
terminal chamber increases in length, the first ovum, moving towards 
the efferent duct, becomes connected with the yolk-chamber by a 
stalk, and between the two a second ovum is formed, and so on. In 
Chironomus a single yolk-cell, surrounded by an epithehal layer with 
small nuclei, occupies each chamber. One of the epithelial nuclei, 
with some protoplasm, separates itself to form the ovum. The process 
in Forficula and Diptera is essentially similar. In the others, with 
multiple yolk-glands, the process is somewhat different. Labidura 
gigantea is chosen as an instructive case. In the terminal portion 
only one kind of nuclei at first occurs ; towards the efferent side some 
become larger—the future yolk-cells; no epithelial layer is yet pre- 
sent. A large cell with two nuclei—a yolk-cell nucleus and an egg- 
cell nucleus—is separated off. At the efferent side an epithelial layer 
arises, which surrounds the binucleate cell. In the multiple many- 
celled yolk-glands, e. g. of Bombus, packets of cells are separated off 
in the terminal portion, each consisting of an ovum and a number of 
surrounding yolk-cells. In these cases the ovum cannot be regarded 
as an epithelial cell, and this epithelial character is, in other cases, of 
subordinate import. The ovum originates neither from epithelial 
nor from yolk-cells, but from the original blastem of the reproductive 
rudiment. 


422 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


(f) Formation of Lecithin—In the protoplasm, at first homogene- 
ous, dark granules appear near the nucleus. These are unchanged 
by acetic acid, and have been formerly termed protoplasmic granules. 
After these, lecithin-granules are formed, which are clarified by acetic 
acid. They are at first clear, like spaces filled with a drop of fluid, 
and gradually assume dark, fat-like contours. 

The epithelial cells persist till the eggs are laid, and then dis- 
appear. There is nothing to show that the contents of the yolk-cells 
are taken into the egg. 

(9) Disappearance of germinal vesicle.—In all cases the germinal 
vesicle becomes invisible. In Chironomus it breaks up into drop-like 
masses before the formation of the spindle. A similar metamorphosis 
has been described by Blochmann in various Hymenoptera, but inter- 
preted in a different way. 

(h) Testes.—The variations in the formation of the testes and in 
the spermatogenesis are not so striking as in the development of 
ovaries and ova. In all testes which arise from the differentiation of 
the reproductive rudiment, cells with large nuclei are developed 
internally, while round the wall of the tubule a sheath with small 
nuclei is formed. From the former the sperm-follicle arises; the 
nuclei divide, the outer form an epithelial layer, the inner grow and 
divide; the results form sperm-cells. 

(7) Comparison of Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis.—The testicular 
tubules of insects with a terminal yolk-gland have, at the end of 
larval life, exactly the form of ovarian tubules. The cells, which 
represent yolk-cells in the ovarian tubules, become testicular follicles 
in the testes. When the ova develope directly without yolk-glands, 
the cells which, in the female, form ova, become sperm-follicles in 
the male. When the ova arise in the terminal yolk-gland, the yolk, 
or rather the male-cells in the female, remain undeveloped. The ova 
arise from cells of another region; the yolk-cells, i. e. the potential 
male-cells, come to nothing and disappear. 

(j) Application to Classification—Professor Schneider next con- 
siders the relation of the development of the reproductive organs to 
the general system of the Insecta. Neither this portion of his memoir, 
however, nor the second special division in which the families are 
discussed in detail, admit of short summary. 


Histogenesis in the Ovigerous Sheaths of Insects.—M. J. Pérez* 
finds that the young ovary of insects has all its cells identical; that 
these are indifferent at first, but give rise later to the follicular 
epithelium on the one hand, and to the ovules and the vitellogenous 
cells on the other. When there are no vitellogenous cells the ovules 
result from the direct and successive transformation of some (the 
axial) of the primitive cells; those at the periphery and surrounding 
the ovule proliferate, more or less actively, and arrange themselves 
around the ovule, so as to form a follicular epithelium ; these are 
always distinctly separated from the egg, and do not arise in its 
protoplasm, as has been asserted by M. Sabatier and M. Wilm. 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 181-3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 423 


Suitable objects for study are to be found in the Neuroptera, e. g. 
4ischna or Agrion, where the ovigerous sheaths are very long, and 
contain but a limited number of cells. The presence of vitellogenous 
cells makes no difference to the history of the epithelium, but the 
ovule is more complex; the indifferent cells of the ovariole, instead 
of being directly transformed into the ovule, proliferate, and give 
rise endogenously to a number of cells; this number is constant for 

the species, and even for a more or less large group. This may be 
easily seen in the Lepidoptera; but even here the mother-cell does 
not expel young cells, but they become free in the ordinary manner. 
In this group also M. Pérez denies the accuracy of Prof. Sabatier’s 
observations. 

M. A. Sabatier* answers the criticisms of M. Pérez. He urges 
that the latter’s opinion that the follicular cells are primitively 
identical with those of the primitive ovules cannot be sustained, when 
it is known that the former are at first very much smaller than the 
latter ; a study of the ovary of Musca or of Acridium is sufficient to 
demonstrate the exactness of this observation. Similarly as to the 
origin of the nutritive cells, M. Sabatier states that in Dytiscus a finely 
granular vesicle was seen to form in the yolk of the egg, which was 
identical with the nuclei of the nutritive cells: in spiders and some 
other forms similar intervitelline nuclei are developed, and they 
only differ in being absorbed by the egg before instead of after 
expulsion. 

From his observations on the morphology of the ovary of insects, 
M. Sabatier concludes that the nutritive, like the follicular cells, are 
elements eliminated from the egg, that they only differ in size and 
in the time of their appearance, and that there is no reason for 
establishing an essential difference between insects which have only 
follicular cells, and those which have also nutritive cells. 

In a further note on the elements contained in the ovigerous 
sheath of Insectst M. Pérez contends that the filament in which 
the ovigerous sheath frequently terminates, is only the atrophied 
portion of the sheath primitively filled with cells up to its blind ex- 
tremity. The elements described by M. Sabatier in this region, are 
neither ova nor follicular cells. It is only in the ovariole itself, 
whether it reach the blind end of the sheath or be more or less 
removed from it, that ova, follicular cells, and so-called “ nutritive 
cells ” are found. 

The author considers M. Sabatier’s description of the formation 
of the two last sets of cells from the ovum, as perfectly erroneous. 
He considers it quite impossible to count the number of “nutritive 
cells” by means of sections. He treats them in the following way : 
the ovariole is spread out beneath a lens; it is then cut so as to 
separate an ovum with the surrounding cells from the ovariole; by 
pressing this portion the cells are set free; the preparation is stained 
and the cells counted. In this way the author finds three of these 
cells in Panorpa, seven in Lepidoptera, fifteen in Diptera, sixty-three 
in the bee. ‘The “nutritive cells” described by Sabatier as being 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 441-3. + Ibid., pp. 557-9. 


424 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


separated from the ova, as in Coleoptera, have none of the characters 
of vitellogenous cells. 


Ovary of Insects.*—Ritter v. Wielowiejski finds, from his studies 
on the morphology of insects’ ovaries, that, if the structural 
characters of the terminal chamber be taken as the basis, they may 
be divided into three groups. 

In the first we have those in which the embryonic cells which, in 
young stages, are ccllected at the tip, are all converted into ovarian, 
vitelline, or epithelial cells ; here we have the Diptera, Hymenoptera, 
Lepidoptera, Geodephaga and Hydradephaga, and the Orthoptera. 

The second set contains ovaries the tip of which possesses 
throughout life a more or less large solid mass of cells (terminal 
chamber); here we have the Coleoptera (with the exception of the 
Geodephaga and Hydradephaga) and some of the Aphidide. 

In the third group, which is represented only by the Hemiptera, 
the tip of the ovaries has above the primitive ova a well-developed 
mass of cells which functions as the organ of yolk-formation : 
between its elements there project special root-like processes of the 
maturing egg-cells. 


Heart of Insects.;—Miss Olga Poletajewa finds that the heart of 
Bombus is composed of five separate tubes, which form the chambers 
of the organ, and that the most anterior of these is continued into the 
aorta. Hach tube narrows anteriorly so as to have the appearance of 
a truncated cone, while the walls become thinner; posteriorly it 
enlarges; the anterior end passes into the posterior in front, and 
each anterior end is so flattened laterally as to form a vertical cleft ; 
the cardiac tubes are thus only united to one another at two points ; 
the free portion forms a duct (ostium) by which the blood from the 
abdomen enters the heart; the internal surface of the anterior tube, 
and the external surface of the posterior form pouch-like safety- 
valves which regulate the movement of the blood. ‘The heart of 
Cimbex is formed in essentially the same way as that of Bombus. 
The writer points out the differences between the accounts now given 
and those of such entomotomists as Strauss, Newport, and Graber, 
and describes the mode by which the heart appears to perform its 
function ; contrary to the opinion of Strauss the first chamber does 
not function alone as the propelling agent, and the ostia are not 
perfectly closed, so that part of the blood does return to the abdominal 
cavity. 

Further Observations on Optic Organs.{—Herr J. Carriére gives 
preliminary notices of the results of his further observations on the 
structure of eyes. 

1. Double eyes of male insects.—In two genera of the Ephemeride, 
Potamanthus and Cloé, the male has, in addition to the pair of eyes 
which resemble those of the female, a secondary pair of brightly 
coloured accessory and larger eyes; similar eyes have been examined 
in the Tipulid genus Bibio, and these have been found to differ, at 


* Zool. Anzeig., ix. (1886) pp, 132-9. + Ibid., pp. 13-5. 
t Ibid., pp. 141-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 425 


first sight, considerably from those of the female ; they belong, how- 
ever, to the same type of aconic eye, and only present a different 
stage in development. 

2. Aconic and pseudoconic eyes of insects.—The author does not 
agree with Dr. Hickson in thinking that the difference between 
pseudoconic and euconic eyes is slight; on the other hand, he finds 
that the refractive parts of the aconic and pseudoconic eyes are only 
extreme forms of one type. The euconic eye is characterized by its 
vitrelle passing at their free end into a common conical lens, while 
the other forms a part of the crystalline cone. In the aconic type 
the distal end of the vitrella becomes merely cuticularized, and the 
simplest form is that in which the cornea simply forms a watch- 
glass-like investment for the distal end of the vitrella; there may be 
further stages of complication, and the inner part of the corneal lens 
often breaks up into two dissimilar portions, the inner of which is 
the softer. A good example is afforded by Bibio hortulanus, for here 
the difference between the parts of the “female eye” are not so 
much marked as in the “male eye,” which is of more complex 
constitution. 

3. Number and position of the retinula cells of Musca, Culex, and 
Bibio.— The author supports Grenacher, as against Ciaccio and 
Hickson, in finding that the number of retinula-cells correspond to 
that of the rhabdomere. In Musca vomitoria the central retinula-cell 
has the form of a knife with the edge directed towards the centre of 
the retinula; the rhabdomere is placed on the edge, and this edge 
itself is at about its middle converted into a similar substance with 
it. As Hickson has stated, the nuclei of the other six retinula-cells 
lie at the distal end of the retinula; that of the seventh cell is not 
somewhat deeper, but in M. vomitoria is at the same level as the 
other cells. In Culex and Bibio the central rhabdomere is invested 
in a layer of pigment. 

4, Ocelli of Diptera and Orthoptera.—Generic differences in the 
minute anatomy of the eyes have been detailed ; the Orthoptera may 
have accessory eyes, or they may be rudimentary, or merely repre- 
sented by simple white spots. Among the Acridide the young have 
bud-like organs which project a little way beyond the surface, and 
are comparable to the similarly named structures in vertebrates. 


Gustatory Apparatus of Coleoptera.*—M. J. Gazagnaire has 
studied the gustatory apparatus of Coleoptera chiefly in the family 
Dyticide. He finds on the ventral surface of the labrum, and on 
either side, a conical swelling the apex of which carries a small 
chitinous “button” which projects into the buccal cavity; these 
buttons are hollow, their outer surface carries a number of modified 
hairs, hyaline in appearance, and provided with a central canal. At 
the base of the hair (at the periphery), there are about six chitinous 
canaliculi, which are the excretory ducts of unicellular hairs; the 
hair is distinctly lubricated. The branch of the labral nerve can be 
traced to the base of the button, into which five nerve-fibrils penetrate. 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 629-32. 
Ser. 2.—Vou. VI. 2 F 


/ 


426 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The author comes to the conclusion that, in the Dyticide, the swell- 
ings with modified hairs, carrying the chitinous buttons covered with 
special hairs chiefly on their inner contour, which are in relation with 
muscles that move them, with glands that lubricate them, and with 
numerous nerves, are the seat of the functions of testing, differentiating, 
and tasting. Put shortly, the gustatory sense of the Coleoptera may 
be located in the anterior region of the dorsal wall of the pharynx 
(labrum). 


Salivary Glands of Coleoptera.*—In many Coleoptera the only 
representative of a salivary gland is the presence of a layer of 
gland-cells on the roof of the oral cavity; and M. J. Gazagnaire 
points out a series of forms illustrating the various stages in the 
development of salivary glands from such a group of gland-cells. 

The family Hydrophilide furnish examples of these stages. The 
gland may be imagined as being at first represented by an unicellular 
gland, with a long neck opening into the oral cavity ; groups of these 
cells, opening separately, are found in numerous examples in the 
order. The pores of these gland-cells may become limited to a 
certain area, which then becomes either papilliform, or depressed : 
the latter condition is found in Hydrocharis flavipes. This depression 
deepens and becomes cup-shaped, as in Hydrocharis caraboides. The 
bottom of the cup may have a ridge across it, as in Hydrobius fuscipes, 
which leads on to a bifurcation, and thence to a tri- or quadri-furcate 
condition ; by each of these diverticula subdividing still further, a 
complicated gland, like that of Hydrophilus piceus, is produced. As 
the sieve-like depression deepens, the originally long necks of the 
cells become shorter, till in the more complicated glands, the cells, 
instead of each opening separately, come to be arranged round a 
lumen, which then serves as a common duct for their secretion. 


Meloide.;—M. H. Beauregard continues} his researches on 
Meloide. He has examined the buccal organs of about 200 species 
of vesicating insects, and advocates the corroboration of systematic 
conclusions, founded on superficial characters, by reference to the 
structural modifications of these organs, which exhibit great constancy 
in the various groups. 

The various forms of labrum are (1) described, and four types are 
distinguished. He notes (2) the varied structure of the mandible, 
distinguishing maxilla, galea, sub-maxilla and inter-maxilla, and dis- 
cusses especially the modifications of the last, with its tactile hairs, 
spinules, &c. Four principal types of mandibles are described and 
figured. (3) The genus Pyrota is selected as particularly well adapted 
for the illustration of the mawillary structures. The inter-maxilla and 
pre-maxilla, the sub-galea and galea, the sub-maxilla, maxilla, palpiger, 
and palp are described in order, and the various modifications due to 
coalescence, &c., are noted. As before, four chief types are distin- 
guished. (4) M. Beauregard derives the tongue (“languette”) of the 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 772-4. Z 
+ Journ. de Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), xxii. (1886) pp. 85-108 (1 pl.). 
t See this Journal, ante, p. 235. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO, 427 


labium from the fusion of galea and inter-maxilla, and notes the frequent 
presence in the palp of a fourth basilar joint, which is the evident 
equivalent of the palpiger in the first maxilla. 


Labrum of Hymenoptera.*—M. J. Chatin reports that, when 
simplest, as in Larra, the labrum has the form of a small horny plate, 
constricted in its middle, and bordered with closely-packed long hairs. 
After pointing out the various modifications which this part undergoes, 
the author remarks that the labrum always gives evidence of the 
presence of a median groove, and this, with the occasional possession 
of paired and symmetrical appendages, confirms the view that it is 
originally double, and that it has a close relationship to the other 
buccal parts. In the more complicated forms there is a basal piece 
due to the coalescence of the two sub-maxille which have fused along 
the middle line, while the central piece represents the two maxilla. 
When present, the two lateral appendages are to be regarded as filamentar 
palps, which are not directly attached to the maxillary, but have an 
ovoid button at their base which may be regarded as a palpiger. The 
central tubercle, when analysed, is seen to be formed of several pieces 
which correspond to the galez and the intermaxillaries. The funda- 
mental constitution of the labrum of two lateral pieces first enunciated 
by M. H. Blanchard, is confirmed by the study of the Hymenoptera. 


Structure and Movements of Sting of Bee.j—M. G. Carlet 
reports that fine sections of the sting of the bee reveal the presence 
of a central longitudinal canal, the possession of which increases the 
solidity without adding to the weight of the organ; similarly there is 
an increase in size which allows of the teeth of the stylet being 
sufficiently divaricated (these teeth are useful as assuring the inocula- 
tion of the poison by retaining the sting in the wound); along the 
whole length of the stylet there extends an external groove, the 
section of which is narrower at its commencement than in the middle; 
the apparatus is so disposed that the stylet glides along easily without 
leaving its proper course, and the cleft which separates the two stylets 
ig very narrow. 

Morphology of Mouth-organs of Lepidoptera.t—Herr A. Walter 
points out that the enormous number of species of Lepidoptera has 
been a great obstacle in the way of correctly understanding the 
morphology of their mouth-organs. If we consider the general type 
of insect mouth-organs we find it to consist of an unpaired labrum, 
lateral mandibles with horny teeth, and two pairs of maxille. The 
first of these pairs consists of two joints, cardo and stipes, with a many- 
jointed palpus maxillaris, and, sometimes, an additional squama 
palpigera ; internally are the inner and outer mala. The second pair 
of maxille have their basal parts fused to form a labium, the cardines 
forming the submentum, and the stipites the mentum; from the latter 
arise the palpi labiales; the inner male form the ligula, the outer 
the “ palps.” The remaining parts are unpaired, and are the epi- 
pharynx formed by the upper, and the hypopharynx formed by the 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 632-4. t Ibid., ci. (1885) pp. 89-90. 
{ Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f, Naturwiss., xix. (1885) Suppl. i., pp. 19-27. 


27 2 


428 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


lower pharyngeal wall; the former always fuses more or less with 
the labrum, and the latter becomes connected with the labium, and 
serves as an excretory apparatus for the secretion of the salivary 
glands which open at its base. The author next refers to Savigny’s 
well-known account of the morphology of the parts in the Lepidoptera, 
and reminds us of the objections to it raised by Meinert and Ticho- 
mirow. Dr. Walter finds that Micropteryx has mandibles which are 
able to bite, and which have the form of well-developed horny pieces, 
with strong horny teeth on the cutting edge; somewhat similar 
mandibles reduced in form are to be found in some other genera of 
Microlepidoptera. The remaining mouth-parts of Micropteryx present 
us with very primitive characters ; the cardo and stipes of the first 
pair of maxille are completely separated, as are also the palps; the 
outer one presents us with the most primitive condition of the lepi- 
dopterous proboscis ; the inner one consists of a horny piece which 
supports the inner parts of the labium. The rudiments of the proboscis 
do not therefore lie against one another, but are widely separated at the 
sides of the mouth-opening, and only converge towards their tips. 
The three-jointed labial palps arising from the mentum have behind 
them two chitinous plates beset with strong sete, the free male 
externe, and between them there is a short, broad tubule. After 
comparing with these the mouth-organs of allied forms, the author 
passes to the question of the origin of the gnathites of the Lepidoptera. 

Speyer has already endeavoured to ally them to the Phryganide, 
but the space which he recognizes as separating them is not bridged 
over by Micropteryx; Walter, therefore, turns to the Diptera, re- 
membetring the sword-shaped mandibles of Tinea, the elongated 
labium of the higher Micropterygine, and the presence of true lepi- 
dopterous scale in the flies with a long proboscis; the greatest 
resemblance is to be seen in the lowest Hymenoptera; it is among 
the Hymenoptera alone that we find imagines with a strongly incised 
labrum, and in them and butterflies an epipharynx, the base of which 
is fused with the labium, while the end is free. 

To sum up, the Diptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Phry- 
ganide present a collection of agreeing characters, which are repeated 
in no other order; the agreement between the first three is most 
marked, while the last give a direct passage to the lower mandibulate 
insects. The first three—the representatives of the old group of Insecta 
sugentia, may be regarded as naturally allied to, and as arising from 
the Neuroptera through the Phryganide. Both the Lepidoptera and 
Hymenoptera, while widely diverging in their highest forms, present 
in their lowest a series of characters, which indicate a close connec- 
tion with such Diptera as have not been specially modified by para- 
sitic, blood-sucking, or other special habits. Further details are 
promised. 

__ Vitality of Silkworm Ova.*—In answer to a criticism by Prof. 
Verson,} Prof. L. Luciani reasserts his conclusion { that the hiber- 
* Bull. Soc. Entom. Ital., xvii. (1885) pp. 185-91. 


+ Bull. Mens. d. Bachicoltura, 1885, No. 2. 
t Bull. Soc, Entom. Ital., xvii. (1885) pp. 71-88. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 429 


nating silkworm ova may retain their vitality, that is, their power of 
further development, though kept for long (152 days) in conditions 
where respiration is impossible (in CO,). The various objections of 
Prof. Verson are answered in detail, and the conclusiveness of the 
experiments is emphatically defended. 


Colour-relation between larva of Smerinthus ocellatus and its 
Food-plants.*—Mr. E. B. Poulton gives an account of his investiga- 
tions on this subject. 

Numerous experiments were undertaken by him with larve cap- 
tured and with larve hatched from five batches of eggs: these were 
placed, some on one food-plant, others on various other food-plants, and 
the colour of the larve was found to vary according to the colour of 
the leaves upon which the larve rested. The author concludes from 
these experiments that the colour of the larve of Simerinthus ocellatus is 
determined (1) by hereditary influence; (2) by the colour of the leaf 
upon which it lives, and not by the substance of the leaf when eaten ; 
(3) by individual variation with similarity of parentage, &c., and 
conditions. In this way the author found that the larva maintains a 
colour-relation with the food-plant upon which it is hatched, adjustable 
within the limits of a single life. He points out that this differs from 
the usual resources in the scheme of larval protection, by resemblance to 
environment; for whereas, in most cases, natural selection has finally 
produced such a resemblance, which is common to all the food-plants 
of the larva; in this case the same process has given to the larva a 
power which enables it to answer, with corresponding colours, the 
difference which obtains between its food-plants. In the case of 
Amphibia, fish, &c., the change is due to the environment acting as a 
stimulus on the nervous system; whilst in the case under considera- 
tion the change is due to the absorption and product of pigments, 
rather than modification of them, when already formed. 


Embryology of Muscide.}—Prof. A. Kowalevsky communicates 
the results of his investigations, begun many years ago (1873), of the 
development of Muscide. 

(a) The segmentation begins about an hour after the egg is laid; 
the first two nuclei lie near the pointed anterior pole; the segmenta- 
tion masses at first lie in the centre, but as they increase in number 
move outwards to the periphery. Posteriorly, the pole-cells penetrate 
outwards into the space between the ovum and the vitelline membrane. 
The others, which exhibit a club-like form, with the pointed end 
inwards, pass out, dividing as they go, to form the blastoderm-cells, 
incorporating in so doing part of the peripheral plasma. Some nuclei 
remain in the interior, forming the yolk-cells. (b) The groove appears 
at first ventrally, from the head-end backwards, extending thence over 
a third of the dorsal surface. The closure also occurs from before 
backwards. (c) The embryonic membranes are characteristic only in 
this (as Graber has noted) that they cover only a small portion of the 
embryonic tract, viz. the dorsal portion, and that they subsequently 


* Proc, Roy. Soe., xl. (1886). See Nature, xxxiii. (1886) pp. 474-6. 
+ Biol. Centralbl., vi. (1886) pp, 49-54. 


430 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


directly form the dorsal skin of the larva. Apart from these envelopes, 
the embryo exhibits in the fifth or sixth hour of its development two 
layers—the ectoderm and the meso-endoderm of the “ ventral plate.” 
With the endoderm the internal yolk-cells have nothing to do. 

(d) The splitting of the endo-mesoderm occurs in the following way :— 
An anterior ectodermice invagination, forming the fore-gut, presses 
upon the anterior portion of the internal layer, pushing it into the 
yolk in the form of a watchglass-like protrusion. This becomes sepa- 
rated from the primitive endo-mesoderm, and forms the anterior half 
of the endoderm. An exactly similar process occurs posteriorly. The 
arched portions of the two elevations are turned to the respective ends 
of the embryo, the margins towards one another. These gradually 
grow to meet, surrounding the yolk completely. Two outgrowths 
from the margins of the watchglass-shaped rudiments grow faster and 
meet seoner than the rest of the endoderm. The yolk-cells still 
persist, probably loosening the yolk. It must be further noted, in 
this connection, that the invaginations do not occur directly at, but 
at a short distance from the poles, so that the inpushed portions of 
the primitive lower layer does not inclose the exactly anterior and 
the exactly posterior portions of the yolk, but sinking in, separate 
these last-named portions from the central mass. The extreme 
anterior and posterior portion of the yolk is thus not inclosed by the 
endoderm, but comes to lie between the gut and the body-wall, and is 
finally incorporated in the mesoderm. (e) The mesoderm is formed 
from the remaining portion of the primitive lower layer. It is divided 
(a) into two strands of cells, which lie along the growing processes of 
the endoderm, and form the musculature of the alimentary canal, and 
(6) of the much larger remaining portion, forming the usual structures. 

(f) General comparison. Here, as in other cases, a kind of long 
drawn-out gastrula is formed, in which the invaginated portion forms 
endo- and mesoderm. As in such a case as Sagitta, a median inyagi- 
nation—present, however, only at each end—forms the endoderm, 
while the lateral portions furnish the mesoderm. It might even be 
suggested that in a gastrula so much drawn out as that of insects, the 
median (endoderm) sac is not unnaturally absent in the middle, and is 
present only at either end. Prof. Kowalevsky pursues the comparison 
further, both with Sagitia and with the higher Crustacea, showing 
how the formation of the endoderm may be indeed referred to the 
same process, viz. to a simple gastrulation. 


Optic Ganglion of some Dipterous Larve.*—M. H. Viallanes, in 
his third memoir on the sensory organs of Articulates, discusses the 
optic ganglion of some dipterous larve. He finds that the very com- 
plicated visual apparatus of the adult insect is completely present 
and functionally active in the larva; it is not, however, quite so 
completely developed, and it is entirely hidden below the muscles 
ana integuments. It consists of three chief parts—the imaginal dise 
of the compound eye, the nerve-trunk, and the optic ganglion. 

The disc is formed like other discs; it has an investment which 


* Ann. Sci. Nat.—Zool., xix. (1885) Art. No. 3, 32 pp. (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 431 


will disappear when metamorphosis takes place, an ectoderm, and an 
endoderm. The ectoderm is divisible into an optogenic and a non- 
optogenic region ; the former contains large fusiform cells which are 
regularly arranged, and are destined to form the elementary eye— 
these are the optogenic cells; with each of them a nerve-cord is con- 
nected; the post-retinal fibres pierce the basal or internal limiting 
membrane of the optogenic region, and passing backwards form a 
thick layer; morphologically they are comparable to the mesoderm of 
the ordinary discs; they then become arranged in a cylindrical bundle 
(nerve-trunk) which passes to the optic ganglion. The optic ganglion 
lies between the nerve-branch and the optic nerve, and is formed of 
the same essential parts as in the imago, but these instead of being 
separated from one another, are so closely packed as to give the ganglion 
the appearance of a globular mass; the medullary masses and chias- 
mata are placed in the centre, while the ganglion masses are peripheral 
in position. The optic nerve arises from the two constituent capsules 
of the internal mass, is very short, and is entirely hidden ; it is formed 
of two perfectly distinct bundles, one, superior, which passes to the 
anterior region of the brain ; and one, inferior, which goes to the lateral 
parts. The optic ganglion is invested in a double neurilemma, which 
is continued on from the cerebral investment ; between it and the ner- 
vous tissues there are to be found parts epithelial in character, which 
probably play an important part at the moment of metamorphosis ; 
the perilaminar portion is in the form of an epithelial band which 
occupies a deep groove on the surface of the ganglion, while the intra- 
ganglionic portion is placed in the posterior part of the ganglion, and 
is superficial for a small portion only of its extent. 


Anatomy of Psyllide.*—Dr. E. Witlaczil describes the external 
form of these insects, which calls to mind that of the Cicadellide. 
The head is well developed, the thorax, which contains the muscula- 
ture for flying and springing, is strong, but the abdomen is compara- 
tively weak and somewhat elongated ; in the last there is the typical 
number of ten abdominal segments, one of which, as in many other 
insects, appears to strengthen the thorax; in the penultimate (male), 
or ante-penultimate (female), there are appendages which correspond 
in number and form to those of many other insects. There are greater 
differences in the form of the larve than of the imagines, and this is 
probably due to their parasitic mode of life; as a rule, the body is 
compressed dorsoventrally, broad, pretty thick, and well rounded off. 
There appear to be generally four larval stages which are separated 
from one another by ecdyses. 

The skin, the fat-body, and the musculature agree generally with 
those of the Aphides; wax-glands of altogether similar function to 
those of the gall-dwelling Aphides are to be found around the anus of 
the larve, and of the adult imago, and as in them, they owe their 
origin to cells of the hypodermis. In a large number of larve 
peculiar hair-like structures of various forms, which the author calls 
wax-hairs, are to be found on projections of the integument; these 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlii. (1885) pp. 568-638 (3 pls.). 


432 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


are not secreted by processes but by gland-cells. Rather thick hairs, 
found on the peripheral portion of the dermal region, on the rudiments 
of the wings, and most numerously at the hinder end of the body, are 
seen in Psyllopsis to be of two kinds; some have a wide lumen and 
thin walls, the other a much narrower lumen and very thick walls; 
they differ in form in various genera. ‘The tracheal system is difficult 
to make out in the imagines, but much easier in the larve; in the 
latter there are nine pairs of stigmata; these lead into short trunks 
which are not much thicker than the branches, into which they soon 
break up; their distribution is described in detail. As in the Aphides, 
the tubes consist of a layer of fused cells, which secrete the spirally 
thickened chitinous cuticle. The apparatus for closing the stigmata 
is described, and the account does not correspond with that given by 
Landois; the author thinks that we have to do with an arrangement 
which is involuntary. 

The external structure of the nervous system of the Psyllidz 
resembles that of the Aphides, and consists of the same parts as in 
other insects ; internally are the fibrous masses which follow a very 
complicated course, but finally terminate at one end in a sensory organ 
or a peripheral nerve, and at the other in the cortical layer, in the 
cells of which they end. The author was unable to find the masses of 
cells in the interior of the brain, which have been described by Berger. 
He agrees with Michels in denying the existence of a dotted substance, 
the appearance of which is ascribed to the fibres which are cut through 
in sections. The digestive apparatus is somewhat more complicated 
than in the closely allied Aphides, forming loops as in the Coccidee 
and some Cicadide; the suctorial apparatus, however, is exactly on 
the type of that of the Aphides. The dorsal vessel, and the pseudo- 
vitellus (secondary yolk of Metschnikoff) are as in Aphides; but the 
latter is of a brown colour. After describing the generative apparatus, 
to which in many points the same remark applies, the author concludes 
by discussing the genetic relationships of the Psyllide. 

By their internal characters, as well as by the fact that the male 
and female differ little externally, the Psyllide stand nearest to the 
Cicadellide; the Aphides may perhaps be similarly referred; but 
certain forms have become markedly adapted to their parasitic mode 
of life, and especially the apterous generations which live in galls. 
The most primitive types must be those winged parthenogenetic 
females which most resemble the males, which most closely resemble 
one another in the different species, and which approach the 
males in the form of the body, wings, accessory eyes, antenne, &c. 
The Chermetide present similar relations to the gall-dwelling 
Aphides ; here we have winged parthenogenetic females which are 
like those of the Aphides, but no winged males; the last are either 
apparently wanting, as in Chermes abietis, or, as in Phylloxera quercus, 
and P. vasiatrix, as also in many Pemphigine, they are, like their 
proper females, quite small and apterous. In some anatomical points 
the Chermetide appear to form a passage from the Aphides to the 
Coccide ; the latter differ so much from the rest of the Phytophthires 
that we must perhaps suppose that they had a special origin from the 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 433 


Aphides. In the complete adaptation of the females to the parasitic 
mode of life we may find a parallel in certain Crustacea. 


Morphology and Anatomy of the Coccide.*— In a subsequent 
essay, Dr. E. Witlaczil treats of the morphology and anatomy of the 
Coccide. He commences with an account of their metamorphosis ; the 
larva, when it escapes from the egg, is‘ more delicate than in later 
stages, and males are scarcely to be distinguished from females; in 
later larval stages the female is, as a rule, broader and plumper ; as 
in allied groups, the female undergoes only an incomplete meta- 
morphosis, while that of the male is almost complete. Metamorphosis 
does not take place, as Bouché stated, in a special web, but in the 
ordinary shield; the traversed statement appears to owe its origin to 
a misunderstanding of the investment, which is formed by wax- 
hairs, having been taken for a web formed by a spinning gland. During 
development the digestive apparatus undergoes retrograde metamor- 
phosis, and the intestine degenerates ; in consequence of this the 
larve are, in their two later stages, quiescent. The rudimentary 
antenne and legs are cast off, and quite new organs are gradually 
formed by the hypodermis ; in place of the one pair of small, two pairs 
of larger but simpler eyes are developed, and with their appearance 
the brain becomes larger. 

The unicellular dermal gland produces secretions of far more 
various kinds than in the Aphides, or even in the Psyllide; they 
most often cover the animal and its eggs, and so act as defensive organs, 
Wax is not secreted at first ; when it begins to appear it does so at 
the anterior and hinder edge, but soon spreads over the whole 
periphery of the body; the filaments are generally quite thin, are 
wavy, looped, or zigzag in arrangement. These filaments make a 
common mesh, and so give rise to the shield, which is generally much 
larger than the body. 

The tracheal system, which is carefully described, agrees generally 
with that of the Aphides, Psyllidz, &c.; the inconsiderable lumen of 
the stigma is still further narrowed by chitinous processes; the 
tracheal system of the Chermetide is noticed, and is stated to be very 
like that of the Aphides, while it approaches that of the Coccide in 
the diminution of the number of stigmata. 

The generative organs of both Coccide and Chermetide are 
described ; in the latter the parthenogenetic females of Chermes abietis 
give rise to two colour varieties, one of which is bright yellow, the 
other almost black; their eggs are developed in the same way as in 
the Aphides, but take a rather longer time (about a month). The 
sucking-apparatus of the Coccide and of the Chermetide closely 
resemble that of the Aphides ; the digestive organs of the former have 
been well described by Mark ; the two groups approach one another 
by the possession of multilobate salivary glands and both differ from 
the Aphides in having a sack at the base of the labium, which is 
formed by the hypodermis, and has thin but somewhat strongly 
chitinized walls. 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss, Zool., xliii. (1885) pp. 149-74 (1 pl.). 


434 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


B. Myriopoda. 


Morphology of Chilopoda.*—Dr. HE. Haase, after a short review 
of the work of his predecessors, reminds the reader that in 1880 he 
proposed to distinguish the Scutigeride and Lithobiide from all other 
Chilopods as C. anamorpha, in which there is post-embryonal 
development, whereas the rest, which leave the egg with all the 
segments and appendages of the adult, are C. epimorpha. He has 
carried this further by deriving the Scutigeride from a hypothetical 
Protolithobius-form, and, to use Meinert’s term, by regarding them as 
peripheral forms. The study of Indo-Australian Chilopods in the 
Berlin Museum has led to the discovery of a new genus—Cennatobius 
(C. martensii sp. n.), which will forma new family of the C. anamorpha, 
and stand between Henicops and Scutigera. He points out the essential 
characters of the new genus, and urges that it represents the hypo- 
thetical Protoscutigerid which was necessary for the phylogenetic tree 
which he has propounded. 


Respiratory Apparatus of Chilopoda.;—M. J. Chalande gives a 
short summary of the facts that are known concerning the respiratory 
system in the Myriopoda, and describes this system in the Chilopoda 
of France. 

Whilst most of the forms possess trachez, opening to the exterior 

by means of stigmata placed on each side of the body, between tergite 

and sternite, some, on the other hand, have a series of dorsally placed 
masses of tubules, which he calls “lungs,” opening by stigmata 
between the tergites in the middle line; the former he calls Tracheate 
Chilopods, the latter Pulmonate Chilopods, and includes only one 
genus described in this memoir—Scutigera longipes, which is regarded 
as uniting the Myriopoda with Arachnida. Of the tracheate forms 
he describes Geophilus electricus, Himantarium gabrielis, Scolopendra 
hispanica, Cryptops hortensis, and Lithobius forficatus. 'There may be 
a pair of stigmata in each segment, except in the cephalic and two anal 
segments, the tracheew springing from which form two distinct net- 
works, dorsal and ventral, as in Himantarium and Geophilus; and in 
these there is a “substigmatic pouch,” without a spiral marking, into 
which each stigma opens. In the other three genera the stigmata 
occur on segments 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, and so on, up to six pairs in 
Lithobius, or nine pairs in the other two genera; in Scolopendra the 
traches anastomose and form a single network amongst the viscera ; 
whilst in the other two the trachez are independent: Cryptops has a 
substigmatic pouch. 


Morphology of Scolopendrelle.t—A brief notice has been pub- 
lished of a memoir by Prof. B. Grassi on the morphology of Scolopen- 
drelle and their phylogenetic relations to insects and Myriopods. 
The specific characters of four species, one of them newly discovered 
by Grassi, are given, the geographical distribution is discussed, and 


* Zool. Anzeig., vill. (1885) pp. 693-6. _~ 
+ Bull. Soc. Nat. Hist. Toulouse, xix. (1885) pp. 39-65 (2 pls.). 
} Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xxi. (1885) pp. 48-50. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 435 


the anatomy of the various systems is described in detail. This 
interesting form, which Grassi regards as a primitive type, is com- 
pared with various Myriopods, with Peripatus, and with insects, but 
a report of his conclusions must be deferred till the publication of the 
original memoir. 


y. Prototracheata, 


Peripatus.*—Dr. E. Gaffron follows up his previous research on 
the anatomy and histology of Peripatus by a description of the 
reproductive organs. The species studied was P. Edwardsit. 

A. The female reproductive organs consist essentially of two 
cylindrical tubes, whose czecal ends form the ovaries, and the remain- 
ing portions—the oviducts, seminal receptacles, uteri, and vagina. The 
two ducts are in communication close to the ovary, and at the vulva. 
The ovary is attached, in the dorsal median line, to the pericardial 
septum by a ligament, which consists of two flat muscular bands, 
enveloped by peritoneum, and is to be regarded as a drawn-out portion 
of the septum. The lumen of the ovarian tubes is lined by germinal 
epithelium, seated on a homogeneous tunica propria. The ova are 
surrounded by a distinct, but thin follicle, with few nuclei. Outside 
the tunica propria is a layer of longitudinal muscular fibres, and out- 
side this a peritoneal sheath, from which the tracheew penetrate 
inwards between the muscles. The oviducts, at first in communication 
in a transverse cavity at the end of ovary, at once assume a longi- 
tudinal course, and exhibit, at a short distance from their origin, a 
horseshoe-shaped diverticulum. The development of this structure— 
the receptaculum seminis—is described. It forms in the adult a com- 
pressed spherical vesicle, with two ciliated ducts; it is enveloped in a 
loose, chitinous, peritoneal sheath, inside which a muscular layer, 
a tunica propria, and a varied internal epithelium are observed. 
Spermatozoa were observed in the oviduct near the entrance of the 
two ciliated canals. The ovary is pushed forwards by the ducts, and 
exhibits notable changes of position. The ligament exhibits a cor- 
responding increase in length, measuring in the adult as much as 
lem. It is interesting to note how in insects, the ovarian tubes are 
similarly connected with the pericardial septum or with the heart by 
means of the terminal filament, which is thus homologous with the 
ligament in Peripatus. Dr. Gaffron points out the increased interest 
of this, in the light of Schneider’s observation, that in insect larve 
the genital rudiment originates from a fibre of the so-called “alary 
musculature” of the heart. 

B. The male reproductive organs.—While agreeing in general with 
Moseley’s description of the male reproductive organs in P. capensis, 
Dr. Gaffron maintains that the proximal, tubular portion is not a 
“prostate” gland, but really part of the testis, and indeed the 
essential sperm-producing part. In the young Peripatus, the tubular 
portion in no way appears as a subordinate appendage of the vesicle, 
but the latter seems merely constricted off from the former. 


* Zool. Beitr. (Schneider), i. (1885) pp. 145-63 (3 pls.). 


436 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Histology.—(a) The tubular portion of the testes is lined by a 
homogeneous, nucleated membrane, without distinguishable cell- 
boundaries, while the vesicular portion is lined by a characteristic 
pavement epithelium. The muscular layer is also much more distinct 
in the latter portion. (6) In the spermatogenesis the following 
stages are distinguishable: (1) large “ spermatospores” or “Samenur- 
mutterzellen”; (2) separate “spermatoblasts” or “Samenmutter- 
zellen,” resulting from the repeated division of the former; (3) im- 
mature sperms, with nucleus elongating to form the middle portion, 
and with protoplasm forming the long tail. A small protoplasmic 
remnant, of unknown import, persists for long near the anterior end. 
(c) The vasa efferentia arise, with a very narrow neck, from the 
vesicular testis, are closely coiled, and enveloped in a muscular 
peritoneal sheath. (d) The unpaired portion of the male ducts, the 
vas deferens, has the striking length of 7 cm., and exhibits three 
distinct portions—(1) a thin walled portion containing a mass of 
loose sperms; (2) a middle region in which the spermatophor is found ; 
(3) a terminal, markedly muscular ductus ejaculatorius. All three 
portions exhibit a peritoneal sheath with trachez, a muscular layer, a 
tunica propria, and internal epithelium. The middle region, which 
is lined with well-developed cylindrical epithelium, and with distinct 
cilia, contains the long, cylindrical spermatophor. This consists of a 
central rod of agglutinated spermatozoa, surrounded by several pro- 
tective sheaths, some of which, at least, owe their origin to the 
epithelium of the vas deferens. Near the proximal end, the originally 
simple sheath of the spermatophor tube splits into two, while the 
epithelial cells of the vas deferens becomes more markedly cylindrical, 
and exhibit cilia and granular contents. About 1 cm. from the end 
the spermatophor canal widens out, compressing the enveloping 
sheaths. Between the first and second of three to five similar swell- 
_ ings, some of the epithelial cells of the vas deferens are peculiarly modi- 
fied ; the nuclei increase, spherical secreted bodies (““ Secretkugeln ”) 
are formed, the cells become distinctly glandular, and the ciliated 
cells are much compressed. The secreted balls enter the vas deferens 
and form a layer round the spermatophor. None are formed after the 
second expansion. The spermatophor seems to be shifted periodically 
forwards for a distance equal to that between two enlargements, and 
thus successive portions are enveloped by the products of the glandular 
cells. 

C. Crural Glands.—While Moseley found crural glands on all 
legs of P. capensis, both in male and female, these structures were 
altogether absent in the female P. Hdwardsii, and were present only 
in some segments of the male. Dr. Gaffron describes the appearance 
and distribution of these glands, which he regards as ectodermal 
invaginations. 

D. Anal Glands.—The male is further characterized by the 
possession of a pair of glandular tubes in the anal region. They 
open ventrally on each side of the anus, and are doubtless identical 
with those noted by Moseley as “ accessory generative glands.” Hach 
gland exhibits a distinct ectodermal and endodermal portion, separated 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 437 


by a constriction, presumably regulating the flow of the secretion. 
The structure of the gland is described in detail. 

E. Bean-shaped Organ.—On all the legs of both male and female, 
Dr. Gaffron has found a small, hitherto overlooked, bean-shaped 
organ. It is situated on the upper side of the legs near the apex, 
just before the stalk of the claw, sunk in a smooth fold of the 
epidermis. Muscle-fibres and nerves are fixed, like an umbilical 
cord, to the concave side. The organ is surrounded by a cuticle of 
modified epidermis cells, has no external opening, and though the 
cells have a glandular appearance, is more probably of a sensory 
nature. 


6. Arachnida. 


Coxal Glands of Arachnida.*—Prof. P. Bertkau reports that in 
a specimen of Atypus he has been able to find a distinct efferent 
duct for the coxal gland ; it is surrounded by the same fibrous plexus 
as the gland itself; in six other specimens the duct was not to be 
found, though the orifice was seen. This rare phenomenon may either 
be explained by supposing that there was an abnormal retention of 
an organ which is in other cases absorbed, or it may be suggested 
that in adult examples the efferent duct is regenerated from time to 
time; in which case the coxal gland would not be a rudimentary 
organ, but one that is intermittently functional ; the constant presence 
of the orifice is an argument in favour of the latter hypothesis. It is 
important to note that the orifice appears on two segments, for this 
indicates a repetition of the glandular organ, and is pro tanto a 
support to the view of Ray Lankester that the coxal glands of Arach- 
nids and of Limulus are the homologues of the segmental organs of 
Peripatus. The author suggests that the gland at the sides of the 
prothorax of Anisomorphus buprestoides, and those found by Scudder in 
the Phasmide, are possibly representatives of the same gland. In 
Mantis religiosa there is a coiled gland at the hinder side of the fore-leg. 


Classification of Spiders.t—Prof. T. Thorell discusses the classi- 
fication of the Aranez proposed by Dr. Bertkau. While recognizing 
the value of his services to this perplexing subject, Thorell looks on 
the chief group Tetrasticta and Tristicta, and some of the subsidiary 
divisions as artificial rather than natural units, and he thinks that too 
much importance has been attributed to some of the internal parts of 
spiders, and especially to their trachee. Thorell regards the order 
Arane as divisible into the two sub-orders of Tetrapneumones and 
Dipneumones ; the former contains the tribe Territelariz ; the latter 
the Tubitelariz, divisible into Cribellate: and Ecribellate ; the Reti- 
telariz ; the Orbitelariz, divisible again into Cribellatee and Eeri- 
bellate ; the Laterigrade ; Citigrade ; and Saltigrade. 


Mites.j;—Dr. G. Haller has notes on Cytoleichus sarcoptoides in 
which he has particularly been able to study the gnathites; on 


* SB. Niederrhein. Gesellsch., 1885, pp. 13-6. 
+ Aun, and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1886) pp. 301-26. 
{ Zool. Anzeig., ix. (1886) pp. 52-5, 


458 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Tetranychus molestissimus of the Argentine Republic, a species allied 
to, if not similar with which appears to be the cause of the Port- 
natal-sicht, and possibly of the erythema autumnale which obtains in 
South France; on Halarachne halicheri which has, notwithstanding 
Kramer’s failure to detect it, an eight-footed nymph-stage ; and on 
Halacarus gossei, a new species which is parasitic on worms and 
Synascidians ; it is a true Hydrachnid, though it has ordinarily been 
regarded as an Oribatid ; it resembles the Hydrachnide in the form of 
its gnathites; what earlier authors, e.g. Grube, took for the stigma 
is really the eye. Dr. Haller remarks that he has recently had an 
opportunity of examining Pontarachna punctum, and that it is very 
closely allied to Hygrobates longipalpis. 


Acari of the Genus Glyciphagus.*—Mr. A. D. Michael, during 
some investigations on mole’s nests, discovered two new species of 
Glyciphagus among the dried grass, &c., forming the nest ; they were 
not found on the animal itself, nor in disused nests. The genus was 
founded for certain Acari which feed on fruits, and the author refers 
to the work by Famouse and Robin,} wherein the genus is defined ; and 
he draws attention to the various points of difference exhibited by the 
males and females of the two new species, G. platygaster and G. dispar. 
In the former the difference between the two sexes is not more 
marked than is usual in the genus; but in G. dispar the difference is 
almost specific in degree, and had it not been that the author was 
able to find them in the act of copulation, he would have considered 
the two sexes as specifically distinct; the male is deprived of the 
long hairs and spines characteristic of the genus, and is proportion- 
ately much broader than the female. The author obtained proof, 
from the same observations, that the supra-anal papilla in the female, 
is, as he had surmised, the bursa copulatrix. The characters of the 
male, female, and nymph of the two species are then given in 
detail. 


e. Crustacea. 


Abyssal Decapod Crustacea of the North Atlantic.{—Mr. $. I. 
Smith reports on the deep-sea Decapoda collected by the ‘ Albatross.’ 

Altogether 130 species were taken, but only 44 were found at 
depths below 1000 fathoms. The first question which arises is, which 
of them actually inhabited the bottom; fifteen of them—that is the 
two Brachyura, the seven Anomura, the Eryontids, Crangonids, and 
Glyphocrangonide among the Macrura are unquestionably inhabitants 
of the bottom; it is doubtful whether those that are here grouped 
together as Miersiide are deep-dwellers, they are among the most 
common characteristic forms taken in trawling at great depths, while 
the structure, e. g. the highly developed black eyes, the comparatively 
small eggs, and the firm integument of Acanthephyra agassizii and 
A, eximia, are some evidence that they do not normally inhabit the 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xix. (1886) pp. 262-82. 

+ Journ. Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), iv. (1867) p. 568 (2 pls.). 

+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1886) pp. 187-99; abstracted from 
‘Report on the Decapod Crustacea of the Albatross,’ and published in advance. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 439 


bottom. Pasiphaé and Parapasiphaé seem to be abyssal species, but 
to be free-swimming ; the eight species of Penzidze which are in the 
list are undoubtedly free-swimming forms not confined to the im- 
mediate region of the bottom, but their relatively small eyes and 
well-developed ocular papille indicate that they are deep-water, if not 
abyssal species. 

The author provisionally groups the species into four classes: 
1. Species inhabiting the bottom or its immediate neighbourhood. 
2. Species probably not confined to the immediate neighbourhood of 
the bottom, but showing structural evidence of inhabiting abyssal 
depths. 8. Doubtful, but probably inhabiting abyssal depths. 
4, Species probably not inhabiting abyssal depths. 

Many of the species are remarkable for their large size, and there 
are none that are very small; many are large members of, or even 
giants in the families to which they belong. The colour of the 
abyssal Decapoda is very characteristic; a few species are nearly 
colourless, but most are of some shade of red or orange; bright 
markings were not seen in any species from below 1000 fathoms. 
The structure of the eyes is of the highest interest, and worthy of 
the most minute and careful investigation, but Mr. Smith has not 
yet been able to make it. He gives, however, the results of a “super- 
ficial examination of the external characters of the eyes.” The 
simplest and most direct form of the tendency to modification is seen 
in the gradual reduction in the number of the visual elements. Some- 
times the eyes are highly modified (as in Pentacheles), and here all the 
species have probably been long inhabitants of deep water ; when the 
eyes are less modified, or obsolescent, the species are much more 
closely allied to shallow-water forms. Many Decapods have the 
eggs large in size and small in number, but this is not true of all; 
when the eggs are large development is, as in Bythocaris leucopis, 
abbreviated. 


Revision of the Astacide,*—Mr. W. Faxon, working on this 
group as represented in the Museum at Harvard, adopts the division 
of the family Astacidez with the sub-families Rotamobiine and Paras- 
tacine. The first sub-family comprises forms occurring in Europe, 
Asia, and North America; and include the two genera Astacus and 
Cumbarus. Of the genus Astacus, fourteen species are described ; 
these are widely distributed over Western North America, over the 
western portion of the Europeo-Asiatic continent, and over Eastern 
Asia. The genus is not known in Siberian rivers flowing into the 
Arctic Ocean, nor between Lake Baikal and the Ural Mountains. Of 
the genus Cambarus, fifty-two species are described, all of which are 
confined to America, with the exception of one blind species occurring 
in the caves of Carniola. The description of the Parastacine will 
appear in a second part. 


‘Challenger’ Schizopoda.t—Professor G. O. Sars reports that 
the collection of Schizopoda made by H.MLS. ‘Challenger’ was both 


* Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Cambridge, x. (1885). 
+ Report of the voyage of H.M.S, ‘ Challenger,’ xiii. (1885) 228 pp. (38 pls.). 


440) SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


large and instructive, several remarkable new types having been dis- 
covered, and light thrown on our comprehension of the morphology of 
the group, and its relations to other Crustacea. The author regards 
the group as forming a sub-order of the Decapoda, and as being the 
most primitive of known Podophthalmata; the most highly organized 
members form the family of the Lophogastride, and the Myside are 
the lowest; the Eucopiide are most remarkably distinguished from 
the Lophogastride by the structure of their legs; contrary to the 
opinion of Boas, Sars includes the Euphausiide among the Schizopods. 
Then follow useful definitions of the families, among which are 31 
genera; 57 species are reported on. At the conclusion of the report 
on the Euphausiide the author enters with some detail into the 
history of the development of that family, giving careful descriptions 
of the various stages or forms which have come under observation. 


Crustacea Parasitic on Arctic Tunicata.*—Dr. C. W. 8. Aurivil- 
lius finds that the Ascidians collected during the voyage of the 
‘Vega’ had amphipodan and copepodan parasites. Of the former, 
Andania pectinata and Aristias tumidus were found only at Spitzbergen 
and Greenland; of the nine Copepoda, six are new to science; of 
those already known Idya furcata was as commonly found living freely 
as parasitically ; for four of the new parasites two new families have 
been formed; one, that of the Enteropside, contains two new genera, 
Enteropsis and Haligryps ; they are most nearly allied to the Ergasi- 
lide, and the former has the feet simple, and the body vermiform, 
while the latter has biramose feet deprived of natatory hairs. The 
second family have manducatory mandibles, and are allied to the 
Notodelphyidez ; it has been called that of the Schizoproctide, and 
is distinguished by two sacciform folds, which are perfectly separated 
at the bases, the thorax is very high and compressed, while the ab- 
domen is cylindrical : the only species was found in a Phallusia from 
Spitzbergen. 

Anatomy of the Cytheride.{—Herr A. Kaufmann gives a detailed 
account of the work of previous authors; the means of determining 
species, &c.; and describes minutely the shell and other external 
features in three species of Cythere, more especially C. jonesit Baird. 

The shell of the latter is very thick, and ornamented with various 
knobs and processes; it is of the usual bivalve character, the two 
valves together having a diamond shape; the two valves are opened 
by means of a ligament along the dorsal line, and are closed by 
a muscle passing through the body and inserted in each valve at 
about its centre. The body, attached along the line of the ligament, 
is divided into thorax and abdomen by a transverse chitinous fold on 
the ventral surface. The mouth is provided with prominent upper 
and lower lips. It is pointed out that one of the characteristics of the 
Ostracoda is the correspondence in the number and simplicity of 
the appendages with those of the Metanauplius. 


* Bull. Soc. Zool. France, x. (1883) pp. 281-2. 
+ Recueil Zool. Suisse, iii. (1886) pp. 131-205 (6 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 441 


From the structure and mode of articulation of the first antenne, 
the author considers that they are not functionally locomotor, but 
rather tactile organs ; although in the allied genera Cypris, Cypridina, 
and Halocypris, these appendages are used for swimming. The second 
antenna consists of four joints, and is bent upon itself; this is the 
chief swimming appendage, since the legs are used chiefly, if not 
entirely, for walking on the mud at the bottom of the water; on the 
third joint is a small papilla, probably an olfactory organ. Rising 
from the base of the second joint is the flagellum or “sting,” of some 
authors, which is characteristic of the family ; it is usually said to be in 
connection with a poison-gland, but although in an allied genus Sclero- 
chilus, the author was able to find a gland with a duct opening at the 
distal extremity of the flagellum, he was unable to find either gland 
or duct in any of the eight species of Cythere examined for the pur- 
pose. The use of the flagellum is obscure. As an organ of defence 
it appears useless, since the shell, thick-coated in C. jonesii with 
carbonate of lime raised in knobs, closes upon the slightest touch, and 
is itself a sufficient protection from preying animals. It may have 
something to do with obtaining food; in those Ostrocoda which live 
on the remains of other water-animals, this flagellum is stunted and 
therefore is of no use as a means of catching or killing prey, even 
if the food had to be obtained by such means. The author is at 
present unable to offer a solution on this point. The mandible 
consists of a biting portion, and a tactile portion or palp carry- 
ing on its outer side a small branchial portion. The maxilla is 
chiefly a branchial lamella, with a small portion in relation to the 
mouth. 

The copulatory apparatus of the male is of extraordinary size and 
of great complexity. Essentially it consists of a “basal plate,” or 
rather a triangular and quadrangular plate fused, resting on each side 
of the abdomen. The posterior, upper angle is drawn out into a 
sharp spine. Articulating with the anterior lower part of this basal 
plate, is the organ which serves to clasp the abdomen of the female. 
This “clasping plate” is roughly an elongated triangular plate, the 
posterior lower angle of which is produced so as to form a sharp, 
slightly hooked process, characteristic of C. jonesii. At the articula- 
tion of this clasping plate with the basal plate is a medley of chitinous 
bands and knobs, serving for copulation; at the apex of one of the 
spines is the opening for the vas deferens, and it is this spine which 
is inserted into the vagina of the female. In the female there are 
two pairs of openings in the posterior of the abdomen; of these the 
hinder pair are the apertures of the two oviducts, whilst the other 
two pores are the “ vaginee,” and lead into a canal in communication 
with the seminal vesicle. 

After describing C. jonesii, the author gives a shorter description 
of C. antiquata and C. quadridentata. 

In Sclerochilus contortus a gland and duct are found at the base of 
the second antenna. The copulatory organ is uncoloured, and the 
“clasping plate” is relatively much smaller than the “basal plate.” 


Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. are 


4492 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


In the female the openings of oviduct and vagina on each side are 
quite close together, and surrounded by a common chitinous ring. 

At the end of the memoir a classificatory table is given of the family 
Cytheride for the determination of the genera. 


Vermes. 


Vascular System of Annelids.*—M. M. Jaquet commences by 
giving an account of the vascular system of various Hirudinea:— 
Hirudo medicinalis, Aulostoma, Nephelis, Pontobdella verrucosa, and 
Clepsine ; Lumbricus terrestris is the selected type of Oligochetes; and 
the Polycheta are represented by Arenicola piscatorum, Terebella 
meckelit, Spirographis pallanzanii, Protula intestinwm, Nephthys scolo- 
pendroides, Nereis, Siphonostoma diplochaitos, and Hermione hystrix. 

This comprehensive survey reveals profound modifications in the 
vascular system of animals which, according to the author, some zoolo- 
gists have grouped as Annelids, and is sufficient to justify an expres- 
sion of opinion as to the relationships of these forms with one another. 
As is well known, the position of the Hirudinea has been the subject 
of many controversies; M. Jaquet concludes that they form a very 
distinct sub-class of the Cheetopoda; the lowest grade of the cireula- 
tory system is seen in the Rhynchobdellide ; if perfection were the 
result of quantity Hirudo, which has four large canals well developed, 
would be the highest, but Pontobdella by the possession of verruce on 
its skin, the processes of which play an important part in the act of 
respiration, and Branchellion with its functional if not morphological 
gill-processes, urge their claims to this place. It is not the size but 
the differentiation of a system which marks the systematic position of 
its possessor ; when there are sinuses the division of labour is least 
marked, and Clepsine is therefore the lowest of the Hirudinea. In 
passing his final judgment on the relative positions of Pontobdella 
and Hirudo the author awards the palm to the latter on the ground 
that the former appears to have a small sinus at its anterior end. 

The differences between the Polycheta and the Hirudinea are 
very marked, the former being without the lateral canals which are 
found in leeches, and the leeches have no lateral canals of the 
ganglionic chain such as are found in marine worms. It is easier to 
institute a comparison between Polycheta and Oligocheta; if we 
take Arenicola piscatorum and the earthworm we find that both have a 
dorsal canal attached to the dorsal surface of the digestive tract 
and passing anteriorly into the region of the cerebral ganglion ; 
they both want lateral, but both have neural canals; Arenicola wants 
the “hearts” which are found in the earthworm, but has instead a 
contractile dilatation in the anterior portion of the dorsal vessel. 
In the earthworm the intestino-tegumentary vessel arises from 
the dorsal, gives off a number of branches to the esophagus 
and pharynx, and irrigates the stomach and the glands of Morren. 
In Arenicola the expansion which is regarded as the heart, and which 


* MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vi. (1885) pp. 297-398 (8 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 4438 


is largely formed from the dorsal vessel, gives off a branch which 
extends along the cesophagus to the pharynx, irrigates the organs of 
unknown function which are placed at the base of the gullet, and 
passes into the ventral vessel; the subneural vessel into which it 
passes in Iambricus being wanting in the marine worm. 

The author suggests that the two separate subintestinal vessels 
which are found in Arenicola may represent the primitive condition 
of the single ventral vessel of the earthworm, in which case the 
ventral of the former becomes the homologue of the subneural of 
LIumbricus, and the homology between the “hearts” becomes more 
complete. Other differences are due to the presence of gills in the 
marine forms, the essential points in the disposition of the vessels 
appear to be the same for both. 


Germ-layers of Clepsine.*— Dr. C. O. Whitman, after noticing 
briefly the various contributions to the embryology of the Hirudinea 
which have appeared since his first paper (1878) on the embryology 
of Clepsine, gives an account of some organs on which he has been 
able to make more satisfactory observations. 

He finds now that of the eight rows of “ neuroblasts” only the 
two median give rise to the nerve-chain ; the outer row of either side 
probably give rise to muscular elements, while the two intermediate 
form the nephridia. The ganglionic-chain developes from before 
backwards; the nerve-collar and the supra-cesophageal ganglia are 
certainly formed from cells that lie beneath the epidermis, and not 
from a thickening of the epidermis itself. 

The epithelium of the archenteron arises from free nuclei belong- 
ing to the three large blastomeres, and those which line the cesophagus 
are the first to appear; some of their products give rise to the salivary 
glands. The sense-organ of the lip appears as bulb-like thickenings 
of the epidermis. Larval gland-cells formed from epidermal thick- 
enings (and apparently confused by Nusbaum with the originating 
nervous system) have the function of fixing the young to their mother, 
before either sucker is sufficiently well developed to do this. 


Genital System of Pontobdella.t—M. G. Dutilleul gives a descrip- 
tion of the genital apparatus of Pontobdella muricata. The male pore 
is placed on the ventral mid-line between the second and third rings 
of the clitellum: the female pore between the fourth and fifth rings. 
On each side are six testes connected with a longitudinal vas deferens, 
which anteriorly opens into a seminal vesicle: this is twisted like a 
corkscrew, and has muscular walls. From this vesicle a curved duct, 
with thick muscular walls and glandular epithelium, leads into an 
ovoid “spermatophoral pouch,” which is lined by unicellular glands 
placed radially to the lumen. From this pouch a short duct passes 
medially to meet its fellow of the opposite side, and the common duct 
thus formed opens to the exterior. The female system consists on 
each side of a “tubular ovary with a delicate muscular wall”; the 
lining of which gives rise to ova and to nutritive cells. The ovary 


* Zool. Anzeig., ix. (1886) pp. 171-6. 
+ Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 559-62. 


262 


444 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


becomes narrowed anteriorly to form the oviduct: the two oviducts 
soon unite to form a short canal to the exterior. Opening into this 
common canal is an accessory gland on each side, formed of numerous 
unicellular glands imbedded in connective tissue. The author 
* regards the structure of the genital system as proving the affinity 
between Pontobdella and Branchellion. 


Classification and Morphology of the Oligocheta.*—Prof. F. 
Vejdovsky has published in a connected and handsome form an 
account of the Oligocheta. 

After a full bibliographical list, the author describes in order 
the families, genera, and species. Ten families — Aphanoneura, 
Naidomorpha, Cheetogastrida, Discodrilide, Enchytreide, Tubi- 
ficidee, Phreoryctide, Lumbriculide, Criodrilide, and Lumbricide— 
are recognized. 

In the second part of the work, the dermomuscular tube with the 
hypodermis and hypodermal glands of the cilia; the phosphorescence 
of earthworms; the structure of the cuticle, and the arrangement of the 
muscular layers, are discussed; this is followed by an account of the 
sete, coelom, mesenteries, and orifices of the body-cavity ; the chapter 
on the nervous system not only gives an account of the topography 
and external form of the central nervous system, but describes the 
peripheral system, the histology of the fibres and cells, and the lateral 
cords of ganglionic cells and the visceral nervous system. Then 
follows an account of the ciliated pits and of the various organs of 
sense. The digestive, vascular, and excretory organs are fully described 
and great attention is given to a history of the generative apparatus, 
its degeneration and its morphology, and to the process of fission as 
seen in Aolosoma tenebrarum. 

The author fails to recognize the necessity of making any group 
of “ Archiannelides,” for the moment we distinguish Oligochzta from 
Polychzta we find that the archiannelid AHolosoma belongs to the 
former, and Ctenodrilus, Parthenope, Monostylos, Polygordius, &c., 
belong to the latter group. This monograph is one which will be 
consulted by every student of Annelids. 


Studies on Earthworms.}—Mr. W. B. Benham, after an historical 
introduction and an account of previously described genera, gives a 
table of the characters of the genera of earthworms, in which notice is 
taken of the group (ante-, intra-, or post-clitelline) to which they 
belong, of the somite at which the clitellum commences, of the number 
of somites through which it extends, of the position of the male pore, of 
the characters of the copulatory appendage, the position and number 
of the spermathece, of the number of sete per somite and of the mode 
in which they are arranged, of the position of the nephridiopore, length, 
and habitat; a list of all known earthworms whose distribution is known 
is next given. In the third part the variations in the structure of earth- 
worms treated according to the different systems of organs are described ; 


* ¢System u. Morphologie der Oligochseten.’ fol., Prag, 1884, 172 pp. 
and 16 pls. 
+ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxvi. (1886) pp. 213-301 (3 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 445 


the nephridia become modified to form a genital duct, by a fusion of 
a series of nephridia, by a disappearance of a part of the nephridium, 
or by a shifting of the position of the pore. The large Microcheta 
rappi (Lumbricus microchetus) is described in detail; and the more 
noticeable points are the small size of the prostomium and seta, 
the large size of the nephridiopores, the very large size and compli- 
cated structure of the nephridia, the excessively strong septa of the 
anterior somites, the numerous small spermathecx, of which there is 
more than one pair in a somite, the bifurcation of the dorsal trunk in 
five of the anterior somites and the great enlargement of its wall in 
somite VIII. 


Slavina and Ophidonais.*—Mr. E. ©. Bousfield disputes 
Vejdovsky’s opinion that Nais appendiculata d’Udekem is identical 
with N. lurida Timms, both of which belong to Vejdovsky’s new 
genus Slavina. The author has examined numerous specimens of the 
latter species which he describes and figures; he gives a figure from 
Vejdovsky of S. appendiculata, and points out the differences between 
the two species. After remarking on the differences in the arrange- 
ment of the capillary setz, he points out that, whereas S. lurida has 
only six or eight “ touch-organs” in a ring round each somite, and 
that they are absent on the ventral surface, in S. appendiculata, on the 
other hand, as many as twenty of these occur in a ring, which passes 
across the ventral surface. In the former the eyes are purple, in the 
latter brownish-black. A description follows of Ophidonais serpentina 
Gervais, which the author considers as belonging to Vejdovsky’s genus 
Slavina, as it has the characteristic “touch-organs” and in other 
respects agrees with the other two forms. The capillary sete are 
frequently absent in many of the anterior and posterior segments, and 
even when present the number is reduced to one in a bundle; the 
“ touch-organs” are irregularly placed, more or less in rings, and are 
especially numerous on the head. In conclusion the characters of 
these three species of Slavina are summarized. 


Musculature of Chetopoda.j—Dr. E. Rohde reviews the more 
important investigations of Cheetopod musculature, and reports the 
results of his own widely based studies. In Branchiobdella, which 
he discusses first as a good illustrative type, the longitudinal mus- 
culature of the body consists of very large, partly coelomyary, partly 
completely closed muscle-cells, in which the contractile rind is clearly 
separated from the nucleated medullary substance. He traces the 
development of these muscle-cells from very granular, large cells 
with central nucleus and distinct membrane, which differentiate into 
fibrils on one side, and thus become platymyary. The fibrillar layer 
becomes strongly developed, and bends round, forming the ceelomyary, 
and lastly the completely inclosed tubular form. The muscle-fibres 
of the Chetopoda exactly resemble those of Branchiobdella, and each 
is the equivalent of a cell, whose outer membrane forms the sarco- 
lemma. The fibres are completely inclosed, but in Phreoryctes and 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xix. (1886) pp. 264-8 (1 pl.). 
+ Zool. Beitr. (Schneider), i. (1885) pp. 164-205 (4 pls.). 


446 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Lumbricus olidus Dr. Rohde observed the occurrence also of ceelo- 
myary forms. 

Phreoryctes most closely resembles Branchiobdella. All the other 
Cheetopods exhibit a decidedly weaker development of muscle-cells, 
and much less medullary substance. In Limicole the usually flat 
muscle-cells form a single row; in the Lumbrici this is folded so 
that bundles are formed; in Criodrilus these groups of cells are 
replaced by an entirely irregular disposition. In Serpula and Protula 
among Chetopods, highly complicated forms of bundles occur; in 
Spirographis hints of bundles occur only here and there; in the 
other Polychetes the cells are disposed either in strands (Arenicola, 
Terebella), or in small groups (Polynoe, Eunice, Chzetopterus), or quite 
irregularly (Ammochares, Nephthys). The cells themselves are on an 
average much smaller than those of Oligochetes, but the longitudinal 
layer, as a whole, is more strongly developed. 

Between the muscle-cells, and frequently between them and the 
body-cavity, a nucleated mass occurs, often closely apposed to the 
surface of the cells. This Dr. Rohde regards as the formative sub- 
stance of the musculature. Round the cells there is always a fibrous 
intermediate tissue, not, however, a proper connective tissue, but rather 
a secondary separated product of the muscle-cells. 

The contractile cortical substance of the cells is resolved into 
primitive fibrils arranged radially in fibrillar plates which pursue 
a spiral course round the fibres. In this radial disposition of the 
primitive fibrils the Chetopods resemble the Nematodes, Hirudinea, 
and partly the Gephyrea. A transverse striation is often recognizable, 
due to the interrupted swelling of the muscle-cells. A great tendency 
to longitudinal splitting is very evident. 

The memoir closes with an interesting comparison of the Chetopod 
musculature with that of the Platyhelminthes and Gephyrea. In a 
postscript Dr. Rohde sums up by emphasizing that while in the 
Nematodes the musculature exhibits the simplest form of platymyary 
cells, from which the cclomyary state is developed by a bending 
round of the fibrillar plates, in the Chetopods the simplest form is 
that of ccelomyary or the completely inclosed muscle-cells, lying in 
a row, from which, by a secondary folding, bundles are formed, re- 
peating in their structure the form of the ccelomyary cell. 


Development of Dasychone lucullana.*—M. L. Roule has some 
notes on the development of this Sabellid, which is very common at 
Marseilles ; its history recalls that of Psygmobranchus protensus, which 
has been studied by Salensky, and is more direct than that of Hupo- 
matus uncinatus, on which Hatschek has written. Dasychone lucullana 
begins to deposit ova early in April; the eggs escape by the orifice 
of its tube, connected together and protected by the voluminous mass 
of mucus which is formed around them; in this covering the embryos 
pass through the early stages of their development, whence they 
escape as trochospheres. Segmentation is not uniform, but there is 
distinction between the more rapidly and the more slowly dividing 


* Rey, Sei Nat., iv. (1885) pp. 463-70. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 447 


yolk; both contain true protoplasm (hyaloplasm) and nutrient gra- 
nules; when segmentation is completed the egg has a layer of outer 
cells, which become the ectoderm of the larva, and an internal mass 
of granulations, in the midst of which it is difficult to distinguish the 
cell-walls; the origin of the mesoderm has not yet been discovered. 

The larva, which is at first globular, elongates and becomes ovoid 
in form; towards one extremity the ectodermic cells segment more 
rapidly, and give rise to a cylindrical epithelium provided with long 
vibratile cilia; these form a collar, which surrounds the larva trans- 
versely, and divides it into a short swollen portion, which will be the 
head, and an elongated more delicate posterior part, which gives rise 
to the thorax and abdomen. The cilia of the collar elongate, and 
become very large ; the head becomes provided with some rigid points 
which recall by their appearance the cnidocils of the Coelenterata ; 
two eyes, formed by pigment-spots of irregular contour, appear at its 
base, and the branchial tentacles arise as lateral lobes, which bifurcate 
or trifurcate. The first segments to appear are those which belong 
to the thorax of the adult; they are provided laterally with short 
parapodia, which carry one or two fine sete. The anterior part of 
the digestive tube is large, and the posterior delicate and elongated: 
all the cells of the intestine, from mouth to anus, are covered by 
active vibratile cilia. In this condition the larva secretes a delicate 
transparent tube, which envelopes it entirely, but which it can easily 
leave. Development henceforward proceeds very rapidly, and all the 
regions of the body proceed to take on the form which they have in 
the adult; a larva which was inclosed in mucus on the 29th of April 
possessed on the 13th of May eight well-marked segments and a good 
supply of cephalic tentacles; a week later two rings had been added. 
This species possesses the great advantage to the embryologist of being 
one whose larvz can be continuously studied. 


‘Challenger’ Gephyrea.*—The Gephyrea collected by the 
‘Challenger’ are reported on by Prof. E. Selenka; the forms are 
defined as Annelids with degenerated segmentation, without external 
jointing, parapodia, or gills. There is a closed vascular system, and 
one to three (rarely six) pairs of segmental organs. There are seldom 
numerous sete, and in most species none. The collection is rather 
small, and the condition of some of the specimens has prevented their 
being studied anatomically; a more complete figure of the male 
Bonellia viridis than any yet produced is given. 

As an appendix to the report, Prof. Selenka has a few notes on 
Chetoderma (C. militare sp. n.), the systematic position of which is 
not, in his opinion, yet determined ; the new species differs only from 
the North Sea species (C. nitidulum) in the form of its spicules. 


Strongylus Axei.j—Dr. T. 8. Cobbold refers to the discovery by 
Prof. Axe, in the stomach of a donkey, of this Nematode, which is 
remarkable for its small size, being only about 1/5 in. in length. 
The body is filiform; the mouth simple; the cesophagus short. The 


~* Reports of the voyage of H.MLS. ‘ Challenger,’ xiii. (1885) 25 pp. and 4 pls. 
+ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xix. (1886) pp. 259-68 (1 pl.). 


448 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


“hood ” at the posterior of the male is bilobed, with six finger-like 
“rays ” on each side, and a median forked ‘“‘ ray” ; in general similar 
to the hood of S. Douglassi Cobb. There are three spicules. The 
vulva is in the posterior sixth of the body. ‘The body is very trans- 
parent, allowing the viscera to be seen; measurements are given of 
the various organs. This Nematode is allied to that of the grouse, 
S. pergracilis, and to the stomach-worm of lambs, S. contortus. The 
author mentions Schneider’s opinion that the larva of Simondsia 
paradoxa exhibits a rhizocephalous condition, similar to that of 
Sacculina amongst the Crustacea. 


Embryonic Development of Bothriocephalide.*—Dr. H. Schau- 
insland has studied the embryonic development of Bothriocephalus rugo- 
sus, B. latus, B. sp., Trizenophorus nodulosus, Ligula simplicissima, and 
Schistocephalus dimorphus ; they agree with one another in all essential 
points. The germinal cell alone takes a direct part in forming the 
embryo ; it exhibits a regular segmentation, and some of the cells thus 
formed give rise to an embryonic envelope, which becomes par- 
ticularly well developed in the non-ciliated embryos (B. rugosus), but 
is very delicate in the eggs that are very rich in yolk and havo 
ciliated embryos. The embryonic cells within the yolk are generally 
spherical and again form an epibolic covering, which does not, 
however, extend over the whole of the yolk; the embryo now consists 
of a thin outer cell-layer and a compact inner mass; the former gives 
rise to an investment which contains a quantity of protoplasm ; this 
later becomes vacuolated and in some forms reduced to fine proto- 
plasmic filaments. This second investment is, or is not, ciliated ; it 
serves as a protective or locomotor organ ; the connection between 
the larva and its covering is always slight ; the larval body is formed 
of two kinds of cells which differ in size, the larger being more 
central, but the smaller peripheral cells do not form an epithelium. 
Although the entrance of the larva of a bothriocephalid into its host 
has never been actually observed, it is quite certain that when it does 
so the ciliated mantle or homologous investment is cast off; all that 
remains of the larva, and therefore of the adult worm, is of an 
endodermal nature. This view is shown to be correct by the study of 
development, in which gastrulation occurs as in other Metazoa; there 
is no cleavage cavity, but this is not remarkable, though the double 
epiboly is. Leuckart has already expressed a belief that the adult 
worm has no ectoderm, and this is supported by the structure of the 
adult, in which we can distinguish no epidermis, but only cortical and 
medullary substance. 

The author points out that the Bothriocephalide agree essentially 
with the Tzeniidx in the history of their development, and they still 
more strikingly resemble the Trematoda; their resemblances to the 
Turbellaria and the Nemertinea have not yet been completely worked 
out, but there is reason to suppose that so far as regards the ectoblast, 
they will be found to exhibit really similar phenomena. If the adult 
Cestodes have no true ectoderm, it follows that the adult Trematoda 


* Jeuaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xix. (1885) pp. 523-73 (3 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 449 


are also without this layer; however, the question cannot yet be 
regarded as settled with regard to the monogenetic forms of the latter 
order. 


New Sense-organ in Mesostoma.*— The structure which 
M. P. Hefllez regards as an olfactory organ in Mesostoma lingua, consists 
of a small invagination on the ventral mid-line, between the mouth 
and anterior extremity of the body. This small pit passes obliquely 
forward, and ends in two lateral blind diverticula. The wall of the 
pit is formed of cells similar to the epithelium of the ventral surface 
of the body; these are ciliated at the commencement of the pit, but 
the author is uncertain how far inwards this condition is continued ; 
here and there is a gland-cell. The sub-epidermic pigment surrounds 
the pit, and streaks of it pass from this organ to the eye-spots. 
Nerve-fibres from the ventral surface of the cerebral ganglia pass to 
the ends of the diverticula. 

The author considers this structure sensory rather than glandular, 
owing to the few gland-cells present; moreover, as Dugés pointed 
out, the quick perception of the presence of food by the Planarians 
seems to indicate that some sense, other than sight due to their ill- 
developed eyes, must be present. 


Mesostoma personatum.{—Dr. A. Jaworowski has a preliminary 
notice of his studies on this Turbellarian. 

The cells of the epidermis are devoid of pigment, and in and 
between them the rods are visible; in some that have just escaped 
from the egg the pharynx is not in the anterior or middle part of the 
body, but behind, so that they appear to be species of Opistomum. 
The orifice between the eyes and the pharynx is near the former in 
young, while it is exactly between them in older forms. There is a 
longitudinal and a circular layer of muscles, and the fibres anastomose 
to form a plexus. The anterior part of the enteric cavity is pro- 
portionately longer and larger in young than in adult forms; the 
ventral portion of the parenchyma is much better developed than the 
dorsal, The pharynx is a plexiform organ, which is made up of three 
layers; the outer and inner consist of longitudinal and circular 
muscles, which anastomose with one another; the median layer is the 
best developed and consists of branching and plexiform fibres, in the 
wide meshes of which the large cellular pharyngeal glands are to be 
found; there is a fourth, epithelial, layer. ‘he water-vascular 
system consists of two chief trunks, each of which divides into two 
branches; the anterior of these open in the epidermal invagination 
between the eyes and the pharynx. The walls of the generative 
organs consist of a close plexus, some of the fibres of which are so 
disposed as to have the appearance of being simple elements of 
muscular fibres. 


Fresh-water Monotide.{—The discovery by Dr. Zacharias at 
Hirschberg of a fresh-water Planarian belonging to Graaf’s family 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 684-6, 
+ Zool. Anzeig., ix. (1886) pp. 83-5. 
} Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., xxi. (1886) pp. 265-73 (1 pl.). 


450 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Monotidz, led Dr. G. Plessis to complete his description of the fresh- 
water species of the genus Monotus. 

Dr. Plessis regards Zacharias’ M. relictus as specifically identical 
with his own M. morgiensis (= Otomesostoma morgiense vy. Graaf). The 
genus Monotus has a single otocyst, inclosing a single otolith, in the 
anterior region of the body: and out of the whole genus only two 
species are found in fresh water—M. morgiensis and M. mesopharyna 
Diesing. These are monogonoporous, whilst the marine forms are 
digonoporous. The author gives a description of the anatomy and 
histology, together with the localities of his species. He regards the 
otocyst as being a visual organ as well as an auditory organ, since 
it is in very close connection with a pair of pigment-spots. The 
otolith is fixed to the wall of the otocyst, and neither cilia nor 
auditory hairs are present. He regards the fresh-water species as 
relicts of a marine fauna once extending over the localities in which 
the above species are found. 


Rotifers.*—Mr. J. E. Lord draws attention to the genus Huchlanis, 
in which the lorica is more or less depressed, and consists of an upper 
and lower plate, connected by a flexible membrane: the dorsal plate 
is larger and more convex than the ventral plate. The author figures 
four forms which he has been unable to identify. One of these he 
believes to be EH. Hornemanni, in which the lorica is ovate and has 
four ridges along the back: the foot is furcate. A second, which may 
be EH. hipposideros, has a short foot, not projecting from the lorica, 
while the two forks are long, but have not the bristles mentioned by 
Pritchard. The mastax in these is brachionzan, but the trochal disc 
is not lobed. The last species resembles HE. macrura, with lobed 
trochal dise. 


Keeping Melicerta ringens alive.;—M. F. found in a dirty 
pond a fine colony of Melicerta ringens, which for about a week 
appeared to thrive, but as time went on they disappeared altogether. 

He accounts for this from the fact of having taken them from a 
pond where the water was thick, and where they could find plenty of 
food and material for building their cases, and placed them in water, 
which, after a time, became so clear that they could obtain nothing 
from it for their brick-making, and he is “led to think that the search 
for Melicerta ringens is often unsuccessful from the fact of seeking it 
in clear ponds instead of muddy.” 


Echinodermata. 


Nervous System of Echinus acutus.{—M. H. Prouho states that 
if one suitably treats a portion of the integument which covers the 
test of Echinus acutus with chloride of gold or citric acid, numerous 
bluish lines connected by frequent anastomoses will become apparent ; 
the appearance forcibly recalls that figured by Prof. Lovén of the 
peripheral nervous system of Brissopsis lyrifera. Examined under a 


* Sci.-Gossip, 1886, pp. 83-6 (7 figs.).  Scientif. Enquirer, i. (1886) p. 46. 
+ Comptes Rendus, cil. (1886) pp. 444-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 451 


power of 500, the plexus will be found to consist of a large number of 
fibrils, and some of the principal bundles will be seen passing towards 
the spines and adjacent pedicellarie. The fibrils of which this plexus 
is formed are identical with those of the tentacular and ambulacral 
nerves, and each is continuous with the fibre from the ambulacral 
nerve which emerges from one of the tentacular pores; the plexus 
lies between the external epithelium and a layer of connective tissue 
which sends off a number of connective bands through the meshes of 
the nervous plexus to support the epithelium. At the base of each spine 
there is a relatively well developed nervous ring. The cellular 
elements of the plexus are very difficult to detect in the plexus, but 
they are very numerous and easy to see in the nerve-ring ; the author 
does not, however, agree with Mr. Romanes in his description of 
these elements. M. Prouho has also been able to make out a nervous 
genital ring, which connects the five genital glands with one another, 
and, by means of the five ambulacral trunks, with the peribuccal 
nervous pentagon. 


New Echinothurid and its Poison-apparatus.*— Herren OC. F. 
and P. B. Sarasin have found in the Bay of Trincomalee a new 
Kehinothurid, for which they propose the name of Cyanosoma urens. 

While presenting many resemblances in coloration to Asthenosoma 
varium, it presents generic differences in the structure of its skeleton, 
but they have not been able to study the descriptions given by A. 
Agassiz of the ‘Challenger’ Echinoids. If one seizes a specimen 
one immediately feels a number of extremely painful stings, like those 
of a bee, but the sense of pain is soon relieved. The organs which 
effect this are spines in the dermal covering ; when best developed 
they have the appearance of small blue stalked capitula, which are 
traversed by a fine spine, the tip of which projects a little or not at 
all beyond the soft parts; the upper end of the spine is continued 
into a pretty wide and strong sack of connective tissue, which is 
continued as a solid lamella through the spine ; the end of the spine 
inclosed in the sack is thus completely shut off from the more basal 
portion. The head itself which surrounds the poison-bag consists 
essentially of muscular fibres together with connective-tissue and 
pigment-cells; the fibres are generally so arranged as to run parallel 
to the surface of the head, and are attached at one end to the poison- 
bag, and at the other to the spine below. 

The mechanism appears to be of the following nature: when an 
object presses on the top of the spine, the musculature of the head 
contracts ; this breaks the poison-bag inferiorly ; and the greater part of 
the tip of the spine becomes free; at the same time the secretion con- 
tained in the bag is pressed into the spine through the large orifices 
at its base, and so make their way into the wound which the spine 
has made. 

The other spines in the tegumentary coverings are formed in the 
same way, but the mechanism is so far modified that the poison-bag 
is not compressed by muscular force, but by the pressure of the 


* Zool. Auzeig., ix. (1886) pp. 80-2. 


452 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


objects that touch it. In addition to their offensive functions, the 
spines are also of importance as sensory organs. 

In conclusion, the authors have a few remarks on the anatomy of 
this Echinothurid; they draw attention to the five pairs of well- 
developed longitudinal muscles which serve to depress the test ; these 
are inserted by pairs into the auricles; morphologically, they are of 
importance as bearing on the comparison of the Hchinothurids with 
Holothurians. 3 

A small fish, whose ground colour is that of A. wrens, and a small 
macrurous Decapod of similar colour, live commensally with the 
urchin; on Diadema seiosum there is a closely allied fish ; both, when 
frightened, hide among the spines, as if fully conscious that they 
would be there quite safe. 


New Organs of the Echinida.*—Dr. O. Hamann, under the 
title of globiferi, describes some organs in Sphzrechinus granularis, 
which have an extraordinary resemblance to one form of pedicellaria, 
as described by Mr. W. Percy Sladen, in the same Echinid; no 
reference to the earlier writer is, however, made by Dr. Hamann, 
who describes the bodies as glandular organs which emit a secretion 
through apertures; he is reminded by them of the mucigenous cells 
of Vertebrates. 


Transversely striated Muscles in Echinida.j—Dr. O. Hamann, 
who has vainly sought for transversely striated muscles in Holo- 
thurians and Asterids, has now detected them in the pedicellarie of 
Echinids. The fibrils if examined in the living state distinctly show 
the transverse striation; the individual fibrils when, as they may 
easily be, separated from one another, are seen to have attached 
externally a large elongated oval nucleus. 


Coelenterata. 


Cyclic Development of Siphonophora.{— Prof. C. Chun continues 
his researches on Siphonophora, especially on Monophyide, supporting 
and extending what he has previously maintained in regard to the 
cyclic development of the latter. 

I. The cyclic development of Monophyide.—All the Monophyide, 
viz. Muggizwa Kochi, Monophyes irregularis, and Monophyes gracilis, 
are independent species, whose primary swimming-bells are thrown 
off, and replaced by final heteromorphous bells, of which only one is 
present Prof. Chun maintains, against Claus, that Muggizxa is a 
Monophyid and not a Diphyid. The primary bells may be regarded 
either as “nurses” from which the stem and the reserve bell are 
budded off, or as larval forms, according as most importance is attached 
to the preponderant development of a distinct bell of considerable 
size, or to the analogy with the alternation of heteromorphous 
protective organs and tentacles in other Siphonophora. 


* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1886) pp. 386-7. 
+ Tom. cit., p. 338, from SB. Jenaisch. Gesell., 1886. 
t SB. KK. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1885, pp. 511-29 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 453 


II. The relation of Monophyidz to Diphyidz and Polyphyidz.—In 
Monophyids, after the formation of the single final bell, there is no 
further alternation of bells; the final heteromorphous bell is 
homologous with the first-formed, heteromorphous, superior bell of 
the Diphyids. The single, secondary, heteromorphous bell of the 
Monophyids is final; in the Diphyids there lies below the two, 
secondary, heteromorphous bells, a constant reserve supply of 
similar bells. And if we suppose that the secondary bells of the 
Diphyids be not thrown off, but, with the growth of young bells, 
become groups in two similar rows along the stem, then we get the 
Polyphyid type, as in Hippopodius and Vogtia. 

Ill. The Eudoxia groups of the Diphyids and their sexual relations.— 
Under the genus Praya two categories of Diphyids have been included. 
One, represented by P. maxima, exhibits Eudowia-groups with the 
four characteristic constituents, viz. nutritive polyp, tentacle, 
hydrophyllium, and gonophore. The others, namely, P. diphyes 
(Vogt and Kélliker), P. medusa (Metschnikoff), and a new form 
described by Chun, exhibit not only a remarkable multiplication of 
gonophores with rudimentary umbrellas, but “special swimming 
bells,’ with medusiform characters, but without any hint of a 
manubrium. Prof. Chun proposes to reserve for P. maxima or 
cymbiformis the generic title Praya, and to erect the genus Lilyopsis 
for the three others, viz. L. diphyes, L. medusa, and L. rosea. 


Meduse.*—Prof. E. Metschnikoff communicates the systematic 
results of his developmental study of a number of medusa forms. He 
describes a Velella medusa, a new species of Tiaropsis, and a number 
of others, but the bulk ofthe paper is occupied with purely systematic 
notes, which do not admit of summary, in regard to a large number 
of medusoid forms. The communication includes some critical 
remarks on Hackel’s system. 


New Hydroids,t—Prof. G. J. Allman describes a number of new 
species of Hydroids, chiefly from Australia and the Cape. Theco- 
cladium is a new genus allied to Thuiaria, but differing in the facts 
that the branches invariably spring from within the hydrothece and 
extend through their orifice; the habitat of the single species is 
unknown. Gattya is another new genus, which is intermediate 
between the typical Eleutheroplean and Statoplean forms of the 
Plumulariide ; it has the movable lateral nematophores, and the 
mesial nematophore completely separated from the wall of the 
hydrotheca as in the former, and the fixed mesial nematophore and 
dentate margin to the hydrothece of the latter; it is allied to the 
genus Heteroplon found by the ‘Challenger’; the habitat of the 
single species is unknown. Aglaophenia late-carinata sp. n. appears 
to be a characteristic form of the floating Sargasso-field of the North 
Atlantic. Thuiaria heteromorpha sp. n. from Tasmania is significant 
in its bearing on the question of the definiteness of systematic 
characters, for the form and disposition of the hydrothece vary in 


* Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien, vi. (1886) pp. 237-66 (2 pls.). 
¢ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xix. (1885) pp. 132-61 (20 pls.). 


454 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


different parts of one and the same colony to an extent which, if 
noticed in separate colonies, would be regarded as affording grounds 
for generic distinction. 


New fresh-water Coelenterate—Microhydra Ryderi.*—An inter- 
esting fresh-water polyp-form has been discovered near Philadelphia 
by Mr. E. Potts, and described by Mr. J. A. Ryder. Simpler and much 
smaller than Hydra, this Microhydra Ryderi exactly resembles a fixed 
planula, without cilia and provided with amouth. The latter is small 
and exhibits an irregular opening ; there is no disc-like expansion, 
nor hint of tentacles. The nematocysts of the thin ectoderm are 
mostly near the mouth. An indistinct layer beneath the ectoderm 
probably represents contractile processes of the outer cells. Round 
the mouth the endoderm consists of solid cells; below this narrow 
zone, for the upper third of the polyp, the endoderm consists of large 
cells, with distinct vacuoles and smal! excentric nuclei. 

Sexual reproduction has not been observed; but asexual budding 
has been repeatedly studied through several generations. The 
Microhydra-bud, however, unlike that of Hydra, is formed longitu- 
dinally ; the parent and the bud lie side by side. When separation 
. occurs the bud falls to the foot, remains for a while motionless, then 
fixes itself at the aboral pole, and begins an independent life. 
Artificial division has not yet been tried. If the above account be 
correct the simplest Coelenterate is certainly Microhydra. 


New Zoanthee.t—Dr. A. Erdmann commences with some ob- 
servations on the characters of the septa, which he distinguishes as 
dorsal and ventral; in some the dorsal septa which are directed 
towards the ventral zone consists only of macrosepts, and this type 
may be distinguished as the macrotype from the more common micro- 
type. In all other Actiniz (excepting the Cerianthidz) every pair of 
septa is capable of producing new pairs of septa, but in the Zoanthez 
only two interseptal processes are capable of producing new septa ; 
they are the two which lie nearest the ventral directive septa. Zoan- 
thes are either free-living or colonial, and colonies are either formed 
by delicate branching stolons given off from the base, or they are 
placed on a more or less extended ccenenchym, or, lastly, the polyps 
are sunk into a common ccenenchym. This last is always traversed 
by connecting tubes lined by endoderm, and continued directly into 
the interior of the polyps; the mesoderm has a number of special 
cavities filled with cells, and the canals and cavities appear to be 
always of ectodermal origin ; numerous rounded or stellate connective- 
tissue bodies are also to be found in the mesoderm; the mesodermal 
filaments have their lower halves formed by an unpaired glandular 
streak; in the middle there is a paired ciliated streak; a table of the 
five known genera is given with the distinctive marks, drawn from the 
characters of the septa, the circular muscle, the ccenenchym, integu- 
ment, and disposition of gonads. Of the thirteen forms whose de- 
scriptions follow, Polyihoa awxinellz is alone referred to its species, the 


* Amer. Natural., xix. (1885) pp. 1232-6. 
+ Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f, Naturwiss., xix. (1885) pp. 430-88 (2 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 455 


others having only their genera indicated. In concluding the de- 
scription of the thirteenth, which appears to be a representative of a 
new form, Dr. Erdmann remarks that the developmental process of 
the septa of Actiniee may be divided into two periods; the first ends 
when the first six or primary pairs of septa have been developed ; in 
the second period the septa of the second, third, and other orders are 
laid down; in the Zoanthez the law of development in the second 
period is different, owing to the fact that only two processes can give 
rise to new pairs of septa. It seems to be clear that in them the 
number of septa is in direct relation to the size of the animal, which, 
as a general rule, corresponds to its age. 

The author gives definitions of all the genera, and woodcuts illus- 
trating the arrangement of the septa. 


North Atlantic Pennatulida.*—Drs. D. C. Danielssen and J. Koren 
have produced another of their beautifully illustrated memoirs on the 
animals collected by the Norwegian North Sea Expedition ; the most 
interesting part of this memoir deals with Umbellula encrinus, the 
specific name of which we owe to Linneus, though our knowledge of 
the species has been as yet so slight. Twelve specimens, forming a 
very complete series of stages and sizes, were obtained, the largest of 
which is, to judge from the illustrations, a magnificent example. The 
polyps of this species appear to be viviparous. 

Eleven of the thirteen species found are new, and of the eight 
genera represented, two are new; these are called Svava and Gun- 
neria ; the former is small, has rudimentary fins, and is without 
spicules in the sarcosome, cells, or polyps; the gonads are developed on 
the lateral zooids, while the fully developed polyps are barren; the 
larvee are set free by the mouth, as in Corallium. Only a fragment 
attests the generic characters of Gunneria, but the generic characters 
may be seen in the large number of spicules on the bodies of the 
polyps, tentacles, and sarcosoma, so that the new genus appears to 
approach the Gorgonide. 


Porifera. 


Relationship between Sponges and Choanoflagellata.{—Prof. F. 
K. Schulze has criticized in detail the theory, lately revived by Saville 
Kent, that the sponges were flagellate colonies. Allowing, of course, 
the suggestive resemblance of the collared cells of sponges with the 
collared flagellates described by Saville Kent as Choanoflagellata, 
and by Biitschli as Calico-mastiges, Prof. Schulze points out that 
the similarity does not amount to identity, and even if it did, would 
not necessitate the conclusion that sponges were colonies of Flagellata. 
In regard to Saville Kent’s description of numerous sponge larve, 
according to which the swarm-gemmules consist of ciliated individuals 
which soon all acquire collars, the absence of corroboratory re- 
searches, and the opinion of all other investigators are noted, while 


* Den Norske Nordhavs-Expedition. Zoologie—Pennatulida, 84 pp. and 
12 pls., fol., 1884. 
+ SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1885, pp. 179-91. 


456 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


it is suggested that the collared larve in question were only separated 
portions of a collared chamber layer. The development of these 
larve, if such they are, is not, according to Saville Kent, the result 
of segmentation, but is parallel to the colony formation observed in 
various Flagellata, and especially in the newly discovered Choanoflagel- 
late Salpingeca fusiformis, in which a typical individual retracts its 
collar and flagellum, becomes amveboid, passes into a spherical quiescent 
stage, and undergoes regular division ending in ciliated swarm-spores 
which leave the capsule and develope into Salpingcecas. In the sponge 
a parallel process results in ciliated and then collared individuals 
which remain, however, united by a common gelatinous supporting 
substance, which indeed occurs in the new Choanoflagellate Proto- 
spongia heckelii: a slight modification in the disposition of the zooids 
in the latter would produce a very simple sponge. Prof. Schulze 
emphasizes in answer, inter alia, the now well-established character 
of the ground-tissue in sponges, which, thanks to Schulze’s researches, 
has been shown to be a connective tissue with distinct cellular elements, 
fixed, wandering, contractile, glandular, &c. ‘The presence of the 
internal endothelium, absent in Protospongia; and the fact that in 
the latter the ciliated cells are almost wholly immersed in the con- 
nective substance, are also noted. The impossibility of now denying 
either the true sexual reproduction as evidenced by the repeated pre- 
sence of spermatozoa, or the presence of two embryonic layers in the 
larval forms is enforced. 

The metazoan nature of sponges is not however inconsistent with 
their relation by direct descent from Choanflagellates, as Biitschli has 
recently maintained, though such a history of the origin of sponges 
would conflict with the other theory of their close relationship with 
Cnidaria. Prof. Schulze reviews the opinions of Leuckart, Balfour, 
Marshall and others in regard to the relation between sponges and 
Celenterates. Against Bitschli’s hypothesis, he advances the apparent 
absence of collared cells in the blastula stage, where they would, on 
his supposition, be naturally looked for. He inclines towards the 
supposition of an independent origin of the collars, hints of which 
are found in some Protozoa, as in Placopus ruber. From the close 
resemblance between sponge and Ccelenterate larvae, Prof. Schulze 
maintains that the divergence of the two lines did not begin before 
that stage in the phylogenetic development, which corresponds to the 
metamorphosis of the mature ciliated larve. He thinks Marshall’s 
hypothesis that the common ancestors had radially disposed mesen- 
terial pouches, tentacles with stinging capsules, and lateral pores, to 
be without sufficient basis, and regards the most primitive type as 
a simple sack-like form such as persists in Olynthus. 

Origin of new species owing to the loss of older characters,.* 
—The late Prof. O. Schmidt relates how in 1864 he was induced to 
place Ancorina aaptos among the Tetractinellide, owing to its 
resemblance to the family of Corticate; this family he has since 
had to regard as untenable, and with it A. aaptos had to be given 


* Zeitschr, f. Wiss. Zool., xlii. (1885) pp. 639-47 (1 pl.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 457 


up. In 1862 he formed the genus Caminus, which appeared to be one 
of the Tetractinellide, although it had not the characteristic 
tetraradiate spicules. He is now able to show that this is not a hypo- 
thesis merely. Specimens lately received from Dr. Kohler, who 
collected them at Sark and sent them to the author with the inquiry 
whether they belonged to the species C. osculosus, were remarkable 
in that a few of them had four-rayed spicules, the characters of 
which are described in detail, and their significance discussed. The 
result seems to be that Caminus affords the proof that by the dis- 
appearance of what was previously regarded as an important ordinal 
character, a new form, which is to be distinguished as a genus, 
becomes developed. It is possible, therefore, that Ancorina is 
similarly a good genus, and, at any rate, the author is justified in his 
belief that work with such ideas as he has had is good work. 


Nervous and Muscular-Systems of Horny Sponges.*—Dr. R. v. 
Lendenfeld gives an account of Huspongia anfractuosa, which differs in 
some particulars from the ordinary bath-sponge (HL. officinalis) ; the 
fine membrane which extends from the tips of the horny fibres consists 
of parallel spindle-shaped cells, which are set perpendicularly to the 
outer surface of the sponge; they end in extraordinarily fine tips ; the 
protoplasm contains small but highly and doubly refractive granules, 
imbedded in a singly refractive substance; the granules are so 
arranged as to give the appearance of a kind of transverse striation. 
The author believes that these are muscle-cells, intermediate in 
structure between smooth and transversely striated fibres; at the 
margins of the grooves the membrane suddenly becomes twice or thrice 
as thick, and does not here consist of spindle-shaped cells, cell- 
boundaries are no longer distinct and the substance is granular. 
Fibres are given off laterally from this thickening, and superiorly 
there are spindle-shaped sensory cells, which call to mind those found 
by Jickeli in the Hydroida. The thickening may be described as 
consisting of ganglion-cells, the contours of which are not distinct, 
while the fibres are nerves. The author homologizes these with the 
circular nerves of the cycloneurous Meduse (Hydromedusz), and 
thinks that their affinity with the Cnidaria is closer than is now 
generally admitted. 


Oscarella lobularis (0. Schmidt) var. cerulea--—Herr F. E. 
Schulze, in exhibiting some living specimens with gemmules both in 
process of formation and just cast off, remarks that this askeletal 
sponge produces at times, and especially when the water is infected by 
noxious matter, as decomposition gases and the like, free-swimming 
spheroidal bladders, the external membrane of which, though com- 
monly possessing a similar structure to that of the parent body, 
differs therefrom considerably, since the exhalent oscula of the 
ciliated chambers in the gastric cavity, sometimes spheroidal and 
provided with special apertures of exit, terminate by a wide opening, 
whereby the form appears no longer spheroidal, but hemispherical. 

* SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1885, pp. 1015-20. See also Ann, and Mag. 
Nat. Hist., xvii. (1886) pp. 372-7. 

+ SB. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1885, pp. 183-4, 

Ser. 2.—Vou. VI. 2H 


458 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The change is easy to be understood if we regard the process of 
formation of the gemmules. By the bladder-like expansion of the 
fold of the discoidal sponge-body, the body-wall becomes so greatly 
extended that the spheroidal chambers opening originally into the 
inner gastric cavity by a small canal, now by the obliteration of this 
canal and universal expansion of its aperture assumes the hemispherical 
form, and through the wide opening which has arisen must open 
directly into the gastric cavity. 

Such spheroidal gemmules, which have a diameter of 2-5 mm. 
after their separation, by means of currents never altogether absent in 
the sea, are easily transported to another place ; and should the con- 
ditions be favourable, even may adhere together and develope a large 
crust. 


Sponge destructive of Oysters.*—Dr. R. v. Lendenfeld describes 
a sponge, to which he gives the name Chalinula Coaii, which grows on 
shells of living oysters, and disappears when these die. It is found 
that in an oyster-bed in the Clarence river, where this sponge made 
its appearance, the oysters were killed off. The sponge seems to 
intercept some of the food-particles, which would otherwise be all 
available for the oyster, which thus sooner or later gets starved ; 
there is no direct connection between the sponge and the body of the 
oyster. The author suggests, as a remedy, that fresh water should 
be led through pipes to the infected locality: the oyster would not 
thereby suffer any harm, but the sponge would be unable to live in 
the fresh water. 


Australian Sponges.;—The fifth part of Dr. R. v. Lendenfeld’s 
monograph commences with the order Ceraospongiz, which he defines 
as “Spongie with a skeleton composed of horny fibre. Siliceous 
spicules produced by the sponge itself may occur in the ground- 
substance—flesh-spicules—but never within the fibres.” This order 
is divided into two suborders, (1) Microcamere, with small, spherical, 
ciliated chambers, and (2) Macrocamere, with large, oval, ciliated 
chambers. Under the first suborder come the families Spongide, 
Aplysinide, and Hircinide ; in the second, are the Spongelide and 
Aplysillide. 

A new subfamily of the Spongide is formed, for forms having 
lacune, into which both the inhalent and exhalent apertures open. 
In this subfamily of the Auleninz, are placed four new genera: 
(1) Halme, four species of which are very fully described and 
figured, H. simplex, globosa, micropora, and nidus-vesparum ; the last 
he regards as identical with Holopsamma laminze favosa Carter. 
(2) Aphrodite has one species, A. nardorus. (8) Aulena includes 
A. villosa, A. nigra, and A. flabellum ; in the first species a nervous 
system is described and figured: it consists of numerous spindle- 
shaped cells carrying palpocils externally, whilst their deep ends 
branch, and below them are multipolar ganglion-cells. (4) Halmopsis 
is formed from H. australis. In the subfamily Sponginze no new 


* Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, x. (1886) pp. 326-9. 
t Ibid., pp. 282-321 and 481-550 (13 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 459 


genera are formed: it contains the genera Huspongia, Hippospongia, 
and Cacospongia, whilst the genera Phyllospongia, Carteriospongia, and 
Stelospongia form his subfamily Chalinopsine. 

The author divides the genus Huspongia into seven subgenera, 
Trregularis, Triplicis, Lawifibris, Ditela, Regularis, Densalis, Silicifibris. 
Various species of the genus are described, in some of which a 
nervous system, derived from mesoderm, is described ; he mentions 
Marshall’s opinion that all organs in sponges are mesodermal ; a list 
is given of the various kinds of cells found in the mesoderm, and 
the development of these is suggested to have had the following 
course :—ameeboid wandering cells are present, and retain the 
appearance of the original mesoderm-cells of the blastula: from these 
ova, spermatoblasts, and indifferent tissue-cells have been derived, as 
well as “ spongoblasts ” and gland-cells of the skin. Neuromuscular 
elements were developed from the indifferent tissue-cells, which were 
further differentiated into ganglia and sensitive cells or true muscular 
cells. A table is given showing the way in which the “ vestibule 
spaces” may be derived from the ancestral gastreea by a series of 
foldings of the wall of the sac. 

In an “addendum” * the author suggests that Halisarca Bassan- 
gustiorum Carter should have its generic name altered to Oscarella, 
and he throws some doubt on Carter’s description of a single large 
inhalent pore at the opposite pole to the osculum in Teichonella 
labyrinthica. 


Protozoa. 


Bursaria truncatella.t—Herr A. Brauer describes the structure 
and mode of encystation of this infusorian. Specimens are best 
preserved in a 1-2 per cent. solution of osmic acid, treated with 
picrocarmine, Beale’s carmine, and 2 per cent bichromate of potash, 
and made transparent by being left for a long time in filtered 
water. 

The author disagrees with Stein as to the position of the anus, 
which he always saw on the ventral side, and not in the middle of 
the hinder edge ; no other infusorian is known to have so large or so 
completely formed a peristome as this species ; it is only connected at 
its wide orifice with the body-wall, and has walls of its own ; its cavity 
is apparently, but not really, divided into two halves ; in the left lies 
the peristomial groove, and in the right the greater part of the ciliated 
zone with the subjacent bands or muscular fibres, and the spoon-shaped 
depression. 

The contractility of the body of the fresh-water Vorticelline 
appears to have its seat in the highly refractive, sharply limited 
fibres which either arise from the base of the body, or in those with 
non-contractile stalks, or are direct continuations of the stalk-muscle ; 
these fibres pass at a more or less obtuse angle to the cuticle, and are 
inserted at the level of the ciliated ring, whence anastomoses pass to 
the peristome ; the fibres are separated from one another by granular 


* Proc. Linn. Soc. N, S. Wales, x. (1886) p. 475. 
+ Jenaisch. Zeitschr, f, Naturwiss., xix. (1885) pp, 489-519 (1 pl.). 
Pn 3 ay 


460 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


stripes; so far as the body-muscles are concerned the Vorticellinze 
agree essentially with the Stentores and the Spirostomez. 

The only observer who has given an account of the encystation 
of Bursaria truncatella is Cienkowski (1854); when encystation 
commences the parenchyma becomes vacuolated, and the peristome 
with all its parts becomes completely aborted; when this organ is 
lost, we have apparently quite another infusorian; this is partly due 
to the great increase in size of the layer of trichocysts, which becomes 
double itsformer breadth. Encystation is completed by the gradual 
diminution of this layer, the conversion of the vacuolated parenchyma 
into a granular mass, in the loss of the cilia, and the rounding off of 
the form of the body. Two membranes become developed, the outer 
of which—the so-called stellate membrane—may be best likened to 
a number of parallelograms of unequal size distributed irregularly 
over the body of a sphere; where the diagonals cut there are depres- 
sions; the inner membrane is homogeneous, thick and strong, and 
slightly refractive. The contents are in the form of a dark brown mass 
composed of coarse large granules. Encystation appears to take place 
in December, and the first Bursaria observed to become free was seen 
at the end of February, Few changes go on within the cyst; the 
rotating spores described by Cienkowski were Flagellata, which made 
their way into some of the cysts. The author remaks that this is 
the only infusorian known to him in which there is a retrograde 
metamorphosis, but he thinks that similar phenomena may be seen in 
some of the Stentors. 


Spirochona.*—M. E. Canu, after referring to the work of Stein 
and Hertwig on S. gemmipara, which is found on Gammarus pulex, and 
on S. tintinnabulum, found on the skin of the tadpole of Triton, gives 
an account of his discovery of S. crystallina n. sp., together with 
Freya limnoriz and numerous other peritrichous infusorians, on a 
marine isopod Limnoria. The author does not agree with Entz’s 
opinions on the affinities between the Ciliata; he regards Spirochona 
as separated from all other infusorians by the arrangement of its 
peristome ; and considers it as a peritrichous stage, with homogeneous 
cilia, amongst the Hypotricha. He further regards the Oxytrichinide, 
Halteride, and Tintinnide as highly developed hypotrichous forms 
with a ciliated peristomial area. 


Characters of the Cilio-flagellata.j—Prof. O. Biitschli has been 
able to study Glenodinium cinctum in the living condition, when he 
finds that forms differ not inconsiderably from one another ; smaller 
examples appear to be almost round when looked at ventrally or 
dorsally, but the large are ordinarily oval; the colour varies between 
yellowish and greenish brown, and is generally pretty deep. All 
those examined had a thin envelope which lies directly on the body, 
but it is only distinctly visible when the body is contracted under the 
influence of killing reagents, or when the flagellum has been lost and 
the specimen has passed into a resting condition. Resting forms do 


* Bull. Sci. Dép. Nord, ix. (1886) pp. 21-81. 
+ Morphol. Jahrb., x. (1885) pp. 529-77 (3 pls.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 461 


not appear to have a special encysting envelope, but the cellulose 
reaction of the ordinary covering is very easy to detect. The colora- 
tion of the body is due to a closely packed unilaminate layer of 
chromatophores, which are found in the periphery of the protoplasm ; 
these have a rod-like form, are arranged perpendicularly to the surface 
of the body, and are set radially. The stigma is a structure of some 
size, and is always found in the longitudinal groove, which is its 
characteristic position in the Cilioflagellata; it occupies the whole 
breadth of the groove, is concave at its anterior margin and convex 
posteriorly, so that it is, on the whole, like a horse-shoe in shape. An 
irregular brownish body of a fatty nature is not rarely seen in the 
central protoplasm, and is especially large in the resting-stage. The 
relatively large spherical nucleus lies near the centre of the body, 
and, during life, has the appearance of a bright speck; its structure 
is finely plexiform, the nodal points being darker and somewhat 
thicker. A true contractile vacuole was not to be detected, but one 
or more ordinary vacuoles were often seen on the ventral surface. 

Prof. E. Askenasy has supplied an account of his observations on 
copulation and ecdysis. He states that he several times observed 
copulating pairs of Glenodinium cinctum ; though not often found, he 
has sometimes, with very rich material, found one or two pairs in 
every drop examined; they so attach themselves to a point that the 
hinder pole of one is attached to the anterior of the other; they 
then move about together in the water, several times they separate and 
again attach themselves, and the attachment becomes closer and 
firmer ; the movement of a pair may last over an hour. This suddenly 
ceases, but for a short time longer the long flagella may be seen 
moving ; the zygote (if we may so call the product of copulation) 
remains quite still. The appearance of the zygote varies with 
circumstances, but the form is always biscuit-like, and two eye-spots 
and two nuclei are always to be seen; at the point of junction there 
is a distinct continuity of the protoplasm. In quiescent zygotes there 
is a distinct doubly contoured membrane ; the further development 
of the zygotes was not observed. As to the process of ecdysis, the 
same observer notes that if swarming individuals be observed for an 
hour or two, they will be seen after some time (at the most an hour 
or two) to become quiescent and throw off their cilia; specimens 
observed for several days were not seen to exhibit any further change; 
but at the end of a week several individuals were seen to have cast 
their cuticles, which were found lying scattered about. One was 
observed in the act; there was a cleft at the side of the equatorial 
groove ; when escaped it had the appearance of a naked alga just 
escaped from its mother-cell, and it may, therefore, be concluded that 
at this time there is no firm membrane. Freshly escaped or thin- 
cuticled Glenodinia appear to copulate. 

After some observations on the marine species of Ceratium, Peri- 
dinium, Gonyaulax, Dinophysis,and Prorocentrum, Prof, Biitschli passes 
to the consideration of the genetic relations of the Cilioflagellata ; 
he concludes that they are derived from the Flagellata, but he is not 
certain whether there are differences sufficient to justify the establish- 


462 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ment of an independent group of the Mastigophora; we must always 
bear in mind their peculiar and characteristic mode of development ; 
as to the name which is ordinarily applied to the group, it is no doubt 
misleading. As he cannot with Klebs extend the term Peridinez 
beyond Peridinium and its allies, and as he cannot recommend the use 
of Stein’s term of arthrodele Flagellata, he proposes to make use of 
the term Dinoflagellata, which will call to mind the characteristic 
peculiarity of the group—the development of a transverse groove and 
the appended flagellum. 

As to the relationship of Noctiluca with the Cilioflagellata, he 
allows that there are certain points of resemblance, such as the longi- 
tudinal groove, the cilium with its rod-like organ, and the two flagella. 
The so-called swarm-spores of Noctiluca recall a number of the 
characters of the Cilioflagellata, such as the backward direction of the 
flagellum ; other points of resemblance are discussed. The difficulty 
in the way is that no direct observations have yet been made on the 
further development of these swarmers. Biitschli suggests that as 
they grow the transverse groove is lost, a portion perhaps becoming 
the anterior margin of the atrium. This last is found as a depression ; 
changes occur in the size and relations of the flagella,and so on. But 
the question can only be set at rest by an exact study of all the 
changes which occur in the course of development. 


Cenchridium.*—Dr. E. v. Daday remarks that the groove in the 
test of this Cilioflagellate is not, as Stein thought, homologous with 
the ventral suture of the Prorocentrina, but is merely due to ridges of 
the test, such as extend from one end to the other, and divide it into 
two equal halves. The protoplasm never completely fills the internal 
cavity of the test; it is rare for it to be yellow in colour. An oval 
nucleus and smaller scattered masses of various sizes are distinctly 
to be observed, as well as small, brownish-yellow, rounded alge, 
which are, of course, foreign bodies. It is very important to note 
that the protoplasm changes continually its form and place. The 
author repeatedly saw the protoplasm streaming out through the 
siphon, and then branching into very fine pseudopodia; with the 
change in form and shortening of these pseudopodia we may correlate 
the locomotive movements of the animalcule. Dr. v. Daday comes 
to the conclusion that the Cenchridium of Ehrenberg and Stein (with 
which is synonymous the Entosolenia of Williamson) i is not a Cilio- 
flagellate, but a Rhizopod, and that the species are really members of 
the genus Lagena. The contained alge are representatives of 
Brandt's Zooxanthelle, and are not to be regarded as having been 
swallowed as nutriment; food is obtained by means of the pseudo- 
podia. Prof. A. Gruber + points out that he has already (1884) shown 
that Cenchridium is a Rhizopod, allied to Lagena. 


Phosphorescent Flagellate Infusorian.t—Dr. A. A. Julien de- 
scribes a minute organism, which he regards as the cause of the phos- 
phorescence of the sea. He obtained it from the sea off the coast of 


* Zool. Anzeig., ix. (1886) pp. 15-9. + Tom. cit., p. 200. 
{ Trans. New York Acad. Sci., v. (1885) pp. 15-6, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 463 


New Jersey, in which were also Salpx and Medusx, the phosphor- 
escence of which would not account for the milky glow on the water. 
He was unable to observe any phosphorescence in the organism itself 
when examined microscopically, but when alcohol was poured into 
the water points of light were produced; damp sand from the shore 
exhibited the same phenomenon. At first the author thought the 
organism was a small species of Noctiluca, but that idea has been 
given up. In the discussion which followed the reading of the paper, 
Mr. C. F. Cox suggested that the organism was a bacterium, and con- 
nected with decay of the Meduse. Dr. N. L. Britten considered that 
they were zoospores of Medusz, while Prof. D. 8. Martin thought it 
probable that they were a very young stage in the development of 
Salpa. 


Pulsating Vacuoles of Infusoria.*—M. Z. Fiszer describes his 
observations on the structure of the vacuoles in Aspidisca lynceus and 
Paramecium aurelia, especially with reference to the statement of 
older observers that the vacuole is separated from the surrounding 
protoplasm by a special membrane ; he adopts, on the contrary, the © 
more recent view that it is a simple cavity in the interior of the 
protoplasm-body. In P. aurelia he was able to see directly how the 
canals which radiate from the vacuoles swell up, after the dis- 
appearance of the vacuole, till their converging ends meet, and then 
these swellings coalesce into a new vacuole. 

The author confirms Oscar Schmidt’s statement that the pulsating 
vacuoles communicate with the surrounding water by a special exit, 
and expel their contents when they contract. This view was confirmed 
by the observation that in Aspidisca, at the moment of contraction, 
the vacuole is distinctly renewed outwards. 

As to the physiological function of the vacuoles, the author came to 
the conclusion that their main purpose is to serve as a means of carrying 
away the water which has been deprived of atmospheric oxygen, 
although possibly products of metastasis may at the same time be 
excreted through them. In all the species examined, as Stylonychia 
mytilus, S. pustulata, Chilodon cucullus, Pleuronema chrysalis, Parame- 
cium aurelia, &c., when placed in water that had been boiled and then 
rapidly cooled, the vacuoles, instead of pulsating more slowly, behaved 
in exactly the opposite way, contracting and again expanding three or 
four times more quickly than in ordinary conditions. An exception 
was afforded by Acineta mystaxz, in which water destitute of oxygen did 
not quicken the pulsations; but the vacuoles swelled up to three 
times their original size ; the increased amount of water expelled at 
each pulsation replacing the increased rapidity of the pulsations. The 
same results were obtained by gradually replacing the water beneath 
the cover-glass by boiled water. The phenomenon lasted, however, 
only for a short time, the Infusoria soon perishing under such 
conditions. 

The physiological function of the pulsating vacuoles is, from 


* Wszechswiat Warsaw, iv. (1885) (in Polish). See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. 
(1886) p. 34. 


464 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


these observations, thus described :—The water which enters through 
the mouth is distributed between the particles of protoplasm, invests 
them, and gives off its oxygen to them ; it then becomes unserviceable 
to the organism, and must be expelled to make room for currents of 
water from without containing oxygen. The water thus used up 
collects at first in the canals, through which it flows to the vacuole, 
which then, after it is filled, expels its contents by the contraction of 
the surrounding protoplasm. 


Protoplasmic Layers in Rhizopoda.*—Prof. A. Gruber reviews 
some of the opinions held in regard to the often-disputed question as 
to the existence of distinct zones in the protoplasm of Rhizopods. 

While many have distinguished ectoplasm and endoplasm, Maggi 
defines three layers, ecto-, meso- and endo-plasm, and Brass four. 
Agreeing with Biitschli in his criticism of Brass, Prof. Gruber 
explains the supposed presence of distinct layers as due either to the 
artificial results of staining, or to temporary aggregation of granules 
and vacuoles, and emphasizes the homogeneity especially manifest 
before division. He calls attention to the fact, observed independently 
by Wallich and by himself, that contact with the water seems to 
produce round the Rhizopod body a certain stiffening of the plasma, 
to which Wallich has also referred the definiteness exhibited by the 
food-vacuoles. 


Recent Irish Foraminifera.t—Messrs. F. P. Balkwill and J. 
Wright report on recent foraminifera collected off the coast of Dublin 
and in the Irish Sea; in the systematic table 148 species are 
enumerated, of which 14 are new to the British fauna. Of the latter, 
Ophthalmidium carinatum, Lagena curvilineata, Discorbina tuberculata, 
Nonionina pauperata, are new species. 


Parasitic Protozoa in Asthmatic Sputa.{—Dr. Deichler reports 
the presence in asthmatic sputa of organisms of constant form which 
have a superficial resemblance to leucocytes, but are seen to differ 
from them in their structure and vital phenomena. ‘They tend to be 
curved on themselves, and to have a central space which is occupied 
by a smaller mass of protoplasm. Though convinced that he has here 
to do with a protozoon, the author is undecided as to whether it is a 
rhizopod, infusorian, or one of the Flagellata. 


Protozoan Parasites in Termites.§—Prof. B. Grassi describes and 
figures a new Protozoan parasite found in great abundance in the 
intestine of Calotermes flavicollis. It resembles the Lophomonas 
found in the intestine of Blatia, having a variable form, without 
mouth or contractile vacuoles, and bearing at the anterior extremity a 
large tuft of numerous vibratile flagella, at the base of which the 
nucleus is seen. It differs from Lophomonas in the possession of a 
complex internal skeleton, occupying the longitudinal axis, and com- 


* Biol. Centralbl., vi. (1886) pp. 5-8. 

+ Trans. R. Trish Acad., xxviii. (1885) pp. 317-68 (8 pls.). 
{ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xliii. (1885) pp. 144-8. 

§ Acad. Gicenia, Sci. Nat., xviii. (1885) 6 pp. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 465 


posed of a vertical rib, like that of the Trichomonads, and of curved 
and claviform little rods, disposed in a bundle round the anterior end of 
the rib. Unlike Lophomonas, this parasite (Jenia annectens) exhibits 
no denser and darker tract in the anterior portion of the body. Pos- 
teriorly the body is furnished with cilia-like processes, which were 
never seen in motion, and which seemed to be direct processes of the 
ectoplasm. The protozoon was fed with wood-crumbs, and anterior 
pseudopodia-like processes (possibly abnormal) were observed, Prof. 
Grassi discusses similar parasites described by Leidy, and would 
unite one of these, Trichonympha agilis, with his Lophomonadidea, 
under the name L. trichonympha. He places the Lophomonadidea 
among the flagellates, beside the Trichomonads, Magospheras, Sinure, 
and perhaps Mallomonads. 


Amyloid Granules of Gregarinida.*—M. E. Maupas has found 
amyloid granules in the cytosome of all Gregarinids he has examined ; 
they vary considerably in size, from 1 to 20 yp; they are oval, 
spherical, discoid, or irregular in form, and yet in every species of 
Gregarine (and of Infusorian) there is a characteristic and specific 
form; indeed, in the case of difficult species, they will furnish an 
excellent criterion. Among the large granules some are often found 
in which the mass is differentiated into concentric layers, similar to 
those of vegetable starch ; and like them, they present, with polarized 
light, a polarization-cross; this, with direct solar rays on the mirror 
of the Microscope, can be seen even in granules 2 » long. The 
author gives an account of the chemical tests which he has applied, 
and comes to the conclusion that the granules are composed of a body 
which resembles starch rather than glycogen; and he proposes to 
replace the term of paraglycogen proposed by Biitschli for that of 
zoo-amylum; from the chemical point of view the body is interest- 
ing as affording us an amyloid substance which reduces mixtures of 
copper and potash without there being any suspicion of an admixture 
of glucose; from the view of general cellular physiology their mode 
of formation is no less interesting, for they arise in the midst of a 
protoplasmic mass without the intermediation of any special organs, 
comparable to the amyloplasts of plants. 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 120-3, 


466 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


BOTANY. 


A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Phanerogamia. 


a. Anatomy.* 


Continuity of Protoplasm.t—Mr. 8. Le M. Moore has studied the 
phenomena connected with the continuity of protoplasm in several 
species of Strychnos, and describes the difference presented in the _ 
different cases, as also in Diospyros embryopteris and melanoxylon. As 
a staining material he finds Judson’s Oxford-blue and Sands’ blue to 
answer as well as Hofmann’s blue recommended by Gardiner. For 
permanent preparation the best mounting medium is water or calcium 
chloride. Mr. Moore dissents from Tangl’s statement that the 
employment of ordinary reagents causes in all cases total plasmolysis. 
The best way of observing plasmolytic threads is to place sections in a 
drop of solution of iodine in alcohol on a slide, a minute or so after- 
wards placing a cover-slip upon them, and examining either in this 
state, or after addition of a small quantity of water. Although easily 
overlooked, the threads can then readily be made out with care; in 
many cases they may be seen to run into the intramural threads. 

The author then proceeds to describe the phenomena of continuity 
in a considerable number of Floridee. He adopts the view that the 
continuity is always direct in the early history of the cells, and in some 
cases (Chondrus, Polyides, Furcellaria) persistently so; while in others 
direct continuity may persist in one part of the thallus, and be 
supplanted by the indirect form in another (Ceramium rubrum, &c.). 
The young cells are placed in communication by means of a fine 
filament, upon which is in most cases placed a small nodule, just as a 
bead is strung upon a thread. The ground for this statement is that 
in surface-views of the nodule only a single small central pore can be 
seen, and that the thread itself, as slender as the single threads piercing 
the membrane of rings, cannot be seen to undergo division in passing 
the nodule. Attention is called to the rapid growth of the thread, 
accompanied by concurrent growth of the nodule to form a ring. 


Currents of Protoplasm.t—Herr A. Wigand distinguishes seven 
kinds of protoplasmic currents in the vegetable cell, vizi—(1) Cireu- 
lation, when the currents cross one another in different directions in 
the cell-cavity, and unite in rays round the nucleus which is suspended 
in the cavity. (2) Rotation, when the protoplasm moves in simple or 
branched paths, and the nucleus is applied to the cell-well. (8) The 
currents observed in the young endosperm-cells of Ceratophyllum, 


* This subdivision contains (1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm (including the 
Nucleus and Cell-division ; (2) Other Cell-contents (including the Cell-sap and 
emeene (3) Secretions; (4) Structure of Tissues; and (5) Structure of 

rgans. 

+ Journ. Linn. Soc Lond. (Bot.), xxi. (1886) pp. 595-620 © pls.). 

t Forsch. a. d. Bot. Garten Marburg, i. (1885) pp. 169-224. See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxv. (1886) p. 4. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 467 


where a thick string of protoplasm occurs in the centre of the cells, 
dividing at the end into fine branches. (4) In the hairs of Petunia 
hybrida and cells of the rhizome of Adoza, broad currents radiate from 
the nucleus, composed of a number of fine independent streamlets quite 
distinct from one another. (5) The revolution of the entire contents 
of a cell round its centre, asin Athalium septicum and Euglena viridis. 
(6) The movement of protoplasm dependent on light, which causes 
the change of position of the chlorophyll-grains. (7) The movement 
of minute strongly refractive granules irregularly and independently 
in the protoplasm in various directions. 

The author states that these currents commence on the formation 
of the vacuoles, and that the protoplasm and cell-sap are not separated 
by a membrane ofany kind. He attributes them to a periodical change 
in the capacity of protoplasm for absorption. 


Origin of Chlorophyll-grains.*— Herr K. Mikosch has in- 
vestigated the mode of origin of chlorophyll-grains, and has come to 
a different conclusion from Schimper and Meyer,} that they always 
arise from the division of grains already in existence. For his 
preparing fluid he employed a dilute 5-10 per cent. solution of cane- 
sugar, which causes no contraction during the first twenty minutes, 
and does not in the least disturb the protoplasmic currents in 
uninjured cells. A very instructive object for observation is the 
cotyledons of Helianthus annuus. 

If sections are first freed of oil by ether, and then placed in 
glacial acetic acid, the aleurone-bodies are dissolved, and there 
remains an undifferentiated reticulation of protoplasm. At a some- 
what later stage of development numerous granules are seen in the 
parietal layer which approach one another in places, and later still 
the homogeneous network becomes also granular, and in the meshes 
are seen larger or smaller very ill-defined protoplasmic bodies of 
various forms, which are the young chlorophyll-grains, and become 
green in the light. . 

In the very young leaves of Allium Cepa there are also no 
differentiated protoplasmic structures to be seen; what were described 
as such by Meyer were drops of oil. The protoplasm of the young 
meristem-cells at the base of the leaf has a framework structure, 
and particular parts of the framework develope into chlorophyll- 
grains. The growing-points of Hlodea and the young leaves of Zea 
were also found free of starch-generators. In the latter the starch 
which is conveyed from the endosperm to the young leaves can 
become organized at any spot, and especially where the protoplasm is 
densest, into starch-grains and chlorophyll-grains. Under other 
circumstances also he found that starch-grains are produced without 
the previous presence of starch-generators. 


Amount of Chlorophyll in Leaves.{—Dr. A. Hansen has carried 
out a series of experiments for the purpose of determining this point, 


* SB. K. Akad, Wiss. Wien, i. (1885) 30 pp. (2 pls.). 
+ See this Journal, iii. (1883) pp. 238, 525 ; iv. (1884) p. 81. 
} SB. Phys.-med. Gesell. Wiirzburg, 1885, pp. 140-4. 


468 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the plants employed being the sunflower, pumpkin, turnip, and 
tobacco. To isolate the chlorophyll (not separating the yellow and 
green pigments), he first boiled for a short time in water, and then 
extracted the chlorophyll by hot 96 per cent. aleohol. After saponi- 
fying the alcoholic solution, the pigment was extracted by alcohol- 
ether, evaporated, dried, and weighed. The results varied considerably 
with the species, but gave an average of 5142 gr. to 1 sq. metre of 
surface. Comparing this with Sachs’s statement that in favourable 
weather 1-6 gr. of starch are formed per hour per sq. m. (in the sun- 
flower and pumpkin), it follows that 0-2 gr. of the chlorophyll- 
pigment are employed in the production of 1:0 gr. of starch. Dr. 
Hansen believes that the chlorophyll-pigment acts as the carrier of 
carbon dioxide to the assimilating protoplasm in the chlorophyll- 
grains, 

Chlorophyll and the reduction of Carbonic Acid.*—By treating 
an alcoholic solution of chlorophyll with nascent hydrogen, M. C. 
Timiriazeff obtained a substance, which was yellow in dilute, and red 
in concentrated solutions. The spectrum of this substance showed 
a marked difference from that of chlorophyll; the line I in the red 
was absent, and a large band was present, extending some distance on 
each side of the position of line II of the chlorophyll spectrum. 
This substance rapidly becomes oxidized in contact with air, and 
turns green. The band I reappears in the spectrum when the 
slightest trace of oxygen is present. 

The author gives the name “protochlorophylline” or “ proto- 
phylline” to this substance, which he regards as a product of 
reduction of the green principle of chlorophyll, which he has already 
named ‘“‘chlorophylline.” Solutions of this substance, in sealed tubes 
with carbonic acid, retain their characteristics in the dark, but in sun- 
light rapidly become green, being converted into chlorophyll. The 
author is inclined to consider that the reduction of chlorophyll in 
living plants takes place apart from the plant itself, and that chloro- 
phyll is formed by oxidation at the expense of carbonic acid. He 
considers that this “ protophylline” exists in the living plant, and 
that the difference between the spectrum of freshly extracted chloro- 
phyll, and that which has undergone oxidation is due to the presence 
of this “ protophylline.” Moreover, protophylline is only a stage in 
the reduction; for if a mineral acid or an excess of carbonic acid be 
present under the described conditions, a complete destruction of 
colouring matter takes place. He expects that the study of these 
substances in the normal and etiolated state of living plants will 
throw a light on the chemical side of the action of chlorophyll, which 
has lately been studied only physically. ; 


Action of Chlorophyll in the Ultra-Violet Obscurity.;— MM. 
G. Bonnier and L. Mangin show that, in opposition to the ordinarily 
received doctrine that the action of chlorophyll (the absorption-of 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 686-9. Cf. this Journal, v. (1885) p. 837, 
ante, p. 281. 


+ Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 123-6, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 469 


carbonic acid and the elimination of oxygen) only takes place under 
the influence of light, its action goes on also under the influence of 
the dark or ultra-violet rays. They remark that the definition of 
luminous radiations is subjective, and varies with individuals; that 
one of the principal absorption-bands of chlorophyll is cut by the 
limits of the visible spectrum at the violet end, and that the rays 
which correspond to the second part of the band are invisible to our 
eyes. Asa proof of their position they give the following table :— 


Relation of the volume of carbonic acid 
given off to that of oxygen absorbed. 
a ee 


Species studied. Date. ie ag 4 tt aoe 
Pinus ewcelsa .. .. March 2 0°73 1:05 
Sarothamnus scoparius Sen, 0°66 0°84 
Pinus sylvestris... ate ae 0°85 Lede 
Erica cinerea... .. Hirdé 0°81 0:99 
Tlex Aquifolium si 3 hd 0:76 0°96 


Elements of Lactose in Plants.*—M. A. Miintz, after describing 
the methods by means of which mucilage, gums, pectous and mucous 
bodies can be obtained from plants, gives the percentage of these 
substances found in various plants used as food by man and domestic 
animals. 

Amongst grains, for instance, wheat contains 0°5 per cent. of 
pectose, which is situated chiefly in the bran; and 0°5 to 1-0 of 
gum, chiefly in the flour; barley contains 0-9 of pectose, 2°8 of gum. 
Amongst the Leguminose, white beans, broad beans, &c., have 2-0 to 
4-0 per cent. of pectous material, chiefly as pectate of lime, in the 
testa. In the oleaginous forms, such as clover and lucerne, a large 
quantity of gum, as much as 45-0 per cent., is found. Amongst 
fruits, apples contain 0°8 pectose, 0°5 gum; plums, 0°6 pectose, 
1-2 gum. Roots and tubers are generally rich in pectose and gums, 
e.g. carrot contains 1:0 to 2:0 per cent. of pectose, and 0°5 gum ; 
potato, 0°6 and 0-8. Greens contain pectate of lime; cabbage, 0-6 
to 1-2 per cent.; endive, from 0°5 to 1:0 per cent. of pectic acid. 
Amongst forage plants usually eaten by farm animals, grasses contain 
1:1 to 4°5 of pectose and 1:0 to 3:0 of gum, and so on. In fer- 
mented liquors, gums are always present, e. g. beer contains 10 grams 
per litre; cider, 5 grams. In all these cases the pectic acid obtained 
from the plant is identical, but the gums are either levorotatory as 
in fruits, or dextrorotatory, as in the Leguminose. By considering the 
above results it is possible to calculate what proportion of the prin- 
ciples able to form galactose, may be consumed by a milch-cow yield- 
ing a known quantity of milk perday. And the author finds (1) that 
the gums, mucilage, and pectous bodies of plants contain, in the 
products of their decomposition, galactose identical with that of milk 
sugar. (2) That these mucous substances exist in vegetable foods in 
such quantity that they can furnish galactose, which enters into the 


* Comptes Rendus, cii. (1886) pp. 681-4. 


470 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


constitution of the milk secreted by the mammary glands of the 
herbivora. The sequel to these researches will show if galactose, 
existing in plants in a state of varied combination, is the only source 
of the galactose of milk sugar; or if the animals during lactation 
can produce this sugar by the help of substances, the fundamental 
molecule of which is different, thus carrying on synthesis and trans- 
formations which we are more accustomed to meet with in the vege- 
table world. 


Rosanoff’s Crystals in Endosperm-cells of Manihot Glaziovii.*— 
Mr. S. Le M. Moore describes the occurrence of the above as the 
first recorded instance of the existence of crystals in a resting-tissue. 
They consist of calcium oxalate, and occur in four different forms— 
clinorhombic, sphere-crystals, five- or six-sided short prisms with plane 
faces, and twin-crystals. They are in various ways surrounded and 
attached to the wall of the inclosing cell by cellulose. 


, Allantoin, Asparagin, Hypoxanthin, and Guanin in Plants.;— 
Pursuing their previous researches on this subject,{ Herren HK. 
Schulze and E. Bosshard gives details of the occurrence and the pro- 
portion of these substances found in various plants. They find the 
quantity of amides formed to be larger when the plants are grown in 
the dark. 


Excretion of Salts from Leaves.§ — Herr A. Andrée claims to 
have established, as the result of experiment, that leaves transpire 
not only water, but soluble salts which have become superfluous for 
their vital processes; and that this takes place especially through the 
water-pores. Chlorides of magnesium and sodium were found to be 
excreted in this way. 


Growing-point of Phanerogams.||—Mr. P. Groom has come, on 
this subject, to quite a different conclusion from Dingler and 
Korschelt, who maintain the existence of a single apical cell in the 
growing-points of the stem of some Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. 
He considers their statement to result from errors of observation, 
resulting from the mode of preparation with potash, or from unequal 
focusing of the Microscope. Mr. Groom’s observations were made 
exclusively on the apex of old stems, or of the lateral branches of 
eld trees. The medium found to be most efficient was Noll’s eau de 
Javelle; optical longitudinal sections and surface-views were taken 
of nearly all the objects. The subjects were :—among Gymnosperms : 
Abies pectinata, Pinus canadensis and sylvestris, Taxodiwm distichum, 
Juniperus communis, and Ephedra altissima ; among Angiosperms: 
Elodea canadensis, Panicum plicatum, Festuca, Myriophyllum spicatum, 
Ceratophyllum demersum, Hippuris vulgaris, and Utricularia mmor. In 
none of these was an apical cell found, although a longitudinal section 
often gave a deceptive appearance of one. 


* Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.), xxi. (1886) pp. 621-4 (8 figs.), 

+ Zeitschr. Phys. Chem., ix. pp. 420-44. See Journ. Chem. Soc. (Abstr.), 
1885, p. 1007. 

{ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 97. 

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 313-6. || Ibid., pp. 303-12 (1;pl.), 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 471 


Lining of Intercellular Passages.*—-Herr H. Schenck has repeated 
the observations of Russowf and others on the alleged layer of 
protoplasm in the intercellular passages. He finds the layer described 
by Russow very generally present ; but agrees with Gardiner { that it 
is not protoplasmic in its character, but is rather the lignified or 
mucilaginous outermost layer of the cell-wall bounding the inter- 
cellular space. As Russow pointed out, this layer is especially 
noticeable in bog- and water-plants, as Nuphar lutea, Potamogeton 
natans, Limnanthemum nymphzoides, Hottonia, Utricularia, Myrio- 
phyllum, &c. Itis readily recognized by a potassium iodide solution 
of iodine (0°2 per cent. I, 1-64 per cent. KI) and sulphuric acid 
(when alcohol material is used 5-6 parts H,SO, to 1 part H,O). If 
to a section saturated with the iodine solution beneath a cover-glass, 
the acid is introduced drop by drop, the wall of the parenchymatous 
cells surrounding the air-passages begins to swell, and to take an 
intense blue colour, while the passages are bounded by a delicate 
lighter or darker yellow, or reddish-brown pellicles of a cuticular 
character, as is clearly shown by treatment by Schultze’s maceration- 
process, viz. boiling in potassium chlorate and nitric acid, when the 
lining in question is completely dissolved. : 


Capacity of Bark for Swelling.s—According to Herr R. Mann, 
the capacity for swelling of a zone of bark differs in intensity, as a 
rule, in the three dimensions; that in the radial direction being 
almost always greater than in the other two. Each zone of the bark 
appears to acquire a specific capacity for swelling. 


“Ant-plants” of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago and New 
Guinea. || —Dr. O. Beccari gives a summary of what is at present 
known respecting this remarkable group of plants, in which ants 
take up their residence in special chambers in the tissue, and plant 
and animal seem each necessary to the life of the other. A good 
example is furnished by Acacia cornigera, and its connection with a 
particular species of ant, Pseudomyrma bicolor, which makes its nest 
in the strong bifurcate spines of the stem and branches, after perfo- 
rating them near their apex. They devour the pulpy interior of 
the spine, and then find nutriment in the saccharine and nutritive 
substances in the glandular structures of the young leaves. Here 
they remain always on the alert, forming an army of defence against 
herbivorous animals and other species of ants which would destroy the 
leaves. If cultivated where these friendly ants cannot gain access 
to it, the plant appears to perish. 

Another exceeding good illustration of these formigerous plants 
is Myrmecodia, an epiphytic genus of Rubiacex, and others are found 
scattered through the orders Myristicacez, Euphorbiacez, Verbenacez, 
Melastomacee, and Palme. 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 217-25 (1 pl.). 

+ See this Journal, iv. (1884) p. 404. t Ibid., p. 585. 

§ Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., iv. (1885) pp. 348-73. See Bot. Centralbl., xxy, 
(1886) p. 6. 

|| Malesia, ii. (1884) 128 pp. and 25 pls. See Arch. Ital. de Biol., vi. (1885) 
pp- 305-41. 


472, SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Dr. Beccari explains the phenomenon on the basis of variability 
and heredity. When a seed of Myrmecodia falls on the branch of a 
tree and germinates, a small swelling makes its appearance on the 
tigellum, serving the purpose of a reservoir of water for the plant 
during the dry season, but never attaining any great development 
without the intervention of ants. When these visit it for the sake of 
food, they cause a hypertrophy of the cellular tissue similar to that of 
galls; and this individual peculiarity is transmitted to the descendants 
until it becomes fixed by heredity. These phenomena occur in many 
species of Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum. 

Dimorphism of Jasminum.*—Sig. R. Pirotta describes a species 
of Jasminum, J. revolutwm Sims, with short-styled and long-styled 
flowers, accompanied by the ordinary differences in the position of the 
stamens and the size of the pollen-grains. Both forms are proter- 
androus. 

Causes of the Zygomorphy of Flowers.{—Dr. H. Véchting dis- 
tinguishes between two kinds of zygomorphy, constitutional, when 
the flower itself developes a monosymmetrical form, e. g. Aconitum ; 
and accidental, when the original polysymmetrical form of the 
flower becomes monosymmetrical by the movements of particular parts. 
This last kind of zygomorphy, of which Epilobiwm angustifolium is 
a good example, is entirely the result of geotropism, which causes the 
sepals and petals to bend upwards, the stamens and styles to bend 
downwards. 

Bud-Scales of Conifers,{—As the result of an examination of sixty- 
three species, Herr J. Gruss states that in by far the greater number of 
conifers the young shoots are covered by bud-scales furnished with a 
very resistent epidermis on their under side, usually composed of elon- 
gated sclerenchymatous cells, the outermost wall of which is much 
thicker than the rest, and distinctly laminated; they usually possess 
pores and a delicate cuticle; the cell-cavity is small, and sometimes 
entirely closed. This typical form occurs in Picea, Abies, Tsuga, 
Pinus, Cedrus, Larix, and Torreya, 

A considerable number of conifers (Cephalotaxus, Podocarpus, &c.), 
have buds with a simple epidermis. In Araucaria Bidwillii and 
Cunninghamia sinensis there are no buds, the period of growth begin- 
ning with the development of scale-like leaves, which exhibit the 
structure of ordinary leaves only to a rudimentary extent. These 
species present a transition to those like the Cupressinee, which pro- 
duce no bud-scales. 

In many cases the development of bud-scales is clearly related to 
the habit and climate of the species. 


Mechanism for the Opening of Pore-capsules-§—According to 
Dr. G. Beck the bursting of pore-capsules is always due to the drying 


* Rend. R. Istit. Lombardo, xviii. (1885) 5 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. 
(1886) p. 201. 

+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 341-5. 

t Griiss, J., ‘Die Knospenschuppen der Coniferen, 43 pp. and 1 pl., Berlin, 
1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. (1886) p. 38. 

§ Verhandl. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxv. (1886) pp. 23-4. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSCOPY, ETC. 473 


of the pericarp. The various modes may be arranged under four 
different types, viz. :— 

1. In the genera of Campanulacee, Campanula, Adenophora, Tra- 
chelium, Phytewma, and Specularia, the pores are formed between the 
veins of the pericarp, and are due to the bending outwards of wedge- 
shaped masses of sclerenchyma in particular parts of the dissepi- 
ments, 

2. In the genus Masschia the opening of the pericarp is the result 
of several superposed transverse fissures, in consequence of a rupture 
of the thin portions of the pericarp-wall between the masses of vascular 
bundles. 

3. In Antirrhinum and Linaria the pores arise in previously formed 
projections at the apex of the capsule, and the bursting takes place 
suddenly and irregularly. 

4, In Papaver the pores are the result of the contraction and 
bending upwards of the rays of the stigma; a loculicidal pore being 
formed corresponding to each partial loculus of the capsule. 


Dorsiventral Structure of the Roots of Orchidew.*—M. E. de 
Janczewski has examined the structure of the aerial roots of a number 
of Orchidew, and finds that, while many have a radiar structure like 
that of the earth-roots, others, as those of Aéranthus fasciola, Phale- 
nopsis amabilis, Sarcanthus rostratus, and Epidendron nocturnum, have 
a remarkable dorsiventral structure which is much the most strongly 
developed in the first-named. 

In the aerial roots of this epiphytic orechid—which are of great 
length compared to the very abbreviated leafless stem, and are the 
only assimilating organs—the velamen consists, on the upper surface 
and the margin, of only a single layer, which perishes very early, 
giving a dark-green colour to these parts; while the under side, 
where the velamen is well developed, is white. The root-hairs and 
air-chambers are confined to the under side; the latter are in connec- 
tion with the intercellular system. The central vascular cylinder has 
the ordinary radiar structure. 

Externally these roots are flat on the upper side, with deep longi- 
tudinal furrows, the under side forming a projecting angle; and the 
history of development shows that this structure is congenital and is 
not the result of external conditions, such as light. 


Roots acting as Leaves-{—Dr. Fritz Miller reports a unique 
instance of an epiphytic orchid, Aéranthus, which, though only con- 
sisting of roots and heads of small flowers, nourishes itself indepen- 
dently, since the long, much coiled roots contain chlorophyll, and thus 
act as leaves. 


Vernation and Methods of Development of Foliage as protective 
against Radiation.{— Rev. G. Henslow describes the vernation and 
mode of opening of the leaves of a number of woody and herbaceous 


* CR. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, xii. (1884). See Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), ii. (1885) 
pp. 55-81 (3 pls.). 
+ Kosmos, ii. (1885) p. 443. See Biol. Centralbl., v. (1886) p. 765. 
¢ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.), xxi. (1886) pp. 624-33 (15 figs.). 
Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. os 


474 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


plants, and deduces the conclusion that vernation, conduplication; 
the various positions taken up by developing leaves, &c., all conspire 
to protect them from the evil effects of radiation. 


Anatomy and Morphology of submerged Monocotyledons.*— 
M. T. Holm gives a detailed description of the structure of two sub- 
merged species of Monocotyledons, Halophila Bailloni, a marine 
plant, and Hlodea densa, from Brazil. 


Leaves of Sagittaria.t—According to M. J. Costantin, the two 
forms of leaf of Sagittaria sagittefolia are not the result of external 
conditions, and do not pass the one into the other, but are distinct 
from the bud-condition. The ribbon-shaped leaves undergo great 
change when they come into contact with the air, only then developing 
stomata and palisade-tissue. When the plant grows at a great depth 
in the water, it has not sufficient vitality to produce the arrow-shaped 
leaves, and does not flower. 


Anatomy of the Leaves of Aroidese.{—The examination of a 
large number of species of Aroides leads Dr. M. Dalitzsch to the 
conclusion that the anatomical structure of the leaves affords cha- 
racters for their systematic classification, derived from the presence 
or absence of intercellular sclerenchymatous fibres, the presence or 
absence of laticiferous tubes, and from the form in which the oxalate 
of lime is deposited in the cells. The leaves of Spathiphyllum, Rhaphi- 
dophora, Monstera, and Scindapsus have intercellular sclerenchyma- 
fibres, but no latex-tubes; the remaining genera have latex-tubes, but 
not the intercellular fibres. Raphides-cells are especially abundant 
in Oolocasia. Amorphophallus and Acorus have no crystals; the latter 
abounds in resin-cells. Large intercellular spaces are wanting only 
in Anthurium, Monstera, Spathiphyllum, and Scindapsus, which grow on 
rocks, or epiphytically on trees; they occur in the epiphytic Philo- 
dendra, but are filled, not with air, but with a very thin mucilage, 
often containing tannin. The red and yellow dots which occur 
especially on the under side of the leaf of many species of Anthurium 
are glands, the secretion being formed between the cuticle and the 
epidermal membrane. 


Closing of the Scar after the Fall of the Leaf.s—According to 
Herr L. Staby, the healing of the wound after the fall of the leaf 
takes place in four different ways, viz.:—1l. By drying up of the 
surface of the wound (tree-ferns); 2. By the formation of reticulated 
cells (Orchidex) ; 3. By the formation of periderm; this is much the 
most common mode; 4. By temporary closing by gum; this is also 
very common. 


* Bih. K. Svenska Vetens.-Akad. Handl., ix. (1885) (4 pls.). See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxv. (1886) p. 6. : 

+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii. (1885) pp. 218-23. 

+ Bot. Centralbl., xxv. (1886) pp. 153-6, 184-7, 217-9, 249-53, 280-5, 312-8, 
343-9 (1 pl.). 

§ Staby, L., ‘Ueb. d. Verschluss der Blattnarben nach Abfall d. Blatter,” 
39 pp., Berlin, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. (1886) p. 38. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 475 


8. Physiology. * 


Fertilization of Greenland Ericacee.fj—Prof. E. Warming speaks 
of the biology of the species of Ericaceze gathered in Greenland, 
sixteen in all, especially with reference to the arrangements for polli- 
nation. All have coloured flowers; many are scented, and all except 
Pyrola produce honey. The position of the corolla, and the very 
common presence of hairs inside, all point to cross-fertilization, 
although in most cases self-fertilization is quite possible. The pollen- 
grains are in all cases smooth and dry, and united into tetrads. All 
the Greenland Ericacee are more or less shrubby; and in all, except 
Vaccinium uliginosum, the leaves are deciduous. 


Influence of Oxygen at high Pressure on the Disengagement of 
Carbonic Anhydride by Germinating Plants.{—The general result 
of the experiments made by Dr. W. Johannsen with air and oxygen at 
the ordinary pressure, and at 2, 4, and 5 atmospheres, is that the 
disengagement of carbonic anhydride increases at first as the pressure 
of oxygen increases, but that this increase is only temporary; the 
respiration gradually diminishes (more quickly as the pressure is 
greater), and the plants rapidly die. The most interesting result of 
the experiments is the discovery of an inductive effect exercised by 
the presence of oxygen at a high pressure for a short time; as soon 
as the ordinary pressure is restored a great increase in the respiration 
is obtained, amounting to as much as 50 per cent. in the case of maize. 
The cause of this inductive action is unknown. 


Assimilation and Respiration.s—Prof. U. Kreusler has carried 
out a series of experiments with the view of determining the proportion 
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere most favourable to the assimila- 
tion of plants, and finds that it lies between 1 and 10 per cent. In 
dry air plants assimilate much less strongly than in air that is mode- 
rately moist; hence the comparative suspension of the growth of 
vegetation during very dry weather. Complete saturation of the 
atmosphere appears to have in itself no unfavourable influence on 
transpiration. The effect of the electric light, as compared with day- 
light, whether diffused or direct sunshine, was very greatly to reduce 
the amount of assimilation in proportion to the respiration. 


Apical growth and Phyllotaxis.|| —Prof. S. Schwendener brings 
further arguments in favour of his view that there is no coincidence 
in the mode of apical growth in all the higher plants. It is well 
established that in the roots of Marattiacez there are four apical cells. 


* This subdivision contains (1) Reproduction (including the formation of the 
Embryo and accompanying processes); (2) Germination ; (3) Nutrition; (4) Growth; 
(5) Respiration ; (6) Movement ; and (7) Chemical processes (including Fermen- 
tation). 

+ SB. Botan. Sallsk. Stockholm, April 22,1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. 
(1886) p. 30. 

} Untersuch. Bot. Instit. Tiibingen, 1885, pp. 686-717. Cf. Journ. Chem. 
Soe. Lond., 1. (1886) p. 274. 

§ Verhandl. Naturh. Ver, Preuss. Rheinlande, xlii. (1885) pp. 330-7. 

|| SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., xl. (1885) pp. 921-37 (1 pl.). 

212 


476 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


In the Gymnosperms the three-sided apical cell is sometimes replaced 
by a four-sided one, sometimes by several. In the case of Araucaria 
excelsa ditferent shoots from the same individual gave different results. 

Notwithstanding the contrary assertion of Dingler, the researches 
of Pringsheim, Hanstein, Strasburger, and Pfeffer on Salvinia, Azolla, 
Marsilea, and Selaginella, show that there is no necessary connection 
between phyllotaxis and the septation of the segments. The author 
was unable to confirm the observations of Reess on Hquisetum scirpoides, 
that there was any definite connection between the formation of whorls 
and the segmentation of the apical cell. In Ferns with a three-sided 
apical cell the leaf-spiral is sometimes homodromous, sometimes anti- 
dromous to the spiral of the segments: in Struthiopteris the apical 
cell is two-edged, but the phyllotaxis spiral. In Mosses the relationship 
is simple because only one leaf proceeds from each segment. 


Influence of Light on the Formative Processes in Plants.*—For 
the purpose of experiments on this subject, Dr. E. Wollny, employed 
cubical zinc vessels filled with moist quartz-sand. One of these was 
completely darkened by being covered up by another similar vessel. 
The loss of water was replaced every day. The plants employed, 
maize, peas, and beans, were observed for 35 days after appearing 
above the soil. 

The conclusion arrived at was, that with decrease of the intensity 
of the light the growth in length of the stem (in dicotyledons), or of 
the leaves (in certain monocotyledons), was promoted, while, on the 
other hand, the development of the assimilating and of the nutritive 
organs and those for the absorption of water, was affected injuriously. 
The amounts of carbohydrates and of organic nitrogenous substances 
in the plant were in proportion to the intensity of the light, while the 
amount of water contained in the plant was in inverse proportion to 
the intensity of the light. 


Growth of Shoots of Potato when the roots are removed.|—Herr 
C. Kraus describes experiments on the effects of the removal of the 
roots from potato-tubers in relation to the retarding influence of 
light on the shoots. No very definite results are arrived at. 


Sensitive Movements of Plants.{—The late Prof. E. Morren gives 
a réswmé of the present state of our knowledge respecting the various 
kinds of movements in plants, and contends in favour of his view 
previously published of the essential identity of the process of digestion 
in plants and in animals. 


Effect of different parts of the Solar Spectrum on Transpiration.§ 
—Rev. G. Henslow gives a résumé of results obtained by various 
observers on this point, and discusses the various methods employed, 
pointing out in particular the uncertainty of experiments on detached 
parts of plants. He describes then a series of experiments of his own 


* Wollny’s Forsch. a. d. Geb. der Agriculturphysik, vii. (1885) pp. 351-75. 
See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. (1886) p. 141. 

+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1886) pp. 388-90. 

$ Bull. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belgique, x. (1885) pp. 851-900. 

§ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.), xxii. (1885) pp. 81-98. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 477 


on plants grown in pots, the pot itself being carefully inclosed in 
gutta-percha, so that no evaporation of water could take place except 
through the plant itself. Mr. Henslow’s general conclusions are in 
accordance with those of Wiesner. While obscure heat-rays cause 
a certain proportion of the loss of water by evaporation, transpiration 
per se is especially, if not entirely, due to those particular bands of 
light which are absorbed by chlorophyll; such light, when arrested, 
is converted into heat, which then raises the temperature within the 
tissues and causes the loss of water. 


Influence of high Temperatures on the Transpiration-current in 
Wood.*—The result of experiments on this subject by Herr C. A. 
Weber, for the purpose of testing the correctness of the imbibition 
theory, led to the conclusions that an entire chemical and physical 
change in the transverse section is without any essential influence on 
the ascent of the transpiration-current in branches of Ribes ; and that 
in branches of Corylus and Sambucus, a disturbance was caused by the 
withering of the leaves, which could be removed by placing in water 
of 40°-45° C. 


Conducting-capacity of Duramen.{—Herr C. Rohrbach has ex- 
perimented on the capacity for conducting water of the duramen of a 
number of trees and shrubs. His conclusion is that it has no power 
of doing this in sufficient quantity. The chief seat of the conduction 
of water is the alburnum, although the duramen, when present, may 
be able to assist to a limited extent. 


Imbibition of Wood.{—Prof. E. Godlewski derives the following 
conclusions on this subject from the results of a series of experiments :-— 

1. When wood dries, a decrease of volume takes place from the 
moment when all the water has disappeared from the cell-cavities ; 
under perfect desiccation this may amount to 20 per cent. of the 
original volume. 

2. As wood contracts, the absolute capacity of the cells increases, 
a fact which points to a stronger contraction of the cell-walls in the 
radial than in the tangential direction. 

3. When the desiccation of the wood has not advanced so far, the 
cell-walls absorb, in air saturated with aqueous vapour, as much water 
as they had previously lost by evaporation, the capacity of the cells 
diminishes, and the wood again assumes the condition in which it 
existed before the contraction. 

4, When the desiccation has advanced further, it absorbs less 
water when brought into air saturated with vapour than it contained 
before the contraction, but it again assumes its original volume, so 
that the capacity of the cells has again increased, a proof that the 
imbibed water is deposited more in the tangential than in the radial 
direction between the molecules of the cell-wall. 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 345-71. 

+ Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., iv. (1885) pp. 319-47. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. 
(1886) p. 105. 

t Verhandl. Polon. Gesell. Naturf. “ Copernicus.” See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. 
(1886) p. 236. 


478 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


5. When completely dried and then swollen again in a moist 
atmosphere and again dried, wood contracts less than when quite 
fresh, but shows a greater volume than fresh wood similarly dried. 

6. From these facts it is shown that when wood is but slightly 
dried the molecular structure of the walls undergoes no change, but 
that changes take place as soon as the desiccation is more complete. 
It is not therefore possible to infer the quantity of water imbibed by 
the cell-walls of wood in the fresh condition, from the imbibition of 
wood dried at 100° C. 


Carbonates in Living Plants.*—MM. Berthelot and G. André have 
estimated the amount of soluble and insoluble carbonates in the root, 
stem, leaves, and flowers of different plants, at different stages of their 
growth; the analyses are given in detail. Fresh plants contain a 
certain amount of free carbon dioxide produced by internal oxidation. 
In the root, leaves, and flowers, the carbon dioxide is mainly in the 
free state, while in the stem it seems to exist entirely in the form of 
carbonates. 


Relation of the Vegetable Acids to Assimilation.;—Using De 
Vries’s curcuma-test for the presence of vegetable acids in parts of 
plants, Herr O. Warburg has determined that in succulent plants the 
two processes of the formation and disappearance of the acids are 
going on at the same time, the increase or decrease of these sub- 
stances depending on their relative energy. Thin-leaved plants show, 
as a rule, no difference in the amount of acid by day and by night. 
Plants with dry leathery leaves show, on the contrary, a small diminu- 
tion by day; this being much more considerable in most succulent 
plants, as Crassulacer, Aloines, Kuphorbiacez, and Stapelies (some 
Asclepiades and Composite form an exception), and still greater in 
the epiphytic Orchides and Bromeliacese. Experiments on etiolated 
plants and on normal plants under coloured media, show that assimila- 
tion and the disappearance of acids are dependent on the same con- 
ditions, the latter being much the strongest with the least refrangible 
rays of the spectrum. The author infers that the acids are used up 
in a kind of intramolecular assimilation. The abundance of acids in 
succulent plants is due to imperfect oxidation. The acid present in 
largest quantities appears to be malic acid. 


Assumed Bacterian Origin of Diastase.{—M. E. Laurent has put 
to an experimental test the theory of Béchamp and others § that the 
formation of diastase in the higher plants, whether in germination 
or in other metastatic processes, is due to the presence of bacteria in 
the interior of the tissues. Besides the ordinary appliances for 
sterilizing the vessels and instruments employed, M. Laurent placed 
living parts of plants in a suitable nutrient substratum, after freeing 
them entirely from bacteria, and preventing, as far as possible, infec- 
tion through the air. The substrata employed were Koch’s nutrient 


* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 24-30. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 105. 
+ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 280-9. 

{ Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belgique, x. (1885) pp. 38-57. 

§ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 693. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 479 


gelatin and plum-juice. Entire seeds of Zea, Hordeum, Helianthus, 
&c., were carefully washed with a 0°2 per cent. solution of sublimate, 
and then grown in the prepared substratum. The greater number of 
cultures remained entirely free from bacteria. The same was the 
case when pieces of tissue of growing seeds were placed in the same 
solutions with the same precautions. The general result obtained 
was that no bacteria are present in living vegetable tissues, and that 
the fermentative processes in them are due to the vital activity of the 
cells. 

In the same way M. Laurent demonstrated that the power 
possessed by germinating seeds of reducing nitrates to nitrites is 
independent of the presence of bacteria. 


Selective Alcoholic Fermentation.*—According to M. E. Bour- 
quelot, there is no such thing as real selective fermentation; in a 
mixture of sugars each constituent ferments according to its own 
peculiar laws independently of the other constituents. When yeast 
is introduced into a mixture of maltose and levulose, or of glucose 
and levulose, both sugars ferment simultaneously, but at unequal 
rates. In the first mixture the levulose ferments more rapidly than 
the maltose, while in the second the glucose ferments more rapidly 
than the levulose. In both cases, however, at a certain stage in the 
fermentative process, the order of selection or the relative rate of 
fermentation becomes reversed. This arises simply from differences 
in the rate of dialysis through the cell-wall. 


B. CRYPTOGAMIA, 


Cryptogamia Vascularia. 


Mode of Dissemination of the Spores in Vascular Crypto- 
gams.}—M. Leclerc du Sablon states that the mode in which this 
function is effected is the same in all vascular cryptogams except the 
aquatic Rhizocarpex, viz. by the action of desiccation. 

Taking Polystichum Filia-mas as a type of ferns, the dehiscence 
of the sporange commences at the spot where the annulus ceases; 
this latter gradually straightens, and then curves in the opposite 
direction. The spores remain attached to the annulus, and are 
detached and thrown to a distance by its sudden return to its original 
position. This is the mode of dehiscence of the sporange in all the 
Polypodiacez, and the process is the same in all essential points in 
Trichomanes, in Schizea, in Todea and other Osmundacee, and in the 
Marattiacew. In the Ophioglossacee the dehiscence is effected by 
the unequal tension of the epidermal and subepidermal layers of cells 
of the epidermis of the sporange. 

In the Equisetaceze the cells of the wall of the sporange have 
annular or spiral thickenings, and the dehiscence is caused by 
inequality of contraction resulting from this circumstance. The 


* Comptes Rendus, ec. (1885) pp. 1404-6, 1466-9. 
j Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), ii. (1885) pp. 5-27 (1 pl.). 


480 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


active movements of the spores themselves depend upon unequal 
lignification of the elaters. 

The structure of the sporange of Lycopodiacee and the macro- 
sporange of Selaginellacee is nearly uniform, and was studied in 
Selaginella, Psilotum, Tmesipteris, and Isoetes. 'The outer walls of 
the epidermal cells are composed of pure cellulose, while the inner 
and side walls are lignified, and dehiscence is caused by the outer 
face of the cells contracting more than the inner face in dry air. 


Vascular System in Davallia.*—M. A. Trécul classifies the 
species of this genus of ferns under four sections—Hudavallia, Leuco- 
stegia, Microlepia, and Odontoloma—and describes the structure of 
the fibrovascular system in each. 

In Eudavallia (D. pentaphylla, stenoearpa, canariensis, and elegans) 
there are in the central region of the stem two principal bundles, 
placed at some distance one above the other and parallel, the lower 
one being usually the larger. A transverse section shows other 
slenderer bundles, arranged in a curve on each side, and forming a 
network between the insertion of the superposed fronds. In each 
petiole are two anterior, and one, two, or three dorsal bundles, which 
may be wanting in the smaller fronds. 

In Microlepia (D. trichosticha and strigosa) and Leucostegia (D. 
immersa and Novee Zelandiz) the cellulo-vascular system of the stem 
takes the form of a continuous tube, open only at the insertion of 
the fronds. Odontoloma (D. repens) also has a tubular vascular 
system in the rhizome, but is not regularly thickened, as in the two 
preceding sections, and presents also other points of difference in its 
structure, which are described in detail. 


Stolons of Nephrolepis.t—M. A. Trécul replies to M. Lachmann’s 
contention { that these organs are cauline in their origin. He 
denies M. Lachmann’s statement that it is always the case in fern- 
stems that the vascular bundles are arranged radially, and that the 
small primordial vessels are always on the external face of the 
bundles, as in the roots. On the contrary, in the stem of many 
species, the bundles are disposed parallel to the circumference, and 
there are no small primordial vessels—annular, spiro-annular, reticu- 
lated, or spiral—except at the margin of the network, and only below | 
the insertion of the petiolar bundles. M. Trécul gives a number of 
examples of this structure. He does not consider the absence of a 
root-cap as by any means conclusive evidence that the structures in 
question are not of radicular origin, 


Muscineee.. 


Peristome of Mosses.§—Pursuing his researches on this subject, 
M. Philibert now describes the peristome of several species of Bryum, 
including one new one, B. Kindbergit. He regards the series of forms 


* Comptes Rendus, ci. (1885) pp. 1453-9. t+ Ibid., pp. 915-20. 
+ See this Journal. v. (1885) p. 1033. 
rae Rev. Bryologique, xii. (1885) pp. 81-5, Cf, this Journal, v, (1885) pp. 100, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 481 


allied to B. pendulum as indicating best how the external and internal 
peristome of the Bryacew represent, the one by its ventral, the other 
by its dorsal plates, the divisions of one and the same layer of cells 
analogous to that which composes the teeth of Splachnum. 


Abnormal developments in the Capsule of Mosses.*—Dr. K. M. 
Gottsche describes the following examples of abnormal development, 
viz.—(1) Two stems of Polytrichum gracile, with the setz perfectly 
distinct, and the capsules covered by a common bilocular calyptra; 
(2) P. juniperinum in which the seta perforates the calyptra, and 
bears at its summit the fully developed capsule ; (3) several examples 
of Bryum pseudotriquetrum with two or three capsules developed on one 
seta. The first abnormality results from two perfectly distinct 
archegonia, the hairy coverings of which (found in Polytrichum and 
Orthotrichum only) have become united in their growth. 


Fructification of Didymodon ruber.;—M. Philibert has for the 
first time met with this alpine moss in fruit. It is strictly diccious, 
the male and female plants forming separate tufts. M. Philibert 
recognizes in the Barbulacew a progressive evolution of the peristome, 
the extremes of which are represented on one side by Barbula, on the 
other side by Pottia, and of which the genera Didymodon, Desmatodon, 
and Trichostomum are intermediate terms. Didymodon rubellus and 
ruber represent two degrees of this evolution, which, starting from the 
structure common to the Aplolepidex, reaches a very special type; the 
peristome of D. rubellus approaching more nearly the type of Poittia, 
that of D. ruber the type of Trichostomum. 


Scandinavian species of Orthotrichum and Ulota. {—In a mono- 
graph of the Scandinavian species of these genera based on the work 
of Venturi, Herr A. L. Gronvall describes seven new species. 


Regeneration of the Marchantiex. § —Dr. H. Véchting has made 
a series of observations of the vegetative power of reproduction dis- 
played by the thallus of the Marchantiex, using as his subject chiefly 
LIunularia vulgaris. 

The author distinguishes, in the first place, between organs with 
unlimited and those with limited power of growth, among the former 
being the thallus. By making sections of this in various directions 
he concludes that the new formations always arise on what is morpho- 
logically the under side, usually from the tissue of the mid-rib, and 
grow in the direction of the apex. This differentiation of upper 
and under side is not, however, dependent on the position of the 
shoot, nor on the relative illumination, but, according to the experi- 
ments of the author, on internal causes dependent on the organization 
of the thallus. Isolated masses of celis possess this faculty of new 


* SB. Gesell. Bot. Hamburg, Jan, 29, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. (1886) 
. 224. 
y + Rev. Bryologique, xii. (1885) pp. 89-94. 
{ Arsberatt. Malmo allm. laroverk, 1885, pp. 1-25 (1 pl.). See Bot, 
Centralbl., xxiv. (1885) p. 3. 
§ Pringsheim’s Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot., xvi. (1885) pp. 367-414 (4 pls.). 


482 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


formation, without reference to the part of the thallus to which they 
belonged. 

Of purely vegetative organs with limited growth, the wall of 
the cupule was the only one examined, and in this the new formations 
always originated at the base. The same was also the case with 
Marchantia polymorpha. The receptacle and its pedicel exhibited the 
same phenomena. If the latter is separated from the thallus, whether 
with or without the receptacle attached to it, vegetative shoots arise 
from its base, but at different heights, according to the vital con- 
ditions. When female receptacles are detached, the adventitious 
shoots spring either from near the cut surfaces or from the furrows 
on the under side of the rays of the receptacle. Separate rays, or even 
their outer ends, gave birth to such shoots from their base. 

With regard to the cause of the phenomenon, the author agrees on 
the whole with Pfliiger’s view. He believes that the locality and the 
nature of the newly formed organs do not depend on the accumulation 
of specific nutrient substances, but on the structure of the proto- 
plasmic framework and the mode of combination of its molecules. 
They are connected also with the properties of the gemmz or 
bulbils. 

Experiments on the development of the gemmez in Marchantia 
and Lunularia showed that the direction of the first division-wall, 
and the consequent eventual form of the organ, do not depend on 
gravitation ; every separate portion of the bulbil exhibits a polarity 
which the author again refers to the arrangement of the molecules in 
the protoplasmic framework. 

Attention was paid also to the histological structure of the 
adventitious shoots from the thallus, the pedicel of the receptacle, 
and the receptacle itself. In sections of the thallus these shoots 
always spring from the undermost cells of the cortex, or, when this 
is wanting, from the undermost layer of the parenchymatous tissue ; 
the ventral cortical layer of the mid-rib displays especial capacity 
for cell-division. When the shoot is being formed, the growing 
point appears behind its centre, and only subsequently occupies its 
normal lateral position as the result of displacement. Several shoots 
are usually formed side by side in the ventral furrow of the pedicel 
and in the furrows which pass along the rays of the receptacle. In 
both cases they originate by division of the outermost cortical cells 
which line the furrows. 


Abnormal Development of the Sporogonium of Lejeunia.*—Dr. 
K. M. Gottsche describes a peculiarity in the structure of the 
sporogonium in many species of Lejeunia from widely separated 
Iccalities, consisting in the excessive development of the parts de- 
signed for the protection of the fructification. The entire envelope 
appears to be composed of two superposed parts; the upper part 
retains its normal structure adapted to assist the development of the 
capsule and the spores, while the lower portion exhibits an unusual 


* SB. Gesell. Bot. Hamburg, Feb. 26, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxy. 
(1886) p. 255. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 483 


development of the part which usually constitutes the foot. The 
peculiarity does not appear to be the result of the attacks of insects 
or other parasites. 


Hepatice inclosed in Amber.*—Dr. K. M. Gottsche sums up 
what is at present known with regard to the remains of Hepatice 
which have been found inclosed in amber. He refers them to the five 
following genera, viz.—Frullania, Lejewnia, Radula, Scapania, and 
Jungermannia. 


Alge. 


Evolution of Alge.j—MM. E. Heckel and J. Chareyre trace the 
probable evolution of the various groups of alge from the simplest 
forms (chlorophyllaceous Protophyta), such as Protococcus, from 
which spring at once three parallel series distinguished by the colour 
of their endochrome, green, blue-green, and brown. Although this 
difference has, in itself, but little physiological value, being depen- 
dent on adaptation to external conditions as respects light, it never- 
theless serves as the point of departure of three distinct lines of 
descent. Of these the blue-green series never advances more than a 
few steps in development, the brown series attains a considerably 
higher degree of differentiation, while the green series developes into 
a far larger number of very distinct forms, finally giving birth to 
the Florides and Muscinez. 

The green series of alge derived from Protococcus divides at 
once into four parallel groups, the Siphonex, Coenobiew, Confervacer, 
and Conjugate. In the Siphonezx the single cell branches, and the 
different portions assume different functions; in the Ccoenobiew a 
number of intercellular organisms collect into a colony; in the 
Conjugatz and lower Confervacee the primitive cell divides into a 
multicellular filament ; in the higher Confervacew into a plate or 
mass of cells. 

The group of Siphonex starts from the Sciadiex, in which the 
conjugation of zoospores presents the first manifestation of sexuality. 
In the Bryopsides (Bryopsis, Caulerpa, Acetabularia, &e.), the 
thallus displays great ramification, and this family then gives birth 
to two branches, the Codiex with isogamous reproduction, and the 
Vaucheriez in which the sexual elements are differentiated into 
oospheres and antherozoids. 

The Coenobiee start from the isogamous Hydrodictyee, the next 
stage being the Volvocinez, at the base of which are isogamous types 
like Pandorina, advancing to others like Chlamydomonas in which the 
sexual elements differ only in size, closing with the higher Volvo- 
cine, like Volvox and Eudorina, in which heterogamy is displayed 
in the differentiation of antherozoids and oospheres. 

The Conjugate are all filamentous alge, commencing with the 
isogamous Desmidiew in which septation is only rudimentary, 


* SB. Gesell. Bot. Hamburg, Oct. 30, 1884. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. 
(1886) p. 95. 
+ Journ. de Micrographie, ix. (1885) pp. 452-8, 508-10. 


484 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


advancing to the truly septated forms, such as the Mesocarpex and 
Zygogonium which are truly isogamous, and finally, through Zygnema 
and Spirogyra, in which heterogamy is indicated by the immobility 
of one of the reproductive bodies, to Spirogonium with morphological 
differentiation of the sexual organs. 

The lowest member of the filamentous Confervacesw is the Ulotri- 
chacee, starting at once from the Sciadiex, and still displaying 
isogamy. From the Ulotrichaces spring the branches with a varying 
degree of differentiation, viz—(1) The Cladophoresw and Cheto- 
phorex, isogamous, with a filamentous thallus; (2) the Ulvacem, iso- 
gamous, with a membranous thallus; (3) the Mycoidez, parasitic 
and heterogamous, with oospheres and pollinodia; (4) the Sphero- 
pleez, which give origin directly to the Gidogoniex, and these again 
to two branches, the Coleochetex, Characez, and Muscinex. Possibly 
a fifth branch, unknown in its early stages, gives birth to the Floridez. 

The blue-green algz attain but a very limited development, the 
principal branches being the Oscillariez, filamentous and reproduced 
only by cysts, the Merismopediew with a membranous, and the 
Chroococcaceze with a massive thallus, the Nostocaces, characterized 
by the production of heterocysts, the Rivularies, and the Scyto- 
nemez. 

The brown alge commence with the Diatomaces, which are con- 
nected with the higher forms through Hydrurus and Chromophyton, the 
latter, with mobile zoospores, establishing a passage to the Phzo- 
sporee. At the base of the Phzospores are the Ectocarpacee, re- 
produced by non-sexual zoospores and by undifferentiated gametes, 
advancing then to the Sphacelaries, Laminariex, and Punctaries. 
Starting from these lower forms are three distinct more highly differ- 
entiated branches, the Dictyotexw, Cutleriacerx, and Fucacex, the last 
representing the highest type in the complete suppression of non- 
sexual reproduction. 

The evolution of the Floridex is traced by the authors from its 
youngest group the Bangiacew, which are closely allied to the Con- 
fervaces and Ulvacer, through the Nemaliez (Batrachospermex and 
Helminthocladez), whence are developed two parallel series of 
families. In the first of these, consisting of Gelidiew, Cryptonemies 
and Squamariex, the oosphere developes directly into a sporogonium ; 
in the second series, which includes the Ceramiacerx, Rhodomelex, 
Rhodymeniacex, and Corallinacez, it is not the oosphere, but an 
auxiliary cell in its neighbourhood, which, after receiving the 
contents of the latter, divides, like the oosphere itself in the first 
series, and gives birth to the sporogonium. 


Agardh’s Floridee.*—The most recent volume of Prof. J. G. 
Agardh’s ‘Contributions to the Systematic Classification of Algs’ 
is devoted to the Floridex, and contains descriptions of three new 
genera and between fifty and sixty new species. The new genera 
are :—Titanophora, belonging to the Nemastomex, with two species, 


* Agardh, J. G.,‘ Till Algernes Systematik,’ VII., Florides, 117 pp. and 1 pl., ~ 
4to, Lund, 1886. See Nature, xxxiii. (1886) p. 458. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 485 


T. incrustans (Halymenia incrustans J. Ag.) and T. Pikeana (Galax- 
aura Pikeana Dickie); Glaphyrymenia, belonging to the Rhody- 
meniaces, with one species; and Merrifieldia, also placed under 
Rhodymeniacezx, with one species, M. ramentacea (Chondria ramen- 
tacea OC. Ag., Hypnea ramentacea J. Ag.). The little-known genus 
Marchesettia Hauck is placed near Thamnoclonium ; and Melanoseris 
Zan. is closely allied to Pollexfenia. Halymenia saccata Harv. is 
placed under Bindera, and Amansia marchantioides under Placophora. 


New Fresh-water Algx.*—Mr. F. \Wolle describes a number of 
fresh-water alge from Florida, including the following new species :— 
Ectocarpus rivularis, Cidogonium cataractum, Dictyospherium Hitch- 
cockit, Zygnema purpurea, Mesocarpus crassus, Staurastrum Tokope- 
kaligense. 


Burmese Desmidiee.j—Mr. W. Joshua describes a collection of 
Desmidiex taken from the leaves of Pistia Stratiotes from a pond in 
the neighbourhood of Rangoon. Thirty-three new species are 
described. 


Animal character of Diatoms.{—Dr. G. W. Royston-Pigott writes, 
“ For my own part, considering their peculiar power of movement and 
sustentation, and also of conjugation, as well as their unaccountable 
strength of movement, I do not doubt that diatoms are living animals.” 


Lichenes. 


Glceolichenes. §—Herr K. B. J. Forssell contributes 2 monograph 
of this group of Lichens, also known as Homolichenes, homoemerous 
lichens, Collemacei, Phycolichenes, and gelatinous lichens. Their 
gonidia are always Phycochromacer, belonging to Nostocacee, 
Rivularieex, Scytonemex, Stigonemaceew, or Chroococcacew. Their 
membranes always deliquesce on moistening to a homogeneous pulp; 
the thallus displays no differentiation of cortical, medullary, and 
gonidial layers. The gonidia are blue-green, surrounded by a thick 
gelatinous membrane, and always multiply by dichotomous division. 
The author points out that in the construction of lichens similar fungi 
may be associated with very different alge, or very similar aigee with 
different fungi. 

In classifying lichens the author assigns the first importance to 
the mode of fungal reproduction, next to the nature of the gonidia. 
On this plan the Gleolichenes must be placed under Ascolichenes. 
The chroococcaceous gonidia form an “ indifferent symbiosis, i.e. the 
algal cells undergo no change in becoming gonidia, but the gonidia may 
undergo various modifications. The svle common character of the 
hyphe is their immersion in the mucilaginous mass formed by the 
deliquescence of the membrane of the gonidia, They are sometimes 


* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xii. (1885) pp. 125-9 (1 pl.). 

+ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.), xxi. (1886) pp. 634-54 (4 pls.). 

¢ Engl. Mech., xliii. (1886) p. 115. 

§ Forssell, K. B. J., ‘Beitr. zur Kennt. der Anat. u. System. der Gloo- 
lichenen,’ 118 pp., Stockholm, 1885. 


486 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


remarkably developed, as in Cryptothele and Pyrenopsis. Their mode 
of union with the gonidia is very various; in some cases it is effected 
by means of a special hyphal branch, or even by a kind of 
“haustorium ” or absorptive organ. 

The fungal element always produces reproductive organs, while 
the alga rarely produces spores. The spores of the fungus are always 
endogenous; the apothecia are sometimes open, sometimes closed ; 
Spermogonia with spermatia are often met with. The fungal 
characters are, however, so variable, that the classification of the 
Gleolichens must depend on the characters of the gonidia. Three 
types of chroococcaceous alge have been distinguished in the gonidia, 
according to which the Glceolichens are divided into the following 
families: — (1) Pyrenopsidei, including the genera Cryptothele, 
Pyrenopsis, Synalissa, and Phyllisctdiwm (un. gen.) in which the gonidia 
are formed by Gleocapsa ; (2) Phylliscei, comprising Pyrenopsidium 
and Phylliscum, with the gonidia composed of Chroococcus turgidus ; 
and (3) Omphalariei, including Collemopsidium, Euchylium, Psoro- 
tichia, Peccania, Anema, and Omphalaria, with the gonidia consisting 
of Xanthocapsa. The following diagnosis is given of the new genus 
Phylliscidium:—Thallus monophyllus, umbilicatus, gonidiis Glaocapsxe 
in tela hypharum pseudoparenchymatica insertis ornatus. Apothecia 
lecanorina margine crasso; spores 8-ne, simplices, hyaline, ellipsoides. 
Spermogonia spermatiis oblongis. 


Fungi. 


Toxicological Ingredients of certain Fungi.*—Herr R. Bohm finds 
in Boletus luridus large quantities of choline together with a substance 
similar to cholesterin, small quantities of muscorin, and an acid, 
luridic acid, crystallizing in brilliant red needles, and yielding 
succinic acid on distillation. Amanita pantherina contains essentially 
the same substances, but its acid crystallizes in yellow crusts. 


Organ for excretion of resin in Fungi.;—According to Dr. R. 
v. Wetistein, the glutinous coating on the pileus of many species of 
Polyporus, such as P. australis and laccatus, is due to an excretion of 
resin. This takes place from hyphe of peculiar form, thickened 
above into a globular or club-shape, and containing when young an 
oily yellow fluid. Eventually from three to six protuberances appear 
at the ends of these hyphe, which gradually increase and exude a 
cap of resin, and these gradually flow together into a continuous 
layer. This process may be repeated and the coating of resin thus 
comes to consist of several layers. 


Trichophyton tonsurans.{— Dr. G. Thin finds from new re- 
searches on this fungus, that, contrary to his previous observations,§ 
the hyphe continue to grow even when excluded from the atmosphere. 


* Chem. Centralbl., xvi. pp. 249-51. See Journ. Chem. Soc. (Abstr.), 1885, 
p- 1008. 

+ Verhandl. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxv. (1886) p. 29. 

t Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., xxxix. (1885) pp. 415-6. 

§ Ibid., xxxiii. (1881) p. 234, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 487 


By the use of gelatinized meat-juice he was able to watch this 
growth, and to separate Trichophyton from Penicillium, &c., which may 
have got mixed with it. The author finds no fructification ; and in 
other respects it differs so much from the ordinary moulds, that it 
deserves to be separated from them, and in this view Dr. Koch agrees. 


Anthopeziza, a new genus of Discomycetes.*—Dr. R. v. Wett- 
stein gives the following diagnosis of the new genus Anthopeziza :— 
Thalamia cespitosa, magna, longe stipitata, cum stipite flexuoso cornu 
speciem referentia, superne in cupulam dilatata, e mycelio denso 
nigrescente (non sclerotio) orta, carnosa, extus imprimis in parte 
inferiore lanato-pubescentia. Cupula campanulata, margine majus 
minusve regulariter fisso. Hymenium colore leto. Asci longissimi, 
octospori. Paraphyses tenues, numerose, apice clavate, inter se 
irregulariter reticulatim connecte v. ramose. Spore maxima, uni- 
cellulares, enucleate, 3-4 guttulate. Fungi terrestres, vere primo 
thalamia proferentes. 

The genus is distinguished from the allied Sclerotinia by the 
absence of a sclerotium, the branched paraphyses coalescing into 
bundles, and the size and form of the spores. The species A. Winteri 
is remarkable for the form and bright red colour of the long-stalked 
horn-shaped receptacles. It was found on the borders of woods in 
Lower Austria. 


Conditions for the Development of the Pileus of Hymeno- 
mycetes. t|— From observations made on specimens of Polyporus 
squamosus found growing on rotten elm-wood in a dark cellar, some of 
which were afterwards exposed to the light, while others were kept 
dark, Prof. R. Sadebeck concludes that the external condition on which 
mainly depends the formation of the pileus is a sufficient access of 
light. 

Proliferous Shoots in Hymenomycetes. { — Dr. F. Eichelbaum 
describes an instance of prolification of the conidiophore in a species 
of Stysanus, the pedicel renewing its growth, and bearing a secondary 
head of conidia at its apex. This simple prolification is, according 
to the author, not very uncommon in the mould-fungi. In Stilbum 
vulgare he met with a double dichotomous prolification, in which two 
hyphe had sprung from the original conidiophore, passing through 
the original head of conidia, and each producing a secondary one at 
its apex. 

Formation of Conidia in the Hymenomycetes.§—Dr. F. Hichel- 
baum points out how frequent is the formation of conidia in many 
Hymenomycetes, their production being especially promoted by wet 
weather, and how gradual is the transition from them to the ordinary 
basidiospores. 


* Verhandl. K.K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxv. (1886) pp. 383-5 (1 pl.). 

+ SB. Gesell. Bot. Hamburg, Jan. 29, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. (1886) 
p. 226. 

+ SB. Gesell. Bot. Hamburg, Noy. 28, 1884. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. (1886) 
p. 193 (1 pl.). 

§ SB. Gesell. Bot. Hamburg, Feb. 26, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. (1886) 
p. 256 (9 figs.). 


488 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


In the Tremellinez the simultaneous production of both basidio- 
spores is the rule, as in Dacryomyces and Tremella. The basidiospores 
of Auricularia sambucina might just as well be called conidia; and 
the same is the case with those of Scleroderma Bovista, in which the 
sterigma (basidium) is almost completely suppressed. Polyporus 
zonatus produces conidia even on the hymenium on the under side of 
the pileus in the tubes. The author failed in inducing any of these 
conidia to germinate. 

When Agaricus tenerrimus is grown in very moist situations, its 
entire hymenial layer becomes transformed into one of conidia. While 
still attached to the hyphae these conidia will sometimes bud in a 
torulose manner. Conidia are also produced on the upper surface of 
the pileus. A. fimicola produces conidia close to and among the ripe 
fertile basidia; they are borne both on the cystidia and on ordinary 
hyphz. They can be easily produced by growing on dung under a 
watch-glass. A.rugosus furnishes an admirable example of the passage 
of ordinary conidia into basidiospores. 


Endogenous Spore-formation in the Hyphomycetes.*—M. C. A. 
J. A. Oudemans describes a species of Sporendonema found in a 
green-house among tan, which he calls S. terrestre. The plant con- 
sists of a mycelium with hyphe partly creeping, partly erect. In the 
latter are formed endogenous spores, characteristic of the species. 
Several are formed in each hypha, without the earlier being first 
separated by septa. The separation of the spores from one another 
and from the plant is effected by circular fissures which split the wall, 
and which cause the hypha to break up into tubular pieces, open at 
both ends, each of which contains a spore. 


Turgidity in Phycomyces.;—M. E. Laurent has investigated the 
cause of the sudden stoppage of growth during the second and third 
of Errera’s four stages of growth { of the fructification of Phycomyces, 
the period of formation of the sporangium and detachment of the 
spores. The experimental test of the degree of turgidity employed 
was the plasmolytic method of De Vries, the measure of the turgidity 
within the cells of the fructification being the degree of concentration 
of a solution of potassium nitrate which was sufficient to cause a con- 
traction of the organ perceptible under the Microscope. By this 
method it was shown that at the end of the first stage the zone of 
cell-wall most capable of extension, which had hitherto been below 
the apex, passed to the apex and swelled up into the sporangium, a 
large quantity of nutrient material being used up in this process, so 
that the growth of the sporangiophore ceased, and the power of 
extension of its membrane had greatly decreased. The same was the 
case during the third stage, while the spores were being formed. In 
the fourth stage the excess of nutrient material again contributed 
to the extensibility of the membrane of the sporangiophore and its 
renewed increase in length. 


* Versl. Mcded. K. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, iii. (1885) pp. 115-22 (1 pl.). 
+ Bull. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belgique, x. (1885) pp. 57-79. 
~ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 288. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 489 


Germination of Ustilago Maydis.*—Dr. G. Beck has observed 
the germination of the resting-spores of this fungus, and the penetra- 
tion of the germinating tubes into the tissue of the host, the processes 
being in every way similar to those of Tilletia. The spores are usually 
produced singly at the ends of large sac-like branches, which are 
formed either irregularly at different spots of the hyphe or in 
regular rows. Sometimes they branch dichotomously, and then 
develope two spores instead of one. 


Exoascus.{—According to Prof. R. Sadebeck the ascospores are 
not formed in the ascus of Exoascus flavus and alnitorquus by free 
cell-formation, but by cell-division. The ascogenous cells are at first 
spherical and entirely filled with protoplasm in which is a distinct 
nucleus. As the cell developes into an ascus, it elongates in a direc- 
tion vertical to the surface of the organ of the host, and assumes a 
cylindrical form. During this period the various stages of division 
of the nucleus can be followed in the interior, displaying the appear- 
ance of the nuclear figures, nuclear spindles, and equatorial plates, 
&c., altogether corresponding to the same processes in the higher 
plants. Only after the development of two nuclei by division of the 
original nucleus, does a membrane appear between the two nuclei, 
completing the differentiation of the organ into ascus and pedicel-cell. 
The eight ascospores are formed in precisely the same way within the 
ascus by three successive bipartitions from a single nucleus, following 
very rapidly one after another. Dr. Fisch has found the processes 
to be precisely the same in Ascomyces endogenus, a hitherto unde- 
scribed species. 

The author enumerates twelve species of Exoascus, of which four 
are here described for the first time. He classifies them under two 
great groups. In the first the mycelium is persistent in the interior 
of the tissue of the host, putting out only at the beginning of a new 
period of growth in the host branches which reach the epidermis, 
where a new system of hyphe is then formed between the epidermis 
and the cuticle. The fertile hyphe are entirely used up in the 
formation of the asci; these are not closely crowded, and when the 
ascospores are being developed, stand on a pedicel-cell separated from 
the ascus by a septum. In the second group the mycelium persists 
only beneath the cuticle, and spreads only between the epidermis and 
cuticle at the commencement of a new period of growth in the host; 
the fertile hyphe being formed only in the leaves of the young shoots. 
The fertile hyphz may or may not be entirely used up in the production 
of the asci. 

The author describes the nature of the ravages on the host 
committed by various species of Hzoascus, especially E. alnitorquus 
on the alder, and E. Ulmi on the elm, and the best modes of getting 
rid of the disease, dependent on the different modes of life of the 
different species as described above. 


* Verhandl. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xxxv. (1886) pp. 28-9. 

+ Jahrb. Wiss. Anstalten Hamburg, i, (1884). See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. 
(1886) p. 168. 

Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. 25 


490 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


New Fungi.*—In the third century of their Enumeration of the 
Fungi of the province of Bologna, Sigg. G. Cocconi and F. Morini 
describe the following new species:—Spherella pulviscula on the 
stems and leaves of Dianthus brachyanthus ; Phomatospora Luzulz on 
the leaves of Luzula spadicea ; Septoria Penzigi on the leaves of 
Aquilegia vulgaris killed by Afcidium Aquilegiz ; Septoria Phalaridis 
on the leaves and leaf-sheaths of Phalaris brachystachys. 

New Parasitic Fungi.|—M. V. Fayod describes the following :— 

1. Endomyces parasiticus. This is parasitic on the lamelle of 
Agaricus rutilans, causing what is often described as the abnormal 
pubescence of certain specimens, the mycelium vegetating abundantly 
among the paraphyses. 

2. Peziza mycetophila. This forms, on Agaricus vellereus, a 
mouldiness which is at first white, but becomes afterwards a bright 
orange. It is pleomorphic, having two forms of fructification, gonidial 
and conidial, and a sclerotium. The gonidial form is probably 
identical with Aspergillus lanzeus Lk. 

3. Hypomyces Leotiarum. This attacks Leotia lubrica, giving it 
a green tinge. 


Cleonus ucrainiensis, a new Fungus-parasite on Turnips.J— 
Under this name M. F. Gawronski describes a fungus which is 
exceedingly destructive to turnip-crops. It is intermediate between 
Cleonus punctiventris and sulcirostris, and may probably be a hybrid 
between these species. 


Fungus-parasites.$—Herr F. von Thiimen publishes a complete 
account of the various parasitic fungi which attack gardens, field-crops, 
and trees, with a special view of practical use to the cultivator in the 
description of the modes of combating them. He treats separately 
the diseases of agricultural crops produced by parasites, those of 
orchards and gardens, those of the vine, and those of forest-trees. 


Pathogenic Fungi.||— Prof. R. Sadebeck supplies some new 
information on the diseases in plants produced by fungi. 

The “witch-broom” which occurs in so many kinds of tree, is 
due to a variety of different causes. The cause of this phenomenon 
on the beech has not yet been discovered. From the examination of 
specimens on the copper-beech, Prof. Sadebeck believes it to be due 
to the mycelium of a fungus, but not of an Exoascus. 

The “crab” of the larch, which commits frightful ravages in 
Northern and Central Germany, is caused by the mycelium of Peziza 
Willkommit. 


* Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Bologna, vi. (1885) 32 pp. (2 pls.). See Bot. 
Centralbl., xxv. (1886) p. 33. 

+ Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), ii. (1885) pp. 28-54 (2 pls.). 

+ Gazeta Rolnicza, xxv. (1885) pp. 374-5. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. (1886) 
p- 112. 

§ Von Thiimen, F., ‘Die Bekampfung der Pilzkrankheiten unserer Cultur- 
gewachse,’ Vienna, 1886. See Bull. Soc. Bot, France, xxxii. (1885), Rev. Bibl., 
p. 228. 

|| SB. Gesell. Bot. Hamburg, March 26, 1885. See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. 
(1886) p. 286. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 491 


Exobasidium Vaccinii attacks Vaccinium Vitis-Idexa and V. Myrtillus 
in quite different ways. In the former it causes a local hypertrophy 
of the parenchyma, having the form of bladdery swellings, which 
have always a pink colour. In V. Myrtillus, on the contrary, the 
leaves do not, when attacked, produce local swellings; but the whole 
leaf enlarges to two or three times its original size. The upper side 
of these leaves is a bright yellow colour, while the under side is 
covered by a white rime. It causes failure in the development of the 
flowers and the fruit. 


Mycorhiza of the Spanish Chestnut.*—Herr O. Penzig, referring 
to the observations of Herr B. Frank on mycorhiza,t corrects his refer- 
ences to the writings of Sig. Gibelli. Herr Penzig himself considers 
the theory of a symbiosis between the fungus and the roots of the 
Cupuliferze to be at present purely hypothetical. 


Zimmermann’s Atlas of the Diseases of Plants.t—The most 
recently published parts of this work give photograms with descriptive 
texts of Puccinia Violz, P. zgra (which two species the author regards 
as identical), P. Cepe, P. Asparagi, P. Ribis (Aicidium Grossularie ?), 
P. Pruni-spinose, P. Cerasi, P. bullata, P. Iridis, P. Maydis, P. Ane- 
mones virginiane, P. Arenariz, P. Malvacearum, P. Asteris (with which 
he unites P. Tripolii, P. Ptarmice, P. Millefolii, and P. Doronici), 
P. Buai, P. Galanthi, and P. Tulipee. 


Protophyta. 


New Microchete.s—Under the name Microchzte diplosiphon, 
M. Gomont describes a new species from the neighbourhood of Paris. 
The filaments are unbranched and bear a basal as well as intercalary 
heterocysts. They are surrounded by a double sheath, the inner one 
sharply differentiated, and closely applied to the filament, the outer 
one looser and more mucilaginous. The hormogonia consist of from 
three to twenty cells, and are formed in the upper part of the filaments. 
After escaping from the mucilaginous sheath they form a new very 
thin one, and constitute the basal heterocysts of new filaments. 


Origin of Saccharomyces.||—Sig. G. Cuboni finds in the sap 
which flows from the stem of the vine in March and April numerous 
organisms identical with Saccharomyces ellipsoideus. These organisms, 
or drops of fluid infested by them, very rapidly cause the ordinary 
vinous fermentation in sterilized must. A close examination showed 
that these cells are buddings from the hypha of Cladosporium herbarum, 
which is universally distributed in the bark of the vine. If Olado- 
sporium-hyphe are sown in the drops of gum which exude on the 
cut surfaces of old branches or in drops of the exuding sap, similar 


* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., iii. (1885) pp. 301-2. 

+ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 844, 

t Zimmermann, O. E. R., ‘ Atlas der Pflanzenkrankheiten,’ Heft 2-4, fol., 
Halle, 1885. 

§ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xxxii, (1885) pp. 209-12 (1 pl.). 

| Rivista di Viticoltura ed Enologia Ital., 1885 (1 pl.). See Bot. Centralbl., 
xxy. (1886) p. 102. 

2K 2 


492 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


colonies of cells identical with Saccharomyces are produced, and may 
be propagated by culture for several generations. The author con- 
cludes that S. ellipsoideus is probably the torula-condition of this 
Hyphomycete, which appears to be identical with Dematium pullulans, 
to which Loew had also referred it. The formation, under certain 
conditions, of endogenous spores in torula-cells finds its analogue 
also in the conidia of other filamentous fungi, and cannot be regarded 
as in itself a special characteristic of the Saccharomycetes. 


Formation of Spores in the Saccharomycetes.*—Herr A. Zalewski 
has made a series of observations for the purpose of determining 
whether the spores of the Saccharomycetes are formed by free cell- 
formation or by division of the protoplasm, whether they contain a 
nucleus, and what part it takes in the process. The most favourable 
species for the observations he found to be Saccharomyces ellipsoideus, 
but S. apiculatus and Mycoderma vini were also examined. 

In the first-named species the formation of spores begins to take 
place twenty-four hours after being placed in pure water. The proto- 
plasm loses its strong refrangibility, becomes finely granular, and 
withdraws from the cell-wall, large vacuoles forming at the same time 
in the centre of the cell. The protoplasm now becomes denser, but 
a slight furrow is observed towards the cell-wall; the protoplasm 
collects on both sides of the furrow; and dark spots appear in these 
accumulations, which the author regards as the rudiments of nuclei. 
These dark spots afterwards disappear; the accumulations of proto- 
plasm increase in size, round themselves off, and, after attaining their 
full size, invest themselves with a cell-wall. The formation of four 
spores instead of two in a mother-cell takes place in the same way, 
and the whole process is completed in four or five days. 

The formation of spores by free cell-formation takes place in 
precisely the same way in Mycoderma vini, but the nuclei are much 
more evident. 

The presence of a nucleus can easily be proved in the vegetative 
cells of the Saccharomycetes by placing them in pure water for a few 
hours, and then treating with hematoxylin and a solution of alum. 
It then exhibits a regular ellipsoidal form, with a small nucleolus in 
the centre, and surrounded by a denser layer of protoplasm. The 
nucleus can be detected even in the ripe spores, but not in those in 
which spores are being formed, or in those which are actively budding, 
possibly because it is in the act of dividing. 


Saccharomyces capillitiij—MM. C. A. J. A. Oudemans and 
C. A. Pekelharig propose to unite under this name the S. sphericus 
and S. ovalis of Bizzozero, found in the scurf of the human head; 
or, since the torulose budding appears to be suppressed, they suggest 
that it may become the type of a new genus of Saccharomycetes, which 
they propose to call Cercosphera. It does not produce alcoholic fer- 


* Verhandl. Krak. Akad. Wiss., xiii. (1885) (1 pl.). See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. 
(1886) p. 1. 

+ Nederl. Tijdschr. Geneeskunde, xxi. (1885). See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. 
(1886) p. 198. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 493 


mentation in saccharine fluids, and its development is suppressed by 
the exclusion of air. The authors believe this parasite to be the 
cause of the disease “ pityriasis capitis,’ which it always accompanies 
in large quantities. 

Influence of Light on the Growth of Yeast.*— Dr. Key finds 
that the development of yeast proceeds equally well whether ex- 
posed to light or in darkness. A nutritive solution was prepared, 
containing in a litre 100 gr. of sugar, 2°5 gr. of asparagine, with 
20 c.cm. of a solution of mineral salts; equal portions were placed 
under two bell-glasses, one black and the other clear, and exposed to 
a strong gaslight, the heat from which was absorbed by a layer of 
water, so that the temperature was the same in both; the number of 
cells at the beginning and end of the experiment was counted. Of 
eight experiments, three gave an excess in the dark glass, five in the 
illuminated. 


Resting-form of Comma-bacilli.j—Dr. F. Hiippe has observed 
the development of comma-bacilli without the use of staining-reagents. 
He finds that the helix-form loses its mobility when the nutrient 
material is exhausted, and, at high temperatures, developes to a spiral 
form with two or more coils. The form of the helix shows but little 
constancy, and is greatly affected by the rapidity of its formation, the 
chemical nature of the food-material, or by mechanical influences ; 
very different forms may be found in the same culture. Sometimes 
they resemble curved threads, or a helix drawn out flat (vibrio-form) ; 
sometimes they are more rigid, sometimes more flexible; and closely 
coiled spirals are found which are sometimes flexible (spirochete), 
sometimes rigid (spirillum). On the same thread there may occur 
two or even three different forms. Even the spirulina-form is oc- 
casionally met with. When the filaments with longer coils break up, 
the fragments are moderately uniform in habit, the commonest being 
the more or less flexible spirochete-spiral. No segmentation of the 
threads is usually seen. 

At any spot in a filament, and at distances corresponding to the 
length of a comma-bacillus, arise two globules distinctly differentiated 
from the rest of the filament, only slightly exceeding the filament in 
diameter, but more refringent. Their membrane appears to become 
more strongly gelatinous; they separate to a greater distance from 
one another, but without altogether losing their connection. A second 
comma is then formed, and there are now four globules either all at 
nearly the same distance apart, or the two older ones at a slightly 
greater distance than the younger ones. Six globules were sometimes 
observed. At the spots where the segmentation began were seen a 
large number of globules, from which projected short comma-frag- 
ments, In one case, a previously motile comma divided directly into 
two globules, which at first touched one another, and afterwards 
separated to a short distance. 

These globular cells are formed between 22° and 27°C. They 


* Journ. Chem. Soc. Lond., 1. (1886) p. 387, from Bied. Centr., xv. pp. 71-2. 
+ Fortschr, der Medecin, iii. (1885). See Bot. Centralbl., xxv. (1886) p. 45. 


494 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


do not multiply by division, and consequently cannot be micrococci. 
The author several times observed them develope into short rods, 
their refrangibility at the same time diminishing ; they display great 
resistance to desiccation from their distinct gelatinous investment. 
He concludes that they must, for these reasons, be regarded as resting- 
forms or arthrospores, corresponding to those already described by 
van Ermengem and Doyen. . 

Dr. Hiippe maintains that the “ genera” of spiral bacteria cannot 
be distinguished by the character and arrangement of the coils, since 
these are subject to great variation, but by the mode of production of 
the spores. Those he calls vibrios, which, like Vibrio rugula, form 
endogenous spores with distinct broadening of the cell; spirilla, those 
which form endogenous spores without any broadening of the cell ; 
and spirochete, those which do not produce endogenous spores, but 
arthrospores. 


Abscess-producing Diplococcus.*—Dr. E. Bumm describes a 
microbe found in an abscess in the mamma, and which was apparently 
the cause of the inflammation, It differs from Rosenbach’s Staphylo- 
coccus pyogenes aureus in being a true diplococcus, consisting of two 
hemispherical halves separated by a thin slit, but kept together by a 
common envelope, and in not having the golden-yellow colour of that 
microbe. By infection with the microbe reproduced by pure culture, 
abscesses were induced in rabbits. Its pathogenic properties were 
proved also in other ways. 


Bacterium of Panic Fermentation.|—According to M. E. Laurent 
the principal agent in the fermentation of bread is a microbe which 
he calls Bacillus panificans. It may easily be obtained by taking 
leaven from the flour of wheat, rye, or spelt, and mixing it witha 
small quantity of sterilized water, and then using as the nutrient 
material Koch’s gelatine acid or slightly alkaline. At the end of the 
second or beginning of the third day, the characteristic colonies are 
seen, of circular outline with entire margin. In reflected light they 
are a very pale chrome-yellow, by transmitted light of a brownish- 
grey tint, more or less marked at the end of some days. The develop- 
ment of the colonies is very slow, and they scarcely ever touch one 
another. At the ordinary temperature, 15° C., they do not liquefy 
gelatine. By these characters B. panificans is easily recognized in a 
mixture of other bacteria of putrefaction. Development takes place 
between 6° and 45°, the optimum temperature being from 33° to 34° C. 
Tn the first days of the culture very short and motile rods are seen; 
later, when the liquid becomes poorer, only elongated bacilli, some- 
times very long filaments. 

The spores of B. panificans are killed only by a temperature of 
100° C. prolonged for ten minutes; the rods without spores resist 
even a higher temperature. It renders the gluten of paste readily 
soluble, and developes at the expense of cooked starch in a medium 


* SB. Phys.-med. Gesell. Wiirzburg, 1885, pp. 1-7. 


te a Bas ee ei Sci. Belgique, x. (1885) pp. 765-75. Cf. this Journal, iv. 
1883) pp. 690, 7 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 495 


which is not too acid. Ina gramme of bread there may be 500,000 
of these bacilli. They are not destroyed in the stomach; the spores 
and rods both resist twenty-four hours’ submersion in artificial gastric 
juice. In the digestive canal of man they find substances extremely 
rich in albuminoids and in cooked starch; and, in consequence of 
their power of living in both acid and alkaline media, they contribute 
greatly to the process of digestion. 

Bacillus panificans is the bacterium of “ropy” bread, which is 
produced when the dough is insufficiently acid, and results from the 
transformation of the starch into a substance resembling erythro- 
dextrin. The “rising” of bread is the result of the disengagement of 
carbonic acid caused by this organism. 


Bacillus of Syphilis.*—Dr. Matterstock has endeavoured, by a 
large number of experiments, to determine the true microbe of 
syphilis. He finds uniformly, though always in small quantities, the 
bacillus described by Lustgarten;} but this bacillus is subject to so 
great variation that its diagnostic value is very small. Not only 
does it vary greatly in the length and thickness of the rods, but in 
the configuration of the rods themselves, some being straight and 
others with eel-like curves; the length is in some cases ten times 
that in others. As many as ten different forms were observed, which 
may possibly be stages in the development of the same organism. 


De Bary’s Lectures on Bacteria.{—Prof. A. de Bary publishes, 
in a collected form, a series of lectures given at different times, on 
bacteriology, which give a good summary of the present state of our 
knowledge of the science. The terms “coccus,’ “bacterium,” &c., 
are used throughout simply to designate forms of growth. 


Garbini’s Guide to Bacteriology.s—Sig. A. Garbini publishes a 
complete guide to bacteriology in accordance with the present state of 
the science. It treats of the necessary instruments, apparatus, and 
reagents, including staining-methods, the various modes and materials 
for culture, a description of special methods of investigation, and the 
morphology and classification of the known forms of Schizomycetes, 
in which the system of Cohn is followed. The work is illustrated by 
woodcuts. 


* SB. Phys.-med. Gesell. Wiirzburg, 1885, pp. 65-73. 

t+ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 539. 

¢~ De Bary, A., ‘ Vorlesungen iiber Bakterien,’ 146 pp. (18 figs.), 8vo, 
Leipzig, 1885. : 

§ Garbini, A., ‘Guida alla Bacteriologia,’ xv. and 145 pp. (84 figs.), 8vo, 
Verona, 1886. 


496 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


MICROSCOPY. 


a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.* 


Viallanes’ Photographic Microscope—Compound Images by the 
Method of Successive Exposures.t—At the outset of an inquiry into 
the best methods and conditions of micro-photography, Dr. H. 
Viallanes premises that those instruments, in which the dark chamber 
is fixed directly to the tube of the instrument are subject to a serious 
defect, both because the weight of the chamber must affect the micro- 


Fic. 82. 


SSS 
SSS 


ina 


metric screw, and also because the tremors caused by inserting and 
removing the negative are communicated to the instrument, and may 
displace the object and with it the photographic image. It is a 


* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Hye-pieces and Objectives; 
(3) Illuminating Apparatus; (4) Other Accessories; (5) Photo-micrography ; 
(6) Manipulation ; (7) Microscopical Optics, Books, and Miscellaneous matters. 

+ Viallanes, H., ‘La Photographie appliquée aux Etudes d’Anatomie Micro- 
scopique,’ 63 pp. and 4 figs. (8vo, Paris, 1886). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 497 


primary necessity that the camera and the Microscope should not 
be in direct contact but united only by a cloth connection. The 
Microscope-tube may be either vertical or horizontal, but the latter 
is the position which insures the greatest stability and facilitates 
manipulation ; it is true that this involves some difficulty in photo- 
graphing an uncovered preparation which is liable to slip when the 
Microscope is horizontal, but in practice it is generally easy to fix 
the section to the object-carrier with a few drops of paraffin. 

The Microscope and camera adopted by M. Viallanes are shown 
in figs. 82 and 83. The latter is a sliding collapsible camera similar to 
that used by photographers. In the front of the camera is a large 
hole to receive the eye-piece end of the Microscope, while at the 


Fic. 83. 


back are the usual arrangements for receiving in succession the ground 
glass for focusing, and the sensitive plate. The Microscope is fixed 
upon the base which carries the camera slide, and in such a position 
that the eye-piece end of the tube enters the circular hole in the 
front of the camera, the connection being made by a metallic washer 
faced on the inside with velvet to prevent the entrance of any external 
light. A stop insures the tube being brought into a strictly horizontal 
position. 

On the means of obtaining as large a field as possible, the author 
says, “ The modification required in the Microscope in order that as 
large an image as possible may be projected upon the sensitive plate, 
is easily effected ; it is only necessary to increase the diameter of the 
tube, and this has been done in our photographic Microscope. The 
instrument with the tube thus enlarged can be employed just as well 


498 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


as any other for ordinary observations, and for this purpose we have 
added an adapting piece by means of which the usual eye-pieces may 
be used. It is not difficult to understand the motives which have 
led the makers to construct narrow tubes in Microscopes designed 
for ordinary work; the dimensions of the tube are determined by 
those of the eye-piece, which, in order that the observer may not be 
fatigued, should only receive so much of the image as may be con- 
veniently comprehended by the eye.” 

With regard to the special difficulties presented by objects which 
are not flat, the author writes, “We have already stated that to 
obtain a photograph well defined in every part, the object should be 
as nearly as possible a plane. Unfortunately, even in the case of 
sections, this condition is not always realized, while with certain 
objects, e. g. insects and Foraminifera, it can never be so. It is pos- 
sible, however, by certain methods to obtain perfectly clear photo- 
graphs of objects which lie in different planes. When such a case 
presents itself, it is well to use the weakest possible objective which 
will bring out the details that are to be reproduced. By employing 
a weak objective with long focus, many more planes can be simulta- 
neously brought to a focus than with a more powerful one. The 
desired result may also be obtained by stopping the objective with 
a diaphragm; the smaller the diaphragm the greater will be the 
depth of focus, but at the same time the definition of the lens will 
be proportionately diminished. A happy mean must be preserved in 
the choice of a diaphragm. 

If the above means are not sufficient, we must have recourse to the 
method of successive exposures. ‘This method is based upon the fact 
that the same sensitive plate may receive two or more images without 
confusion ; this may be shown as follows:—Place on the stage a 
micrometer, bring its divisions to a focus on the ground glass, then 
insert the sensitive plate and expose for say two minutes. Intercept 
the light, rotate the micrometer through an angle, and expose again 
for two minutes. The plate when developed will show two crossed 
images of the micrometer which are perfectly clear even at the point 
where they intersect. In this way, three or even four superposed 
images may be obtained upon the same plate. From the observation 
of these facts, I was led to use the method of successive exposures in 
the case of objects which could not be simultaneously focused in all 
their parts. If the same plate receives in succession the images of 
the different planes of an object, these will be superposed without 
confusion, and a compound image will be produced which is far more 
complete than that obtained by photographing a single plane. 

In employing this method, the head of the micrometer screw 
should be provided with an index which moves upon a graduated 
circle (fig. 84). The lowest part of the object being first brought to 
a focus upon the ground glass, the division at which the index stands 
is noted, then the highest part of the object is focused and a second 
reading is made on the circle. These readings determine the limits 
between which the index must move if all the successive planes of the 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 499 


object are to be photographed. The sensitive plate is now introduced 
and exposed three or four times, the index being set at different 
points between the limits; in this way three or four images are 
superposed and form a complete picture. To obviate the reading of 
angles, the circle is provided with two movable stops which can be 
fixed at the limiting positions by means of screw clamps, so as to limit 
the angular space through which the index can be turned, without 


Fia. 84, 


the necessity of any reading. In practice it is best not to attempt 
to obtain more than two or three successive impressions, since with 
a greater number the figure becomes confused. It must be added 
that the photographs are never so fine as those got from an object 
which can be completely photographed by a single exposure.” 


Beck’s Demonstration Microscope.—The instrument shown in 
fig. 85 was devised by the late Mr. R. Beck for the purpose of securing 
delicate objects against injury at soirées and similar exhibitions. 

The special point consists in inclosing the Microscope in a box 7 in. 
x 64 in. x19 in., into which it is locked, there being doors on either 
side. The binocular body is fixed to the front of the box by a bar, 
and also to the top, and the draw-tubes can be extended by the milled 
head at the side. 

At the back of the box is a horizontal pivot on which turns a lever- 
piece with two equal arms. The stage slides on the lower arm, to 
which it can be clamped. This enables the object to be placed ap- 
proximately in focus. For a fine adjustment the top of the upper arm 
can be pressed forward against a spring by the milled head at the 
back, the stage being then slightly tilted. The pivot on which the 
lever-piece turns can also be raised or lowered and clamped. This we 
presume was intended to provide for a more extended motion of the 
stage than could be obtained by sliding it on the lower arm of the 
lever. 

The lamp is placed on a bracket in front, which is attached to a 
vertical sliding piece having a circular aperture which admits the light 


500 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


to the inside of the box. The bracket, lamp, and sliding piece can be 
raised or lowered according as it is desired to illuminate opaque or 
transparent objects. A bull’s-eye is attached to the bracket. 


Fig. 85. 


Projection Microscopes.—The exhibition of Messrs. Watson’s 
Microscope (ante, Vol. V. p. 1064) has brought forward a somewhat 
large number of similar instruments, from which we select the 
following :— 

Chevalier’s Projection Microscope-—M. V. Chevalier designed the 
instrument shown in fig. 86 for the purpose of showing microscopic 
objects to a limited number of students. 

The wooden box (which can be inclined on a hinge-joint and 
clamped) incloses a large right-angled prism by which the image from 
the objective is reflectud upwards to a ground-glass plate (24 in. square) 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 501 


which can be shaded by a rising lid. The stage is attached to a piece 
of tubing fitting over the objective, and the objects can be illuminated 
either by direct light or by a mirror sliding in the socket below the 
stage. A lieberkiihn fits over the objective for opaque objects. 


Fic. 86. 


Cooke's Projection Microscope.—The disadvantage of the preceding 
instrument is the small size of the image, an objection which is 
remedied in the form devised by Mr. C. Cooke and shown in fig. 87. 

Here the stage is raised on four legs to a height of 18 in. above 
the table. One of the legs has an arrangement for lengthening or 
shortening it, by screwing in or out a separate piece at the foot. The 
objective is screwed to an adapter which slides in a tube-fitting beneath 
the stage. A mirror is attached to a gimbal sliding on a vertical rod 
above the stage, on which is also a socket for other apparatus. The 
rod is connected with a ring which rotates on the outer margin of the 
stage, carrying with it a clip with a lamp. The clip is made to grasp 


502 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


the lamp by a sliding nut. The legs at their base form a square of 
16 in., thus allowing room for a large image, which can be better 
seen if a piece of black cloth is thrown round three of the sides. 


Fig. 87. 


Pléssl’s Electric Projection Microscope.*— Dr. G. Gartner de- 
scribes the Microscope made by Plossl and Co., which is used for 
demonstration purposes at the Institute of General and Experimental 
Pathology in Vienna by Prof. Stricker. 

The source of light is an electric arc lamp, supplied by a dynamo 
driven by a 6 horse-power gas engine. The maximum illuminating 
power amounts to 2500 candles. An assistant regulates it by hand, 


* Med, Jahrb. K.K. Gesell. Aerzte Wien, 1884, pp. 217-44 (1 pl. and 1 fig.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 503 


as flickering cannot be avoided when an automatic regulator is 
used. 

The general arrangement of the instrument is shown in fig. 88, 
It stands on a table 96 cm. high, running on wheels, so as to be 
readily movable. The case 
(with wooden sides) in- Fic. 88. 
closing the carbons is 90 
em. high by 74 cm. deep 
by 45 em. wide. It is pur- 
posely made large, to pre- 
vent the sides getting too 
hot, and to allow of the 
carbons being some dis- 
tance from the lenses. The 
wooden parts are also lined 
with asbestos. 

The carbons can be 
inclined and also moved 
in three directions by the 
three milled heads at B, 
C, and D; B raising or 
lowering them, C moving 
them from right to left, 
and D backwards or for- 
wards. The regulator is 
at A, turning a rod with 
differential screws, so that 
the upper carbon moves 
twice the distance of the lower to compensate for the difference in the 
rate of consumption. 

The special feature of the optical part (fig. 89) is that between the 
two plano-convex condensing lenses L and the stage D is interposed 


Fic, 89. 


a conical reservoir R, 30 em. long, filled with water, to cool the rays 
from the lamp. It is filled by the tube at T, those at T’ T’ allowing 
the air to escape. Experiments proved that practically nothing was 


504 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


gained by using an alum solution instead of water. The objective is 
shown at A, the coarse and fine adjustments at B and C, the clamp 
for the objects M, the stage diaphragms at D, and a second dia- 
phragm at the back of the condensers at Be. The latter is actuated 
by the screw EH in fig. 88. 

With objects which must remain horizontal, the contrivance 
shown in fig. 90 is used, with smaller condensers L and a shorter cone 
R, the rays being deflected by 
two prisms P and P’, above 
and below the stage and ob- 
jective (O). It is only suit- 
able for low powers, and has 
been used more especially for 
showing living chicken em- 
bryos. 

A second subsidiary appa- 
ratus or “Sciopticon” (fig. 91) 
Fic. 91. is used for small amplifica- 

tions of very large objects, 
ait Hn ere such as large brain sections. 


‘i Saas i 
| 


tt Oem The water vessel R in front 
i. on en ee of the condensers L is rect- 


angular, and the objective O 
is composed of photographic lenses. An extensible camera B is 
interposed between the object and the objective, and the focal ad- 
justments are made either by compressing or extending the camera, 
or by moving the objective alone by the milled head T. At 44m. 
distance from the screen amplifications of 18 to 25 times are 
obtained. 

A table is given showing the amplifications, with the various 
objectives, from 370 to 8000; the highest powers used being 
Seibert’s Nos. VIII. and X. water-immersion (3800 and 8000 respec- 
tively). 

a a screen for the reception of the images, a plate made of the 
finest gypsum, 1-5 m. in diameter, is used, placed 4°5 m. from the 
objective. Upon this a human red blood-corpuscle appears, with a 
Seibert X objective, as a disc of 6 cm. in diameter. The amceboid 
movements of white blood-corpuscles are perfectly visible to a class 
of 300 persons (the more distant ones provided with opera-glasses). 
In order to make the white blood-corpuscles quite distinct, Professor 
Stricker passes through the fresh blood a solution of fuchsin in 
water, containing 0:6 per cent. of common salt. The living cells 
absorb the pigment very slowly, whereas the fluid in which they are 
contained takes a distinct red colour. The white blood-corpuscles, 
therefore, appear as bright, white spots on a coloured ground, and do 
not lose anything of their mobility. 

In preparing sections for use with an electric Microscope they 
require to be somewhat deeply stained, and stains should be chosen 
which show the histological elements in strongly contrasted colours, 
such as carmine, gold, or silver staining. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 505 


_ Holmes’ Microscope with Swinging Radial Mirror. *—This 
Microscope (fig. 92) was made by Mr. S. Holmes in 1872, and 
is an anticipation of the principle subsequently adopted in the 
Tolles-Blackham and similar Microscopes. The stage is attached to 
a disc mounted on a slide which is raised or lowered by rack and 


Fie, 92. 


pinion (forming the only adjustment for focus). At the periphery 
of this disc is a ring which is free to rotate between guides and to 
which is attached the mirror. The latter can thus be rotated com- 
pletely round a line drawn through the centre of the stage, thus giving 
radial illumination above and below the stage. 


* The stand is Holmes’ Isophotal Binocular. There is a spiral pinion and 
diagonal rackwork to the stage-moyement. 
Ser, 2.—Vo. VI. 21 


506 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Fig, 95. 


Mayoer’s Dissnotina MIcRoscoPE. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 507 


Mayer’s Dissecting Microscope.—This (fig. 93) is one of the most 
convenient dissecting Microscopes which we have yet seen. 

The stage consists of a large metal frame, 10 cm. square, to which 
are attached folding wooden supports for the hands. For minute 
objects a metal plate is dropped into the frame, in which is a small 
central opening, which can be closed by either a black or white disc 
as desired. For larger objects, especially living aquatic animals, the 
metal plate is replaced by glass, and white or black plates can be 
brought beneath it, according to the background required. These 
plates are turned away from the stage by the milled heads shown in 
front of the stage on the right. 

There are three arms for lenses. The lower one shown in the fig. 
is for high powers (the upper being removed), while the upper is for 
Zeiss’s aplanatic lenses (x 6 and 10). By the combination of the 
movements of the two arms the lenses can be made to traverse all 
parts of the stage. An extra holder is also supplied for the high 
powers, which can be moved in the same way over the whole stage. 


Magic Lantern v. Microscope.*—Mr. T. King considers that 
for purposes of general teaching the magic lantern possesses the 
advantage over the Microscope of lessening both labour and expense. 
By means of micro-photography, the magnified image of minute 
objects, such as sections of vegetable tissues, diatoms, &c., can be 
photographed in a form available for use as a lantern-slide. With 
the aid of such slides, the teacher can at once explain to the whole 
class what can only with the Microscope be explained individually. 


Inostranzeff’s Comparison Chamber for the Microscopical Study 
of Opaque Minerals and other objects.;—M. A. Inostranzeff writes 
as follows :— 

“The great importance of the Microscope in the study of rocks 
cannot be denied. To the Microscope we owe the modern classifica- 
tion of rocks, our knowledge of the structure of the rocks themselves, 
of the minerals which compose them, and of their inclusions, as well 
as of many modifications and metamorphoses to which rocks and 
minerals are subject. Up to the present time, however, scarcely any 
progress has been made to a rational method of investigating the 
opaque minerals which enter into the composition of rocks. Ten 
years ago I published { a note on the study of opaque minerals, in 
which I proposed to employ the colour and lustre of these minerals 
to distinguish between them. By means of brilliant illumination 
from above, little differing from ordinary daylight, the lustre and 
colour may be made evident. In this way I succeeded in determining 
eight opaque minerals in the rocks of the district of Olonez, and in 
showing, in several cases, their genetic relations. But the determina- 
tion of colour and lustre being liable to subjective errors, I have 


* Proc. and Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow, i. (1886) p. xxx. 
+ Comptes Rendus, ec. (1885) pp. 1396-8. Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral., ii. 
(1885) pp. 94-6 (2 figs.). 
t Abh. d. Moskauer Naturforschergesellschaft, vi., Part 1. 
2 2 


508 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


been endeavouring for some time to devise a method of comparing 
unknown opaque minerals with others which have been already 
determined. For ten years no progress was made in this direction. 
My first attempt was made by means of the camera lucida, which 
transmits perfectly both the colour and the lustre of opaque minerals ; 
with the help of this instrument I transfer the image from one 
Microscope into a second, on the stage of which is a known mineral, 
and so am able to compare the two. But to prevent the image of the 
first Microscope from covering that of the second the following pre- 
cautions must be taken. Into a Hartnack’s camera lucida (fig. 94) I 


Fic. 94. 


introduce a diaphragm a, which is placed in the lower part of the tube, 
so as to cover half the field of view; a similar diaphragm a, that 
is, one which also covers half the field, is introduced into the second 
Microscope, which contains the known mineral. By means of this 
arrangement of the diaphragms I see in the second Microscope on one 
side (the left) the image of the mineral to be determined, and on the 
other side (the right) that of the known mineral, The apparatus, as 
described above, has always one great fault, that is, that the comparison 
is made, so to say, between an object and a shadow, for the camera 
Incida always slightly increases the image which if transmits, and 
consequently diminishes its brightness. I have now, however, found 
a method of comparing minerals under identical conditions, and I 
have only mentioned the camera lucida and my first attempt because 
every one possesses this instrument, and can easily test the method. 
To secure a complete identity between the image of the mineral 
to be determined and that with which it is compared, I have had a 
new apparatus constructed, which may be called the Comparison 
Chamber or Microscopic Comparer (fig. 95), which enables us, as it 
were, to elongate two Microscopes, and bend them at right angles. 
At the outer corners of the apparatus are placed totally reflecting 
prisms or small mirrors, which receive the rays that emerge from the 
Microscopes and reflect them at right angles. Below the opening, in 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETC. 509 


the centre of the top of the apparatus, are placed two other prisms, 
which reflect upwards the rays which they receive from the first pair 
of prisms. This comparison-chamber is fixed on two Microscopes 
without eye-pieces, and an eye-piece is placed above the central prisms. 
By these means I obtain 
a circular field of view 
composed of two halves, 
divided by a fine line ; one 
half belonging to the image 
from the first Microscope, 
the other to that from 
the second. If now two 
minerals absolutely identi- 
cal in colour and lustre 
are placed under the two 
Microscopes there will 
appear in the eye-piece 
of the chamber a com- 
pletely uniform image, so 
that the line of division 
disappears. The slightest 
change in the tint of one 
of the objects causes the 
sudden reappearance of this line, the image being again divided into 
two distinct parts. 

I think I am justified in supposing that my comparer may be 
applied not only to the study of minerals and rocks, but equally to 
all microscopic researches in which comparison is employed. 

To bring out better the colour and lustre of the minerals, I 
illuminate them by means of small mirrors placed on the stage of the 
Microscope. For an account of the construction of these, and of the 
scale of comparison, I must refer to a detailed account which will 
shortly be published. I may add that in my scale I replace the 
natural opaque minerals, which would themselves be too expensive, 
by artificial colours prepared from the powder of these minerals. 
Under the Microscope the effect is precisely the same.” 


Astigmatic Eye-piece.*—Mr. E. Gundlach criticizes Dr. J. K. 
Stockwell’s criticism t of his proposed astigmatic eye-pieces, and 
considers that the latter’s suggestion of cylindrical lenses in spectacle- 
frames is objectionable on the ground that spectacles should never be 
used with any optical instrument, as they are always injurious to its 
proper performance, and, therefore, the wearer of spectacles should 
always remove them before using the Microscope or telescope. 

That spectacles are injurious is attributable mainly to the 
following reasons: In the first place they prevent the eye reaching 
its proper place, in proximity, to the eye-piece. Secondly, the 
generally very eccentric and oblique position of the spectacle-glass 
to the optical axis of the eye, and, consequently, also of the instru- 


* The Microscope, vi. (1886) pp. 63-5. + See this Journal, ante, p. 313. 


510 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ment, greatly injures the proper performance of the latter. The third 
objection is that spectacle-glasses add two light refracting and re- 
flecting surfaces to those already existing. It is almost impossible 
for the observer wearing spectacles to even roughly place the optic 
axis of the spectacle lens, if worn in the ordinary manner, in line with 
that of the instrument. 

On the other hand, Mr. J. Martin finds* that “in every case 
where test objects could be seen both with and without the spectacles, 
the definition was better when they were used.” 


Immersion Objectives. —Mr. E. Gundlach has a wonderful paper 
under this title, which carries one back to the dark ages of microscopy. 
The following is quoted verbatim :— 

“The refractive power of water being much lower than that of 
glass or homogeneous oil, it will, if put in place of those substances, 
exert a correspondingly smaller influence in correcting the aberra- 
tions. But, on the other hand, while the use of the homogeneous 
medium permits the preservation of the full working distance without 
any loss in correction, this loss, if water be employed, can, in a great 
degree, be regained if so much of the working distance as can be 
spared is sacrificed and the space filled with glass. This can best 
be done by adding to the thickness of the front lens so much that 
only just enough of the working distance is left as is practicable, 
and then fill the comparatively small immersion-space with water. 
Indeed, by a skilful balancing of the interfering conditions, the dif- 
ference between the adaptation of water and homogeneous oil can be 
reduced to a minimum, and yet the working distance be as long as is 
practically required. | 

“The high optical superiority of the modern homogeneous im- 
mersion objectives over the old water-immersion may seem to dis- 
prove this theory. But I do not hesitate to claim right here that the 
wonderful performance of these objectives is due in a comparatively 
small degree only to the homogeneous immersion; it is due in a far 
greater degree, to the increase of the number of lenses and, conse- 
quently, the number of refracting surfaces. We remember that at the 
same time as the homogeneous immersion the four-system principle 
was introduced. Probably a more important advantage of the homo- 
geneous over the water-immersion, than that of the higher corrective 
power, may be found in the fact that adjustment for cover-thickness 
is unnecessary. But even this merit is doubted by many first-class 
authorities on the manipulation of the Microscope, and the demand 
for adjustable homogeneous objectives is on the increase. 

“Under such circumstances, weighing its merits and its faults, it 
must be admitted that the practical advantages of the homogeneous 
immersion principle are at least doubtful. ‘This cannot be said of 
the four-system principle. It is unnecessary to enter into a thorough 
theoretical investigation of this matter. It may suffice to call to 
mind the fact that the aberrations of higher order are inversely pro- 


* The Microscope, vi. (1886) pp. 79-80. 
+ Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 51-3. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 511 


portional to the number of refracting surfaces. The objection that 
there is also a corresponding loss of light, although practically true, 
is of no consequence whatever, as is sufficiently demonstrated by the 
extensive experience in the use of this class of objectives. 

“ Summing up, we come to the conclusion that the future high- 
power objectives will be the four-system water-immersion. Or, the 
immersion will be done away with altogether as an incurable incon- 
venience, and the four-system dry-working objective will be used.” 

Has not Mr. Gundlach heard of such an important property of 
objectives as aperture, and does he not know that the limit of 
aperture of a “dry-working objective” is 1-0 N.A., while a homo- 
geneous-immersion objective may approach 1°52 N.A.? 

The microscopist of the future who “does away with immersion 
altogether as an incurable inconvenience” must, to be consistent, 
refuse to ride by railway or to send or receive communications by 
telegraph or telephone. He will probably not carry his consistency 
so far as to insist upon walking the streets in a state of nature and 
without the “incurable inconvenience” of clothing, only because he 
will have just sense enough left to appreciate the fact that his so 
doing would land him in a prison or an asylum—in the latter he 
ought at least to be. 


Application of Very High Powers to the Study of the Micro- 
scopical Structure of Steel.*—Dr. H. C. Sorby writes as follows :— 

“Though I had studied the microscopical structure of iron and 
steel for many years, it was not until last autumn that I employed 
what may be called ‘high powers.’ This was partly because I did 
not see how this could be satisfactorily done, and partly because it 
seemed to me unnecessary. I had found that ‘in almost every case a 
power of 50 linear showed on a smaller scale as much as one of 200, 
and this led me to conclude that I had seen the ultimate structure. 
Now that the result is known it is easy to see that my reasoning was 
false, since a power of 650 linear enables us to see a structure of an 
almost entirely new order, and of such a character that, if it had 
been on a scale of a quarter or a half the actual magnitude, it would 
probably never have been recognized, on account of being beyond the 
resolving power of the Microscope for fine parallel lines. . . . With 
this arrangement [the Vertical Illuminator] high powers give as good, 
or even better, illumination than low. Speaking generally, a power 
of 650 linear is about ten times that previously employed, which is, 
of course, enough to open out a new field for research. 

This great increase has, however, shown little or nothing more in 
the case of malleable iron containing little or no carbon, or in the 
case of the intensely hard constituent of spiegel iron, of white refined 
iron, and of blister steel. It has also shown but little more in the 
case of inclosed slags, or of the graphite in cast iron; but it has 
enabled me to see to great perfection crystals which are probably 
silicon, and has thrown a flood of light on the nature and character 


* Paper read at the Iron and Steel Institute on May 14, 1886, Cf. the 
Tronmonger, 1886, p. 905. 


512 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of that constituent of steel which in my lecture at the last annual 
meeting I described as the pearly compound. High powers show that 
it really has a structure closely resembling that of pearl, the surface 
being marked by fine straight or curved parallel lines, due to the pre- 
sence of alternating very thin plates of varying hardness. After only 
a few hours of observation I felt almost certain that these thin plates 
were iron free from carbon, and the intensely hard substance seen so 
well in blister steel; but the facts were so extraordinary and so unlike 
anything I had ever seen or heard of in any mineral substance, that it 
was not until after several months devoted to the careful study of all 
the chief kinds of iron and steel that I felt confidence in the results. 

The chief facts are best seen in the case of an ingot of steel of 
medium temper. On fracture comparatively large crystals are visible, 
radiating from the surface to the interior. When a properly pre- 
pared microscopical section is viewed with a moderate power, it is 
easy to see that, after having crystallized out from fusion at a high 
temperature, these large crystals break up on further cooling into 
much smaller, as described in my lecture. What is now seen with 
very high powers is that these smaller crystals finally split up into 
alternating very thin plates. ‘Taking all the facts into consideration, 
it appears as though a stable compound of iron with a small amount 
of carbon exists at a high temperature, which at a lower breaks up 
into iron combined with a larger amount of carbon, and into iron free 
from it. If these two products had not differed so much in hardness, 
or if the alternating plates had been considerably thinner, or if 
definite plates had not been formed, such a compound structure would 
never have been suspected. It has probably never been specially 
looked for in other substances, and might exist without being visible, 
even with the highest and best magnifying powers. In those cases 
where no subsequent segregation has occurred, these alternating 
plates are often remarkably regular and uniform in thickness; and 
as far as I am able to judge, the softer plates are about double the 
thickness of the harder. If so, we may say that the thickness of the 
softer plates is about 1/40,000 in., and of the thinner 1/80,000, thus 
giving well-marked strie 1/60,000 in. apart. To define even these 
requires very careful adjustment of the object-glass; and, considering 
all the circumstances of the case, it could not be expected that the 
two bounding edges of the thinner hard plates could always be defined 
so as to show a flat intermediate surface. We are, in fact, brought 
face to face with an optical difficulty, depending on the considerable 
length of waves of light compared with the objects under examination, 
and are obliged to infer the nature of the very fine structure from 
what is seen when it is somewhat coarser. In some cases it is easy 
to trace the gradual passage from these extremely thin plates up to 
those which are sufficiently thick to show clearly that the structure 
is due to thin plates of the hard substance between soft iron. No 
mere cleavage would explain all the facts, though it is extremely 
probable that the direction of the alternating plates was determined 
by the previous crystalline structure. In some cases the plates are 
less well marked, and the structure is more granular. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 513 


To give a good idea of the size of the plates, I would refer to 
what is seen in a longitudinal section of medium steel forged from an 
ingot 3 in. in diameter down to a bar 1 in. square. When broken it 
shows a very fine grain, and when a prepared section is examined 
with a moderate power this grain is seen to be due to crystals often 
about 1/1000 in. in diameter, which are not drawn out or distorted, 
as they would have been if they had existed previously to final 
cooling after hammering, and as they are distorted if the steel be 
hammered at a lower temperature. Examined with a power of 
650 linear, these crystals only 1/1000 in. diameter are seen to contain 
something like sixty of the alternating plates, and even this extremely 
delicate structure shows little or no trace of distortion. Of course it 
is impossible to separate and analyse such thin plates, and we must 
rely on induction to furnish us with a knowledge of their nature.... 

It will thus be seen that the use of very high magnifying powers 
opens out a wide field for research, and has already placed a number 
of important questions in a new light. As far as I am able to judge, 
all the facts seen in the various kinds of iron and steel hitherto 
examined may be explained in accordance with the views here de- 
scribed ; but the time spent in studying the fundamental questions 
prevented me from finishing a comprehensive illustrated memoir which 
was already in large part written before using very high powers.” 


Use of the Microscope with Convergent Polarized Light.*—Dr. 
A. Wichmann considers that the methods proposed some years ago, 
almost at the same time by Bertrand, Klein, and Lasaulx, for con- 
verting the Microscope into a polarizing instrument for convergent 
light, in spite of their utility in the microscopic analysis of rocks, 
have not as yet fully answered the expectations which were formed 
of them. The obstacle to their success is the want of intensity in 
the interference figures when the sections are very thin, which makes 
it difficult to observe them with certainty. Where, however, this 
objection does not apply, the method, as is shown by a paper by 
Herr F. Becke, gives good results.t 


Experiments with the Electric Incandescent and Arc Lights.t— 
Dr. M. Flesch has made experiments with the arc light of a Duboscq 
lamp, with two Edison incandescent lamps of 16 and 8 candle 
power respectively, anda Swan lamp of 24 candle power. Tests were 
applied for the discrimination of colours, and for resolving power by 
the electric light as compared with daylight. For colour was used 
a histological preparation injected with Berlin blue, and stained 
with carmine and iodine green; for resolution the test - objects 
employed were Surirella gemma and Nitzschia sigmcidea of Méller’s 
test-slides. The arc light was used at a distance of 1 metre, and the 
incandescent lamps at a distance of 30-40 cm. from the mirror; the 
same results were obtained from both, namely, very good distinction 
of colours, considerably better than by daylight, and improved resolv- 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., i. (1884) p. 139. 
+ Tschermak’s Mineralog. und Petrogr. Mitth., v. (1883) p. 527. 
} Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., i. (1884) pp. 561-3. 


514 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


ing power; the latter was also increased by interposing a blue-green 
glass, but diminished by the use of red and orange-yellow glasses. 

Dr. Flesch concludes, as the result of his experiments, that the 
incandescent light excels every other artificial light for clearness and 
brightness of field and for steadiness. He is opposed to any plan of 
fixing the lamp to the stand of the instrument, better results being 
obtained when the lamp is placed immediately below the condenser 
than when the light is reflected by a mirror. 


Mayer’s Black-ground Illuminator.*—This is a simple form of 
black-ground illuminator, devised by Prof. A. M. Mayer, for the study 
of aquatic life with low-powers of aperture up to 60°, showing aquatic 
organisms as brilliant objects on a black ground, so that they are 
instantly detected among the more opaque particles of ooze. The 
interior structure of rhizopods, infusoria, rotifers, worms, &c., is also 
brought out in a manner which is said to be very striking. With dark- 
ground illuminators which give large angles to the emergent pencils, 
the interior structure of translucent bodies is not so well seen. 

The optical combination consists of three plano-convex lenses in 
contact with one another, which the author denotes as A, B, and C, in 
their order from below upward. A is a plano-convex lens with its 
plane side facing the mirror; the radius of its curvature being 

din. and its thickness 0°175 in. B and C are plano-convex lenses 
with their convex sides down; radius 1 in. and thickness 0°4 in. 
On B is cemented a stop, formed of a piece of paper blackened with 
lamp-black in shellac. The diameter of the central stop is 0-71 in., 
and the width of the annular opening round the stop 0-1 in. 

Each of the lenses in the experimental form of the illuminator 
exhibited had a diameter of 14 im. It is evident that this diameter 
may be lessened in the lenses B and C, so that the combination when 
mounted will have the form of the frustum of a cone. With this form, 
the combination could enter the aperture of the majority of stages, 
and its upper lens be brought even in contact with the under side 
of the slide. 

The mean angle of the emergent rays at the upper lens C is 
692°. The mean diameter of the annular opening of the stop is 
calculated in reference to the curvatures of the lenses, so that the 
central rays issuing from this stop fall normally on the convex surface 
of the lens C, and thus traverse it without refraction. This also tends 
to correct the chromatic dispersion of the pencil of rays emerging 
from B, whose boundaries of red and blue fall in directions inclined 
towards the normal of the lens C, on opposite sides of this normal. 

The plane mirrors, as generally made, of nearly all Microscopes, 
except those of the large models, are too small in the front and rear 
diameter to illuminate the lower lens of dark-ground illuminators ; 
and the author obviates this defect by cutting an ellipse out of a 
piece of plane mirror, and attaching this to the frame of the ordinary 
mirror. The ellipse has a mirror axis a little larger than the diameter 
of the lower lens of the illuminator, and the major axis is so long that 


* Journ. New York Mier. Soc., ii. (1886) pp. 28-30. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 515 


when the mirror is inclined as much as it will ever need to be to the 
axis of the Microscope, the whole of the surface of the lower lens of 
the illuminator is covered by reflected light. 


Zeiss’s Monochromatic Illuminator.—Dr. Zeiss supplies the 
apparatus shown in fig. 96 for obtaining monochromatic light for 
photo-micrography, or ordinary microscopic work. 

A glass globe 7 in. in diameter is held by the neck in a wooden 
frame consisting of a base-plate, two uprights, and a cross piece. 


Fic. 96. 


4 


The globe is filled with ammonio-copper solution, and placed in front 
of the lamp, so that monochromatic light can be received by the mirror 
or condenser. The space between the globe and the uprights is closed 
by a thin wood screen, which also extends 5 in. upwards, and 3/4 in. 
on each side of the uprights, shutting off extraneous light more 
completely. 

The lamp intended to be used with the globe is a Siemens gas- 
burner, and should be placed about 6 in. behind the globe, while the 
mirror should be at the same distance in front of the globe. The 
concentrated part of the rays should fall exactly on the mirror. It 
will be remembered that Hooke* made use of a glass globe filled 
with water as a bull’s-eye condenser, and that Mr. Kitton, in 1881, 
also suggested the use of a globe filled with water as well as with a 
dilute solution of sulphate of copper. 


* ¢Micrographia,’ 1665. + See this Journal, i, (1881) p. 112. 


516 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Theory of the Camera Lucida.*—The first ten pages of Dr. H. 
Giltay’s paper deal with the they of lenses, nodal points, &c., the 
constitution of the eye (with a diagram of the cornea, lens, and retina), 
and contain a discussion of how the image is formed in the eye, 
whilst the last six pages are devoted to a consideration of the use of 
lenses between the pencil and the eye (previously published by the 
author, and noted in this Journal, III. 1883, p. 278). In the rest 
of the paper the author discusses the best conditions for illuminating 
the field of view and the drawing paper. 

Take first the case of a white chalk pencil on a black slate. Let 
fig. 97 represent the image on the retina of the field of view with 
illumination w and the object with illumination 4, so that w is great 
in comparison with 6; let fig. 98 represent the image of the slate with 


Fic. 97. Fie. 98. Fic. 99. 


(©) 


illumination 6! and the chalk pencil with illumination wo’. When the 
two are superposed fig. 99 is the result. The pencil with illumina- 
tion 6 + wo’ will always be clearly seen upon a faintly illuminated 
object of which the brightness is 8 + 8’; whether it is also clearly 
visible upon the background will depend (since 3’ is small) upon the 
relation between w and w’ ; it will be if w is small in comparison with 


w'. If w is too great in comparison with w' it must be diminished. 


Fig. 100. Fie. 101. 


aw’ 


Cy 


The case of a dark pencil upon white paper is represented in 
figs. 100 and 101, where w’ is now the illumination of the paper and 3’ 
of the pencil. As before, whether the pencil will be easily visible 


* Zeitschy. f. Wiss. Mikr., i. (1884) pp. 1-23 (10 figs.). 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 517 


depends upon tho relation between w and w’. Ifw is too great in 
relation to w' it must be reduced. 

It is generally assumed that to ensure the best conditions the 
paper and the field of view must be equally illuminated, i. e. o=w' ; 
whilst in fact w' should be greater than w. This may be proved by 
obscuring half the field of view by a semicircular piece of cardboard 
placed upon the diaphragm of the eye-piece. Using a weak objective, 
and having diminished the illumination until it is most convenient 
for drawing the object with the camera, shift the drawing paper until 
it occupies only the obscured half of the field; it will then be seen 
at once that the field is much darker than the paper,i.e. w is less 
than w’. 

On the other hand, the brightness of the paper must not be too 
great in comparison with that of the field, or the object will not be 
clearly visible. In the use of high powers, therefore, the illumination 
of the paper must be reduced by interposing glass of different tints 
between the camera and the paper. These should, however, be 
sparingly used, and only when the illumination of the paper is such 
as to obscure the object. 


Vorce’s Combined Focusing and Safety Stage for use in Micro- 
metry with High Powers.*—Mr. C. M. Vorce’s device (fig. 102) 
consists of two perforated brass plates, the upper bearing two spring 


Fia. 102. 


clips to hold the slide, and the lower having springs lifting the upper 
plate, and also a micrometer screw at each end passing up freely 
through the upper plate, which is depressed by milled nuts on the 
micrometer screws, opposed by the lifting-springs of the lower plate. 
“The object of the device is to move the slide instead of the objective 
in focusing, in order that when making measurements by projecting 
the image on a screen the distance of the screen from the focal point 
of the objective may remain absolutely unchanged, which is necessary 
to avoid the objection that the power has been changed by changing 
this distance. In micrometry it is essential to avoid, so far as 
possible, every theoretical as well as every practical source of error, 
even if it should be too minute to effect, appreciably, the result. And 
especially is this true of micrometry applied to determine, judicially, 
important questions. In micrometry there are, with all the ordinary 
appliances, some theoretical sources of error, which, although in most 
cases so minute as to be, in their effect upon the accuracy of the result, 
practically nil, are sufficient to afford pretexts for objection on the part 


* Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 115-9 (3 figs.). 


518 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


of those who seek to magnify every defect to be found in the work of 
others whose results are not agreeable to the views or wishes of those 
who so object. The identity of results by different methods, and 
correlation of tests, may often show a given method to be practically 
exact, yet, if any theoretical objection can be raised against it, it may 
often be so treated as to completely discredit results that are in point 
of fact accurate and reliable, and, unfortunately, the less scrupulous 
the party who thus seeks to discredit such results, the greater the 
_ success likely to attend his efforts,” 

The foregoing, with other considerations, induced Mr. Vorce to 
adopt the following method of micrometry for high powers :—Instead 
of using extremely high-power objectives to gain great magnification, 
tube length, as advocated by Dr. Beale, is employed, and the image 
is viewed direct, i. e. without magnification by eye-piece, the method 
having been suggested in part by former experience in the micrometry 
of blood, and in part by experience in photo-micrography. A base- 
board is provided, some four or five feet long, at one end of which 
the lamp is placed enclosed in a light-tight box. A magic lantern 
answers admirably for illumination, connecting its condenser tube 
with the stage of the Microscope by means of a light-tight sleeve. 
The Microscope is placed horizontally with the amplifier in place and 
the tube as short as possible, and internally blackened to avoid 
reflection. A movable vertical screen, faced with white cardboard or 
glass, is adjusted on the base-board at such distance from the 
Microscope as is found suitable, but need not ordinarily exceed two 
feet, and is clamped in place when adjusted. ‘The focusing stage is 
adjusted on the Microscope stage, clamped in place, and a micrometer 
is put in place and focused, the image being observed on the screen. 
When the desired power is gained by moving the screen along the 
base-board it is clamped in place, and the lines of the micrometer, as 
seen on the screen, are traced by means of a ruler and pen on the face 
of the screen, and by the use of dividers the spaces may be further 
subdivided. In the measurements to be made the Microscope and 
screen are not moved in the least, nor even touched, except to turn 
the screws of the mechanical stage. The micrometer is removed by 
pressing down the top plate of the focusing stage, the slide contain- 
ing the objects to be measured is substituted, and the plate, on being 
released, brings the slide into focus, if it is of the same thickness as 
the micrometer, if not, it is brought into focus by the focusing 
screws of the focusing stage. When focused, the image on the 
screen is viewed and the measurement read off and noted as the slide 
is passed along by the movement of the mechanical stage. If, owing 
to uneven thickness or curvature of the slide or cover, the object 
begins to pass out of focus, it is focused by means of the screws of 
the focusing stage. The operator sits, ordinarily, near the screen, 
working the stage with the left hand and noting the measurements 
with the right; the milled nuts of the focusing stage are easily 
reached, and the work proceeds rapidly ; although two operators, one 
to note down the measurements as called off by the other, and occasion- 
ally changing places, facilitate the work. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 519 


It is obvious that with this device the power employed is always 
the same, when once adjusted, and enlargement up to 5000 diameters 
may be obtained. The micrometer eye-piece, where the body is 
moved by the fine adjustment, is also practically unchanging in power, 
but cannot easily afford the same amount of magnification, unless with 
unusually high-power objectives whose short working distance usually 
precludes their use with tube lengths sufficient to give so great 
amplification. 

A very convenient method of using the focusing stage in micro- 
metry is to so adjust the screen that 0:001 in. of the stage micrometer 
exactly equals 1 in. of the paper scales used by architects and 
divided into hundredths of inches; by pasting one of these scales 
across the screen and bringing the micrometer lines (of 0°001 in.) to 
coincide with the inch lines of the scales, and clamping the screen in 
that position,a scale upon the screen is obtained reading to tyq555 in. 
which is far finer than can ordinarily be utilized, although by sunlight 
the strie of some diatoms, such as F’. saxonica and A. pellucida, will 
puzzle the eyesight in attempting to count their striation by means 
of the scale. 

An incidental feature of this focusing stage is that it will not allow 
the slide or cover to be broken in focusing, and is therefore a safety 
stage as well. 

In making measurements by this method the same spaces of the 
scale should be used for every measurement, and, preferably, the 
central ones, thus removing any question as to the variation of power 
or aberrations in the extreme edges of the field. Thus, if the objects 
measured are about 14 or 2 divisions of the scale, and two are in the 
field at once, do not read the dimensions and record them as they 
stand, but bring first one of the objects to the central line and read 
from that, and note the measurement; then bring the other object to 
the same side of the central line, read and record as before ; both are 
then measured by the same part of the scale to the extent of the 
smaller. . 


Logan’s Life-Slide.*—Mr. J. H. Logan’s slide (fig. 103) consists 
of a glass slip of the usual size, but 1/4 in. thick. An annular channel 


Fig. 103. 


as deep as the thickness of the slide allows is ground out for an air- 
space, and outside of this a much narrower and quite shallow channel 
is cut. This last is for holding beeswax or wax and oil, to cement 
down the cover and prevent evaporation of the enclosed fluid. A drop 
of water placed in the centre of the slide and flattened down to a 
stratum as thin as the objects under examination will permit, is in 
a very favourable condition for examination. Infusoria, thus confined, 


* Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 110-1 (1 fig.). 


520 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


can move freely in every direction except the vertical, and are always 
in focus. The air channel also serves to hold any excess in the amount 
of fluid, above that required to fill the area of the circular field. 
Infusoria may also be isolated and sealed up, when they may be 
kept alive and in good condition for a week or more. In some tem- 
porary slides, where the air-space was much too small, there being no 
channel, rotifers, amebz and other forms, were alive and active for 
nearly a week. 

Beeswax alone seems the best cement for sealing. If put in a 
syringe having a very small nozzle, and warmed, the wax may be forced 
out as a long, thin thread. This can be wound on a spool and kept 
ready for use when a slide is to be sealed up. A piece long enough 
to fill the outer channel is placed therein. A glass slip placed over 
the cover-glass, and pressed down securely, seals the cell, and, as the 
wax is soft, the stratum of fluid can be made as thin as desired. 


Watson’s Reversible Compressor.—Mr. G. Watson’s apparatus 
(fig. 104) consists of a base-plate carrying a compressor which can be 


Fig. 104. 


completely rotated on its horizontal axis—so as to exhibit the object on 
both sides or even in an intermediate position—as well as on the 
vertical pin which fits into the socket of the base-plate. The two 
plates of the compressor are separated by a screw acting against a 
spiral spring, while the upper one pivots over the lower to allow the 
object to be inserted. 


Ruled Plate for Measurement of Blood-corpuscles.*—Prof. W. A. 
Rogers describes a plate ruled in 1,300,000 squares which when 
not in use is covered in order to protect the filling of the lines. 
Whenever it is to be used, it is uncovered and the lines filled with 
graphite by rubbing the surface diagonally with a camel’s-hair brush 
pressed upon the glass with the fingers. A very slight amount of 
powder upon the brush will be sufficient. After the lines are filled, 
the blood placed directly upon the slide will not interfere with their 
visibility. When the examination is completed, the surface of the 
glass should be cleaned with cotton. 


* J1th Ann. Rep. Amer. Postal Micr. Club, 1886, p. 13. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. BAT 


Beautiful slides have been prepared upon small circles of speculum 
metal, in which the lines are protected by nickel plating. The lines 
are very sharp under the nickel. With a vertical illuminator and 
very high powers this form is recommended. 


Yeast Counting Apparatus.— Herren Klénne and Miiller supply 
an apparatus for use by brewers in counting the number of cells in 
yeast and thus judging of its quality. It is practically identical 
with the blood-corpuscle counters, and consists of a slide with a cell 
of definite capacity, a reticular micrometer, and a pipette. 


Metal Micrometers.*—Mr. M. D. Ewell calls attention to the 
fact of the very great superiority of metal micrometers over glass. 
To cay nothing of their greater durability, in point of clearness and 
sharpness of outline there is no comparison whatever between the two. 
With a high power the edges of lines ruled upon glass appear rough 
and uneven; but the author has never yet been able to find a power 
high enough to produce an effect upon a speculum metal centimetre 
ruled to 1/100 mm., though he has examined it with a Zeiss 1/18, 
Bausch and Lomb amplifier, and 1/2 in. solid eye-piece, with the draw- 
tube drawn out to its greatest length. 


Circulation Plate for Frogs, &c.t—Prof. 8. H. Gage says that an 
excellent circulation board for Necturus and frogs may be prepared 
by boring a hole about 2 cm. in diameter in a pine board 8x30 em. 
and 15 mm. thick. The hole should be about 5 cm. from one end 
and near one side. A perforated cork or hollow cylinder of wood 
shonld be fitted to this hole. Over the top of the perforated cork 
should be placed a very thick cover-glass or a piece of thin glass 
slide, and sealed with sealing-wax ; finally the whole board should be 
covered with woollen cloth or cotton flannel. The perforated cork 
should be capable of being moved so that it will stand a centimetre 
above the surface of the board if desired. 


Malassez’s Hemochromometer.{—Dr. L. Malassez’s instrument 
serves to estimate the intensity of the colour of blood by placing in a 
wedge-shaped trough a solution of the blood to be examined and then 
determining at what point of the wedge the solution reproduces the 
tint of a fixed standard. This point will, of course, be so much the 
nearer to the apex of the wedge as the blood examined is richer in 
hemoglobin. Dr. Malassez’s apparatus is therefore the inverse of 
the old one. 

A small metal plate (fig. 105) forms a screen having in its centre 
two circular holes. Behind one of these is placed the coloured 
standard and behind the other the vessel for the solution of blood. The 
coloured standard is formed by a small glass trough inclosing a solu- 
tion of picrocarmine, which reproduces exactly the colour of a solution 
of 1 in 100 of blood containing 5 per cent. of hemoglobin. The 
trough is mounted in a brass box, and fixed in a metal ring. The 


* The Microscope, vi. (1886) p. 68. 
t Notes on Histological Methods, 1885-6, p. 10. 
t Arch. de Physiol., 1882. 


Ser. 2.—Vot. VI. 2 Mi 


522 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


trough is in the form of a very elongated wedge. The lateral walls 
are of metal which hold firmly between them the glasses which form 
the oblique walls of the trough. This trough is fixed to a earrier 
which can be moved up or down bya milled head. To theright near 
the top of the screen is a square orifice through which the scale en- 
-graved on the carrier can be seen. Behind the screen and the trough 
is placed either a piece of ground glass, or a mirror with ground surface, 
according as the examination is conducted by direct or reflected light. 


Fie. 105. 


To the anterior face of the screen and in front of the two central 
orifices a small apparatus can be applied, consisting of two total 
double-reflection prisms, a very narrow diaphragm, and a lens. The 
screen is attached to a vertical support, which obviates the necessity 
of holding it in the hand, and it can be placed vertically or inclined 
as desired. 

The accessories comprise (1) a guarded lancet, (2) a “mélangeur” 
(identical in construction with the “ Mélangeur Potain,” see this 
Journal, II. (1882) p. 561, fig. 107, but differently graduated) for 
making the solutions of blood, and (3) a small vessel to receive them 
temporarily, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 523 


The method of using the instrument is briefly as follows:—A 
solution of blood (1 in 50, 1 in 100, or 1 in 200) is made by the 
mélangeur and put in the trough; the latter is then placed in its 
carrier and moved up or down by means of the milled head till the 
precise point is reached at which the tint of the solution seen through 
the central aperture exactly matches that of the coloured standard. 
The figure is then read off by the index, and if the solution is 1 in 100 
it will indicate direct the quantity of hemoglobin contained in 
100 parts of blood; but if the solution is 1 in 200 this figure must 
be doubled, or if 1 in 50 halved. 


Thierry’s Hema-Spectroscope.*—M. M. de Thierry designed this 
apparatus for the detection of infinitesimal quantities of blood in any 
fluid (water, urine, humours) or in spots on linen, wood, metals, &c. 
The principle of the apparatus is based on the optical properties of 
oxyhemoglobin and reduced haemoglobin, one of 
which gives two absorption-bands between the Fie, 106, 
lines D and E of the spectrum and the other a i 
single band between the others. 

It consists of a brass tube, in which slides 
another tube of much smaller diameter, the 
latter having a spectroscopic apparatus of new 
design, furnished with a prism of great dis- 
persive power and having a slit the width of 
which can be regulated symmetrically on both 
sides of the median line. Into the apparatus 
can be introduced at will three glass tubes with 
their ends closed by small glass discs. The 
tubes are 1, 3, and 5 dm. long and 1 cmq. in 
section. They hold the fluid to be investigated, 
and according to its richness in colouring matter 
one or other of the tubes is taken. It can be 
adapted either for a separate stand with a con- 
cave mirror or more simply for an ordinary 
Microscope. 

In use the mirror is adjusted so as to illu- 
minate the tube strongly, and the opening of 
the slit is regulated and focused so that the 
spectrum is very clearly seen. The urine or fluid 
in which the linen, paper, &c., supposed to be 
spotted with blood has been previously macerated, 
is placed in one of the tubes. If the fiuid is 
colourless or the colour is very faint the 5 dm. 
tube is used; if it is highly coloured it is diluted me 
with water, until it is of a bright rose colour RUFFLE 
when seen through a pretty considerable thick- 
ness aud placed in the 1 dm. or 3 dm. tube. If the solution is too 
highly coloured it will completely absorb the light, and consequently 
the two characteristic bands will not be visible. 


* Comptes Rendus, ec. (1885) pp. 1244-6. 9 
M 2 


524. SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Owing to the thick stratum of fluid traversed by the light, the 
absorption-bands appear, even with a solution only containing 
1/100,000 of hemoglobin. A drop of blood the size of a grain of 
wheat, on a piece of linen exposed three months in the open air, 
showed very distinctly after maceration in fluid enough to fill the 
5 dm. tube the absorption-bands of hemoglobin, and the author has 
found the absorption-bands still perfectly visible in a fluid which 
under ordinary circumstances presented no colour, and which only 
contained 1 c.cm. of blood in 80 lit. of water. With urine the results 
are almost as satisfactory. 

The tubes being entirely of glass, the fluids can be submitted to 
the chemical actions which allow the oxyhemoglobin to be reduced, 
ue presence verified by the appearance of the characteristic black 

and. 

This apparatus can of course be used in all cases where the 
process of spectroscopy by absorption admits of application, as in the 
determination of the presence of chlorophyll. The author has, more- 
over, applied it to the detection of very small quantities of ergot in 
wheat-flour, by means of the distinctive absorption-spectrum which 
the colouring matter of ergot presents. 


Apparatus for Microscopical Observation of Vapour-drops.*— 
Prof. J. L. Soret describes an apparatus by which drops of vapour 


Fie. 107. 


SS 
SSSR. SO 


8S et Sir a 


a A 

S 7 SS TSS SS 

4 SSS sees 
y Taos 
u SSS 


can be examined microscopically. It depends upon the principle that 
when moist air is rarefied by an air-pump a precipitation of vesicular 


* Arch. Sci, Phys. et Nat., xiv. (1885) pp. 575-6. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 525 


vapour is formed, which disappears in a few minutes. When the 
exhaustion is feeble the vapour is scarcely visible in diffused light, 
but becomes very apparent when a beam of solar or electric light is 
directed on it. 

A small box with glass walls, shown in position in fig. 107 and in 
section in fig. 108, is placed on the stage of the Microscope, and to 
it are attached two tubes fitted with stop-cocks. One of them com- 
municates with a vessel partly filled with water for obtaining moist 
air, the other with the receiver of an air-pump. The air in the glass 
box can alternately be rarefied, and moist air allowed to enter at each 
dilatation. By means of sunlight or electric light, the globules of 
vapour formed can be examined; but the author has not yet arrived 
at any conclusion as to their constitution. 


ABBE, E.—Changing Eye-pieces without altering focus, &c. 
[Letter written in 1881 pointing out that to do this it is the anterior 
principal focus of the eye-piece that must keep the same place in the 


Microscope-tube. ] 
Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), III. (1886) pp. 9-10 (1 fig.). 


American Society of Microscopists.— Working Session. 

[Schedule of Demonstrations,” &c.] 

Proc, Amer, Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 203-7. 
Butiocu, W. H.—Magnification. 

[Answers to his questions, ante, p. 149.] 

Amer, Mon, Micr, Journ., VII. (1886) p. 78. 
Burritt, T. J.—See Stratton, S. W. 
C[AmMPBELL], J. A—Fine Adjustment. 

(1. Criticism of Mr. Mayall and Mr, Swift’s views of his adjustment, ante, 

p. 375. 2, Criticism of Anderson’s fine adjustment, ante, p. 325.] 
Engl. Mech., XLAII. (1886) p. 148. 
Coxe, A. H.—A new self-adjusting Frog-plate. [Post.] 
Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), III. (1886) p. 11 (1 fig.). 
Connor’s (R.) Pen-and-ink drawings of objects viewed with the Microscope. 
[Vol. V. p. 1077.] Nature, XXXII. (1885) p. 633. 
Cox, J. D.—The Actinic and Visual Focus in Micro-photography with High 
Powers. 
[See Vol. V. (1885) p. 1070.] 
Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, 
pp. 29-32 (1 heliotype), and pp. 229-30. 
CrAMER, C.—Ein neuer beweglicher Objecttisch. (A new movable stage.) 
[ Post.] Zeitschr, f. Wiss. Mikr., III. (1886) pp. 5-14 (2 figs.). 
Czapsx1, S.—Ueber ein Mikrorefractometer. (On a Micro-refractometer.) 

[Description of Exner’s, ante, p. 328, with critical remarks, and a suggested 
improvement as regards the independent action of the screws on the 
screen. 

: Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., VI. (1886) pp, 139-41 (2 figs.). 
D’ARsonvAL, A.—Recherches de Calorimétrie. (Researches on Calorimetry.) 

[Describes various forms of (1) apparatus for maintaining a constant 
temperature, (2) regulators, (3) calorimeters. ] 

Journ. Anat. et Physiol. (Robin), XXII. (1886) pp. 113-61 (26 figs.). 
DetmeERsS, H. J.—The Numerical Aperture of an Objective in relation to its 
angle of aperture in air, water, and balsam. 

[Two tables: (1) Air angle, water angle, balsam angle, and N.A. for every 
2° of air angle from 1° and 2° to 180°. (2) Balsam angle, water angle, 
and N.A. for every 2° of balsam angle from 1° and 2° to 180°.] 

Proc, Amer, Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 199-202. 


526 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


DixuueR, J. S.—The Microscopical Study of Rocks. 

[Brief notes on the history of the subject, on French and German petro- 
logical Microscopes, and on mounting. 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 41-2 and 59. 
Dunp.uey, P. H.—Photo-micrographs of Wood Sections. 
[Exhibition only. Photographs 0-93 in. in diameter, taken by lamplight on 
8 x 10 in. bromo-gelatin plates, with a magnification of 10,000. ] 
Trans. N. York Acad. of Sci., 111. 1885) p, 107. 

Dunning, C. G.—Note on a new form of Live-box or Zoophyte-trough. 
[ Ante, p. 138.] Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, 11. 1886) pp. 249-51 © figs.). 
ETrrnop, A.—Planche a dessin universelle pour les laboratoires de Microscopie. 

(Universal drawing-board for microscopical laboratories.) [ Post.] 
Internat. Monatsschr. f. Anat. u. Histol., 11. (1885) No. 6. 
EweE.Lu, M. D.—Metal Micrometers. [Supra, p. 521.] 

The Microscope, VI. (1886) p. 63. 
F.R.M.S.—Campbell’s Fine Adjustment. 

[Reply to Mr. Campbell’s letter, supra, and pointing out that Mr. Nelson 
did originally recommend it for students’ Microscopes. Gundlach and 
Ross have already applied the differential screw to fine adjustments. | 

Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) p. 239. 
Fennessey, E. B.—{Eyes of Animals as Objectives.] 

[‘‘ Have the eyes of animals ever been substituted for the objective of the 
Microscope? I often see the eyes of fish and birds fading into nothingness, 
and I feel regret that some means of utilizing them for optical purposes 
is not practised. Doubtless such lenses are perfect. Could they not be 
frozen with an ether spray whilst using them, or could not our scientists 
think of some substance which will preserve them from decay without 
destroying their form or impairing their transparency ?” ] 

Engl. Mech., XLIII. (1886) p. 133. 

FrRaNcoTTE, P.—Microscope de voyage de Nachet. (Nachet’s Travelling 

Microscope.) 

[Cf. Vol. IT. (1882) p. 98.] Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., XII. (1886) pp. 60-1. 
Girard, A. C-—See Peyer, A. 

Glasgow Microscopical Society, Formation of. Nature, XXXIV, (1886) p. 14. 
Graff, T. S. Up de, Memoir of. 

Proc. Amer. Soc, Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 216-22. 

See also pp. 230-2. 

GRiFFritH, E. H.—Some new and improved Apparatus. 

[Substage diaphragm (ante, p. 130). Mechanical finger objective (Vol. V., 
1885, p. 709). ] 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 112-4 (4 figs.). 

9 + Our Eighth [Ninth ?] Annual Meeting. 

[As to the prospects, &c., of the Chautauqua Meeting of the Amer. Soc. of 
Micr.] 

The Microscope, V1. (1886) pp. 58-60. 
GuNDLACH, E.—On Immersion Objectives. [Supra, p. 510.] 
Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Anu. Meeting, 1885, pp. 51-3, 236-7. 

5 » Astigmatism and its relation to the use of optical instruments 

further considered. [Supra, p. 509.] The Microscope, VI. (1886) pp. 63-5. 
Hacer, H.—Das Mikroskop und seine Anwendung. Ein Leitfaden bei mikro- 
skopischen Untersuchungen fiir Apotheker, Aerzte, Medicinalbeamte, Kauf- 
leute, Techniker, Schullehrer, Fleischbeschauer, &c. (The Microscope and its 
Use. A guide to microscopical investigations for chemists, physicians, 
medical officers, merchants, technicians, school-teachers, meat-examiners, &c.) 
7th ed., viii. and 240 pp., 316 figs. (8vo, Berlin, 1886). 
Hevrox, H. vaAn.—Le Microscope 4 l’Exposition Universelle d’Anvers. (The 
Microscope at the Antwerp Universal Exhibition.) (Concld.) 

[Preparations (Prince of Monaco—Montaldo’s Wood Sections)—Photo- 

grams— Various accessories. | 
Journ. de Microgr., X. (1886) pp. 75-80. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. oa 


Hevurck, H. van.—Nouveaux Objectifs et Oculaires de Zeiss. (New objectives 
and eye-pieces of Zeiss.) [Ante, p. 316.] Ibid., pp. 91-3, 
from Moniteur du Praticien, Feb. 1886. 
Hitcucock, R.—Photo-micrography. V., VI. 
[Focusing. Exposure. 4. Developing.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 67-70, 92-5. 
(Hiroucock, R.]—Postal Club Boxes. 
(List of contents. ] Amer, Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 16-8, 57-8. 
5 e A New Objective. 
[H. R. Spencer and Co’s. 1/16 in. homogeneous immersion.]  Zbid., p. 57. 
HoeEGH, E. v.—Nachtrag zu ‘Die Achromatische Wirkung der Huyghens’schen 
Okulare.’ (Addition to ‘The achromatic action of the Huyghenian Eye- 
pieces.’) (Cf. ante, p. 338.] 
Central-Ztg. f. Optik. u. Mech., VII. (1886) p. 85. 
Hopxins, G. M.—Microscopical Examination of Ciliated Organisms by inter- 
mittent Light. [Supra, p. 135.] 
The Microscope, V. (1885) pp. 279-81, from Scientific American. 
Howe, L.—An Imperfection of the Eye and Test Objects for the Microscope. 
[Ante, p. 147.] 
Proc, Amer, Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 91-2, pp. 244-5. 
KeE.uuicort, D. S.—An efficient Pipette. [Ante, p. 180.] 
[“‘ An equally good, perhaps better, way to secure a pipette with all required 
advantages is as follows:—Take a proper piece of large rubber tubing, 
e.g. 3 in. long, with half or three-fourths inch bore, and two short rubber 
corks to fit, pass the tube through one stopper and into the other; drill a 
hole in the glass tube near the upper one, and bring all to place. This 
form works promptly, is durable, and has one advantage, when laid on the 
work-table the point is free from the same, so it does not gather dust.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr, Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 4-5. 
KESTEVEN, W. B.—Microscopical Drawing. 
(Thin glass cover in brass revolving frame placed at an angle in front of the 
eye-piece. | 
Scientif. Enquirer, I. (1886) p. 68. 
Kine, T.—On the use of the Magic Lantern for purposes of Teaching. 
[Supra, p. 507.] 
Proc, and Trans, Nat, Hist. Soc. Glasgow, I. (1886) p. xxx. 
KINKELIN, F.—The Dioptrograph. 
[Mechanical drawing apparatus for drawing the outlines of macroscopic 
objects, consisting of a pantograph, in which the tracer is represented by 
a tubular diopter, supported on a square table. For smaller objects the 
diopter is furnished with a lens. ] 
Amer, Natur.i., XX. (1886) pp. 406-8 (1 fig.), 
from Humboldt, I. Part 5. 
Kuoéwyzg, J.,and G. MULLER.—Pendel-Objekttisch fiir Mikroskope. (Pendulum 
stage for Microscopes.) [Ante, p. 127.] 
Title only of German Patent No. 35,174, K. 4238, 14th July 1885. 
Kiou, R.—Petrographische Mittheilungen aus den Siidamerikanischen Anden, 
(Petrological communications from the South American Andes.) 
[Description of apparatus. Post.] 
Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral,, Geol., u. Paleontol., 1886, I. pp. 35-48 (2 figs.). 
Lavpy, L. H.—The Magic Lantern and its applications—Microscope attachment. 
Anthony’s Phot. Bulletin, XVII. (1886) pp, 234-6 (4 figs.). 
Lees, W.—Acoustics, Light and Heat. A 
(Microscopes, pp. 150-1. “The eye-piece is usually formed of several 
glasses . . . . The glasses are all made achromatic.” 
New ed., 320 pp. and 209 figs. (8vo, London and Glasgow, n.d.). 
Lewis, W. J.—Some new features in connection with electric illumination as 
applied to the Microscope. [Title only.] 
Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, p. 249. 
Logan, J. H.—A new form of Life-slide. [Supra, p. 519.) 
Lbid., pp. 110-1 (1 fig.). 


528 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Logan, J. H.—Remarks on a device for enabling two observers to view objects 
simultaneously. 

[‘‘ Half of the rays from the object proceed directly up the main tube, and 
the other half are reflected into the other one. The reflected rays, how- 
ever, do not cross those of the main tube, but are reflected outside ; other- 
wise the arrangement resembles that of the Wenham binocular prism. 
Either such a modified Wenham prism may be used, or two plain 
reflectors. The one submitted for examination is an experimental one, 
and works fairly well. Experiments are still being made, the endeavor 
being to perfect an apparatus that will utilize the whole aperture of the 
objective in each tube, instead of half, as in the present arrangement.” ] 

Idid., pp. 120-1 (1 fig). 

MALLARD, E.—Traite de Cristallographie géometrique et physique. Tome II. 

Crystallographie physique. (Treatise on geometrical and physical Crystal- 
lography. Vol. II. Physical Crystallography.) 

[Includes Microscope, apparatus, and methods. ] 

184 figs. and 8 pls. (8vo, Paris, 1884). 
Marin, E. W.—Photomicrography—Processes and results. 

[Title of paper only, with discussion by Dr. Julien and the President (Dr. 
J.S. Newberry). The latter thought that “the problem of a satisfactory 
microscopic attachment to the lantern still remained unsolved at 


present.” | 
Journ. N. York Acad. of Sci., III. (1885) pp. 105-6. 


Marrt1n, W. J.—Astigmatism and the Microscope. [Supra, p. 510. ] 
The Microscope, VI. (1886) pp. 79-80. 


Matthews, Dr. J., Death of. Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, Il. (1885) p. 279. 
Mayer, A. M.—A simple and inexpensive form of Black-ground Illuminator. 
[ Supra, p. 514.] Journ. New York Micr, Soc., I. (1886) pp. 28-30. 


MERCER, F. W.—Small Photo-micrographic Camera. 

[Described Vol. IV. (1884) p. 625.] 

The Microscope, VI. (1886) pp. 60-2 (2 figs.). 
Micuin, W. E.—Microscopical Optics. 

[Queries and answers. (1) The binocular prism fitting does not reduce the 
aperture of high-power objectives when used monocularly. (2) 1 in. dia- 
meter is too small for low-power eye-pieces. ] 

Micr, Bulletin, IIL. (1886) pp. 7-8. 
Micrometer, Standard, Report of Committee on. 

[* Little progress in the work of obtaining copies of the standard for general 
use among microscopists.” One copy broken. Standards should be 
made of material less liable to destruction than thin glass. Prof. Rogers 
has consented to prepare a series of copies on thick plate glass or other 
suitable material. | 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 212-3. 

Mirrenzwey, M.—Ueber die acromatische Wirkung der Okulare von Huyghens 
und Ramsden. (On the achromatic action of Huyghenian and Ramsden eye- 
pieces.) Central-Ztg. f. Optik u. Mechanik, VII. (1886) p. 61. 


MiuueR, G.—See Klonne, J. 
Ne son, E. M.—Some remarks on the interpretation of Microscopic images with 
high powers. [Post.] 
Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, II. (1886) pp. 255-9, 283-4, and 286-7. 
Nos, L. H.— Magnification. 
[Reply to Mr. Bulloch’s queries, ante, p. 149.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 58-9. 
OBERSTEINER, H.—Ein Schnittsucher. (A section-searcher.) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., III. (1886) pp. 55-7 (1 fig.). 
Objectives, the new Abbe. Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 76-7, 88-92; 
The Microscope, V1. (1886) pp. 87-8, 111-9; 
Science, VII. (1886) pp. 247, 413-4 ; 
Nature, XXXIV. (1886) pp. 57-8. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 529 


Ortu, J.—Cursus der normalen Histologie zur Einfiihrung in dem Gebrauch des 
Mikroskopes, sowie in das pracktische Studium der Gewebelehre. (Course of 
normal histology as an introduction to the use of the Microscope as well as 
to the practical study of histology.) 

[Contains an introduction on the Microscope, and methods of preparation, 


pp. 1-65, 11 figs.] 
4th ed., xii. and 360 pp., 108 figs. (8vo, Berlin, 1886). 
P., W. G.—The Huyghenian Eye-piece. 
[The answer to the question, “Is it achromatic? ” requires a distinction to 
be made before we can give it. When it receives parallel rays it is 
achromatic ; but when placed as it is in a telescope it is very far from 


being so. ] 
Engl. Mech., XLII. (1886) p. 255. 
PELLETAN, J.—Microscope Minéralogique (moyen modele) de Bézu, Hausser et 
Cie. (Bézu, Hausser, & Co.’s Mineralogical Microscope—medium size.) 
Journ. de Microgr., X. (1886) pp. 185-6, 
Peyer, A—An Atlas of Clinical Microscopy. Translated by A. C. Girard. 
200 pp., 90 pls., and 105 figs. (8vo, New York, 1886). 
Rocers, W. A.—Determination of the absolute length of eight Rowland 
gratings at 62° F. 
[Contains a description of a new comparator made in 1884.] 
Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 151-98 (3 figs.). 
Ruled plate for Blood-corpuscles. [Supra, p. 520.] 
11th Ann. Rep. Amer, Post. Micr. Club, 1886, p. 13. 
Royston-Picott, G. W.—Microscopical Advances. 
(VII. “A thing of beauty, a joy for ever.’ Diatomic marvels. VIII. IX., 
X. Focal planes, their measurement by the focimeter and diatomic 
images. | 


” ” 


Engl. Mech., XLIII. (1886) pp. 115-€ (2 figs.), 159-60 (1 fiz.), 
203-4 (3 figs.), and 247-8 (5 figs.). 
Also reply to Dr. Edmunds, ante p. 337, p. 126. 
Runyon, E. W.—[Exhibition of Oxy-hydrogen Microscope.] 

[Construction only generally described—“ The nose-piece to which the 
objectives are attached slides on three polished steel rods, as does also 
the stage with its substage, and both can be clamped in any desired 
position.” | 

Proc. San Francisco Mier. Soc., 1886, March 24th. 
ScHIEFFERDECKER, P.— Ueber eine neue Construction der Mikrometer- 
schraube bei Mikroskopen. (Ona new construction of the micrometer screw 
for Microscopes.) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., III. (1886) pp. 1-5 (2 figs.). 
Scuuu.tzez, E. A.—Electrical illumination for the Microscope. 
[Reports the successful use for the purpose of a small gas engine and 


dynamo. | 
Journ. New York Micr. Soc., II. (1886) pp. 16-7. 
Suanks, S. G.—A Contribution to Blood Measurements. 

[Description of the Microscope used and mode of measurement, with table 
of 242 measurements. “ A blood-corpuscle seen with the vertical illumi- 
nator presents a novel appearance. It appears smaller than with trans- 
mitted light, that is, without coma.’’] 

Amer, Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 25-6. 
Smitu, H. L.—Presidential Address. 
[The unconscious influence of science studies. See Vol. V. (1885) p. 1081.] 
Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr,, 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 5-28. 
Device for testing refractive index of immersion fluids. 


[See Vol. V. (1885) p. 1066.] 
Tbid., pp. 83-5 (1 fig). 


Sorsy, H. C.—The application of very high powers to the study of the micro- 


scopical structure of steel. [Supra, p. 511.) Tronmonger, 1886, pp. 905-6. 
Nature, XXXIV. (1886) p. 63. 


530 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


{ 


Spencer and Tolles Memorial Fund. 
[Report to Amer. Soc. Micr. of the condition of the fund, now amounting to 
$60-20.] 
Proc. Amer, Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 249-50. 


Stein, S. T.—Das Licht im Dienste wissenschaftlicher Forschung. Heft III. 
Das Licht und die Lichtbildkunst in ihrer Anwendung auf anatomische, 
physiologische, anthropologische, und arztliche Untersuchungen.. (Light as 
an aid to scientific investigation. Part III. Light and the art of photography 
in their application to anatomical, physiological, anthropological, and medical 
researches.) 

2nd ed., viii. and pp. 323-472, 172 figs. and 2 photogr., 8vo, Halle, 1885. 


Stratton, S. W. anp T. J. BuRRILL.—A Heliostat for Photo-micrography. 

[Description of a moderately cheap instrument, and ‘‘simple and so adjust- 

able as to eliminate as many of the errors of construction as possible, 

quickly put in operation, easily kept in order, and requiring but little 
attention after once being properly set and regulated.” 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 103-7 @ figs.). 


THIESEN, M.—Ueber die Ablesung von Normalbarometern und tiberhaupt von 
groésseren Fliissigkeitsoberflachen. (On the reading of normal barometers 
and especially with large fluid surfaces.) [Post.] 

Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenk., VI. (1886) pp. 89-93 (8 figs.). 


Tolles Memorial Fund.—See Spencer. 


Vorcer, C. M.—A combined focussing and safety-stage for use in micrometry . 
with high powers. ([Supra, p. 517.] 
Proc. Amer. Soc. Mier., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 115-9 (8 figs.). 


WALMSLEY, W. H.—How to make Photo-micrographs. III. 
[Describes the author’s first camera (Vol. III., 1883, p. 556), and his en- 
larging, reducing, and copying camera, post. | 
The Microscope, VI. (1886) pp. 49-53 (2 figs.), 


ZIMMERMANN, O. E. R.—Atlas der Pflanzenkrankheiten welche durch Pilze 
hervorgerufen werden. Mikrophotographische Lichtdruckabbildungen der 
phytopathogenen Pilze nebst erlauterndem Texte. Heft 2. (Atlas of Plant- 
diseases produced by Fungi. Photo-micrographie illustrations of the phyto- 
pathogenic fungi, with explanatory text. Part 2.) 

pp. 17-22 and plates III. and IV. with 15 figs. each. 
Text 8vo, atlas fol., Halle a. 8., 1885. 


8. Collecting, Mounting and Examining Objects, &c.* 


Hunting for Amebe.|—Dr. J. EH. Taylor has found the following 
simple device for catching Amebe to be successful in the highest 
degree. He lowers one of the ordinary shilling glass troughs to the 
bottom of the fresh-water aquarium, and when the trough has been 
immersed about twenty-four hours, on being carefully brought up, 
numerous Amabe will be found crawling on the inner surfaces of the 
glass. 


* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects; (2) Preparing, (a) in 
general, (b) special objects; (3) Separate processes prior to making sections; 
(4) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes; (5) Staining and Injecting ; 
(6) Mounting, including preservative fluids, cells, slides, and cabinets ; (7) Ex- 
amining objects, including Testing ; (8) Miscellaneous matters. 

+ Sci.-Gossip, 1886, pp. 113-4, 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. o8l 


Preparing Sections for Examination with the highest Powers.* 
—Mr. J. W. Gifford thinks there is no more successful plan for de- 
monstrating minute structure than Beale’s process of preparing and 
staining tissues in glycerin and then teasing them out with needles, 
followed by the judicious application of heat and pressure, and finally 
mounting in pure glycerin. The method, however, prevents the use 
of the freezing microtome as glycerin freezes at so low a temperature, 
and it therefore occurred to him whether the substitution of a colloid, 
such as gum, for the glycerin at one stage of the process might not 
act as well as glycerin in preventing change. 

The fresh material cut into small pieces should be placed in 
Beale’s glycerin-carmine until the bioplasm is stained (10 to 15 hours), 
or better, inject the whole body or part with the stronger glycerin- 
carmine, and allow it to remain until stained; it should then be cut 
into pieces. After this place it in 2 parts glycerin to 1 water for 24 
hours, followed by pure glycerin saturated with picric acid for 48 
hours. The pieces are then taken out of the glycerin and (of course 
without washing) placed in a thick solution of gum acacia, also satu- 
rated with picric acid, for 48 hours. The small quantity of glycerin 
which adheres to them when placed in the gum and picric acid does 
not much retard freezing, and sections may easily be cut. 

As soon as the sections are cut they are placed in a mixture of 5 
drops of acetic acid to 1 oz. of glycerin, and after remaining in this 
for several days or a week will have swelled out to their original size 
if shrunk at first by the glycerin, and may then be mounted in glycerin 
with a trace of acid in the usual way. 


Osmic Acid and Merkel’s Fluid for Pelagic Fish-eggs, &c.{—Dr. 
C. O. Whitman proceeds by placing the eggs with a little sea-water in 
a watch-glass; then by the aid of a pipette a quantity of osmic acid 
(1/2 per cent.) about equal in volume to that of the sea-water is added. 
At the end of from five to ten minutes the eggs are washed quickly 
in water and transferred to a chrome-platinum solution, differing from 
Merkel’s mixture in having a1 per cent. solution of chromic acid. In 
this they remain from one to three days. By this treatment the 
blastoderm may be easily freed from the yolk and then having been 
thoroughly washed in water for some hours, the preparation is passed 
through the usual grades of alcohol, stained and sectioned or mounted 
in toto. The platinum chloride not only completes the work of hard- 
ening, but at the same time removes much of the brown or black 
colour imparted by the osmic acid. By this method a very marked 
differentiation is generally obtained as early as the 16-cell stage. In 
later stages of cleavage the distinction between central and peripheral 
cells becomes still stronger, so that it becomes possible to trace the 
entire history of the origin of the so-called parablast. 

For the eggs of Clepsine Merkel’s fluid is used, of its ordinary 
strength, for one or two hours only. Here the differential effects 
extend not only to the different germ-layers, but also to cell-groups 


* Scientif. Enquirer, i. (1886) pp. 25-7. + Amer. Natural., xx. (1886) p. 200-3. 


932 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


destined to form central nervous system, nephridial organs, larval 
glands, &e. 

The author treats frogs’ eggs, first with osmic acid for about twenty 
minutes, and then transfers directly to the chrome platinum solution 
(same strength as for pelagic eggs), for twenty-four hours. The eggs 
are next placed in water and freed from their gelatinous envelopes 
with needles and dissecting Microscope. They are next washed in 
flowing water for two hours, then treated with alcohol and stained. 


Method of Killing Gephyrea.*—According to Dr. W. Apel the 
only successful method of killing these animals, in an extended con- 
dition, is by the use of hot water. The animal may be placed in a 
vessel of sea-water, and the temperature gradually raised to about 
40° C.; or it may be seized by a pair of forceps while in a condition 
of extension, and plunged for a moment into boiling water. This 
latter treatment does not kill the animal, but renders it completely 
limp, in which condition it should be cut open and then placed in 
some hardening fluid. 


Macerating Mixture for central nervous system of vertebrates. 
—The following mixture, discovered by Landois, is recommended by 
Dr. H. Gierke as an excellent macerating agent, especially for the 
central nervous system of vertebrates :—Chromate of ammonium 
5 grm.; phosphate of potassium 5 grm.; sulphate of sodium 5 grm.; 
distilled water 100 grm. 

Pieces of fresh tissues are left in this fluid from one to three, or 
even four or five days, then transferred to a mixture (in equal parts) 
of this fluid with ordinary ammonia-carmine (24 hrs.). 


Preparing the Hen’s Egg.t—A very important addition to this 
branch of technique has been made by M. M. Duval. 

First in importance are the methods of orientation. After the 
appearance of the primitive streak, at about the twelfth hour of 
incubation, it becomes easy to distinguish anterior, posterior, and 
later regions in the blastoderm. Hitherto it has been a matter of 
conjecture whether anterior and posterior regions became morpho- 
logically defined at any considerable time before the formation of 
this streak; and no one, before Duval, attempted to clear up the 
question, simply because it appeared impossible to find any means of 
orienting sections at an earlier date. Duval addressed himself to the 
task of finding out the transformations of the blastoderm, which lead 
up to the establishment of the primitive streak, and to this end he 
was compelled to seek, first of all, for some reliable means of exact 
orientation. 

Method of Orientation.—It was noticed by Balfour, and confirmed 
by Kolliker, that the axis of the chick embryo lies constantly at right 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., xlii. (1885) pp. 459-529 (3 pls.). See this Journal, 
ante, p. 73, and Amer. Natural., xx. (1886) p. 315. 

a ae f. Mikr. Anat., xxv. (1885) p. 445. Amer. Natural., xx. (1886) 
p- 315. 

$ Ann. Sci. Nat.—Zool., xviii. (1884) 208 pp. and 5 pls. See this Journal, 
v. (1885) p. 615, and Whitman’s ‘Methods in Microscopical Anatomy and 
Embryology,’ 1885, pp. 163-7. ; 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 533 


angles to the longer axis of the egg. If an egg, after one or two 
days’ incubation, is opened, while held in such a position that its 
large end is turned to the left and its small end to the right of the 
operator, it will be found that the caudal end of the embryo is directed 
towards the operator, while the cephalic end is turned in the opposite 
direction. Out of 166 cases, Duval found only three that could be 
regarded as exceptions to the rule. Assuming that the orientation is 
the same before the appearance of the primitive streak, we have then 
a very reliable means of recognizing, even in the freshly-laid egg, 
when the blastoderm has a homogeneous aspect, the future anterior 
and the future posterior region. But this fact alone is not all that is 
required for complete orientation ; the blastoderm must be hardened, 
and the means of orientation must be preserved. That portion of the 
vitelline sphere which bears the blastoderm must be so marked that 
the anterior and posterior regions of the blastoderm may be recognized 
after the process of hardening, and after the blastoderm, together 
with some of the circumjacent yolk, has been cut free from the rest 
of the egg. This may be done in different ways, according to the 
method employed in hardening. 

I. Osmic Acid Method.—1. Make a triangular box without bottom, 
by folding a strip of paper 5 mm. wide and 50 mm. long. 

2. After opening the egg carefully from the upper side, remove 
with a pipette the thin layer of albumen which lies above the 
cicatricula, so far as this can be done with safety. 

3. Place the triangular box over the blastoderm in such a manner 
that the base corresponds to the future anterior region, and the apex 
to the future posterior region. While pressing slightly on the box 
in order to bring it into close contact with the surface of the yolk, 
fill it by means of a pipette with osmic acid (1/3-1/4 per cent.), and 
allow the acid to act for some minutes. 

4, As soon as the area inclosed by the box begins to blacken, the 
whole should be immersed in a vessel of chromic acid, in which the 
paper box may be detached, and the vitelline sphere freed from 
the albumen and the shell. 

5. The vitellus may now be transferred, by the aid of a very deep 
watch-glass, to another vessel of chromic acid, where it is allowed to 
remain one or two days, until the peripheral layers harden and form 
a sort of shell around the central portion which is still soft. 

6. A triangular piece of this shell, inclosing the triangular area 
browned by the osmic acid, is next to be cut out with a pair of sharp 
scissors. The excised piece is then left a day or more in the chromic 
solution before treatment with alcohol. 

II. Alcohol Method.—1. Open the egg as before, and, without 
attempting to remove the albumen, place the triangular paper box 
over the blastoderm; slight pressure causes the box to sink into the 
albumen till it is brought into contact with the yolk. By the aid of 
a pipette, fill the box with absolute alcohol; this coagulates rapidly 
the inclosed albumen, while the albumen outside the box remains 
fluid. 

2. After cutting the chalazez close to the vitellus, the fluid 


934 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


portion of the albumen is carefully drained off, leaving only the 
vitellus and the box with its coagulated contents in the shell. 

3. The shell may now be filled with absolute alcohol until the 
yolk is completely covered, and then left for some hours, during 
which the more superficial layers of the yolk harden sufficiently to 
form a shell-like envelope of the softer central portion. 

4, The triangular mass formed by the box, and the hardened 
albumen, is now ready to be cut out, in the same manner as in the 
osmic acid method. During this process, the paper box may become 
detached, either spontaneously, or with some assistance; or it may 
adhere so firmly that it cannot be safely removed. There is no 
inconvenience in leaving it in place, as it will cut easily when the 
piece is ultimately sectioned. 

5. The piece is further hardened twenty-four hours in absolute 
alcohol, then preserved in alcohol of 36° (80 per cent.). 

III. Hot Chromic Acid.—1. Treat with osmic acid as in I. 

9. Place the whole in a solution of chromic acid, and heat to the 
point of boiling, over a water-bath. 

3. After cooling, cut out the triangular piece as in I. (6), leave it 
for a few days in chromic acid, then transfer to alcohol. 

Imbedding and Cutting.—Duval imbeds, after each of the fore- 
going methods, in collodion. The surface of each section 1s col- 
lodionized some seconds before drawing the knife, by allowing a drop 
or two of thin collodion to flow over it. 

Staining.—The sections are placed in serial order on a slide, and 
then covered with picro-carmine, strongly diluted with glycerin. 
The sections may be left in the staining fluid twenty-four to forty- 
eight hours, the admixture of glycerin preventing drying. After 
they are sufficiently coloured, the staining fluid is allowed to drain 
off, and the slide is carefully washed with a pipette. The sections, 
still in place, are treated with successive grades of alcohol, and then 
mounted in balsam after being clarified in benzine (“ benzine collas ”). 


Mounting the Blastoderm in toto.*—During the first three or 
four days of incubation, Dr. C. O. Whitman has obtained good 
surface preparations of the blastoderm in the following manner :— 

1. Break the shell by a sharp rap of the scissors at the broad 
end; then carefully cut away the shell, beginning at the place of 
fracture and working over the upper third or half. 

2. After removing as much of the white as possible without injury 
to the blastoderm, place the rest of the egg, while still in the shell, 
in a dish of nitric acid (10 per cent.), deep enough to cover it. 

3. The coagulated white should next be removed from the blasto- 
derm by the aid of a brush or a feather, and the egg then allowed to 
remain in the acid thirty minutes. 

4, Cut round the blastoderm with a sharp-pointed pair of scissors, 
taking care to cut quickly and steadily. After carrying the incision 
completely round, float the blastoderm into a watch-glass, keeping it 
right side up and flat. 


* Whitman’s ‘ Methodsin Microscopical Anatomy and Embryology,’ 1885, pp. 166-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 535 


5. Remove the vitelline membrane by the aid of dissecting forceps, 
and the yolk by gently shaking the watch-glass and by occasional use 
of a needle. The yolk can sometimes best be washed off by means of 
a@ pipette. 

6. Wash in water (several times changed). 

7. Colour deeply with carmine or hematoxylin. 

8. Remove excess of colour by soaking a few minutes in a mixture 
of water and glycerin in equal parts, to which a few drops (about 
1 per cent.) of hydrochloric acid have been added. 

9. Wash and treat thirty minutes with mixture of alcohol (70 per 
cent.), 2 parts; water, 1 part; glycerin, 1 part. 

10. Transfer to pure 70 per cent. alcohol, then to absolute alcohol, 
Clarify with creosote or clove-oil, and mount in balsam. 

The above method of treatment will also serve for blastoderms 
which are to be sectioned. 


Preparing Siphonophora.*—Dr. A. Korotneff has obtained good 
sections of the very contractile stem of Siphonophora in the 
following way :— 

After the Siphonophora has settled down a watch-glass full of 
chloroform is floated on the surface of the fluid, and the vessel 
covered up with a bell-jar. The animal, benumbed by the chloroform 
vapour, becomes extended. The bell-jar is then removed, and the 
animal suddenly immersed in some hardening fluid. The author 
employed a 1/2 per cent. chromic acid solution and a 1 per cent. hot 
sublimate solution. In the latter case, the animal was quickly trans- 
ferred to 20-30 per cent. alcohol. With regard to the tentacles, it 
may be mentioned that the mucous layer separates into long uni- 
cellular tubes after teasing out and being treated with osmic acid. 
These tubes, the author thinks, are glandular, as they stain deeply 
with hematoxylin and alum carmine. 


Preparing Spinal Ganglia.j—Herr M. v. Lenhossek found a 
1-1-5 per cent. solution of superosmic acid to give most satisfactory © 
results in the study of the structure of the spinal ganglia of the frog. 
The ganglia were left three-quarters of an hour in the fluid. Bichro- 
mate of potassium and alcohol were used for hardening, and celloidin 
was found most convenient for imbedding. Good results, especially in 
the investigation of the finer relations, were obtained by the use of 
gold chloride. 


Modification of Pancreatic Cells during active secretion.t—In 
studying the behaviour of the cells of the pancreas during very active 
secretion, Dr. S. W. Lewaschew used for hardening purposes alcohol 
and concentrated solution of sublimate, which proved very satis- 
factory. The tissue was then laid in turpentine or bergamot oil. 
Ehrlich’s hematoxylin solution gave the best staining reactions. 
Ogata’s suggestion of combined staining with various fluids—hema- 
toxylin, eosin, &c., was also adopted. 


* MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, v. (1884) pp. 229-88 (6 pls.). 
+ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxvi, (1886) pp. 370-453 (2 pls.). 
¢ Ibid., pp. 453-85 (1 pl.). 


536 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Mounting Fresh-water Alge.*—Mr. L. B. Hall finds a very 
successful process to be the use of pure glycerin, carbolated. The 
objects are first placed in a dilute solution of iodine (tinct. iod. 
2 min., water 1 oz.) 2-5 minutes, then stained (iodine-green), and put 
into dilute glycerin (10 per cent.), and gradually transferred to 
thick glycerin. 

Cultivation of Microbes.t—According to Dr. H. Fol, it is possible 
to obtain a perfectly sterile liquid by one of four methods, viz. :— 

1. Filtering through some material whose meshes are sufficiently 
fine to arrest the smallest organisms. The only material really 
practicable for this purpose is the unglazed porcelain used by Pasteur 
and Chamberland. 

2. Obtaining the liquid directly from the internal organs of one 
of the superior animals; the digestive tract being considered, for this 
purpose, an external organ. Pasteur’s experiments have shown that 
the tissues of such animals are the most perfect filters known, neither 
permitting the entrance, nor tolerating the existence, of any foreign 
material, unless the tissues are diseased. 

3. Sufficiently prolonged exposure to a temperature of at least 
110° C. This is the lowest necessary for the destruction of spores, 
although 80° C. is sufficient to kill bacteria in the growing condition. 
The length of the exposure must not be less than an hour ; the longer 
the time beyond this, the greater the security. 

4, Intermittent heating, invented by Tyndall, and much used in 
Germany. This consists in making the spores germinate, in order to 
kill the full-grown bacteria at 80° C. For this purpose the vessels 
containing the fluid to be sterilized are kept at 20-30° C. to favour 
the growth of the spores, and are every day raised to 80° C. for one 
hour, to destroy such bacteria as have become fully developed. This 
method takes much time, and its results are always uncertain. 

Of all these methods, the third, that of destroying the germs once 
for all, is the one giving the greatest security and ease of manipula- 
tion. It has but one fault, that of coagulating all albuminous 
substances which can be solidified at the temperature of boiling water. 


Pure Cultivations of Bacterium aceti.{—In order to obtain pure 
cultivations of B. aceti, Mr. A. J. Brown adopted, as the most suitable 
method, a combination of Klebs’ “fractional” and von Nageli’s 
“dilution” methods. The author describes the appearance presented 
by the film formed on beer and other solutions. He considers that, 
besides B. aceti and B. Pasteurianum, there is a third species capable 
of oxidizing alcohol to acetic acid; he therefore describes the 
morphology of B. aceti, and the action upon it of various reagents. 
He then describes the action of B. aceti upon various substances. It 
oxidizes ethylic alcohol to acetic acid, and a trace of (probably) 
succinic acid. In an insufficient quantity of oxygen a trace of a 
substance resembling aldehyde is formed. When no alcohol is 


* 11th Ann. Rep. Amer. Postal Micr. Club, 1886, pp. 13-4. 
+ La Nature, 1885. See Science, v. (1885) p. 500. 
{ Journ. Chem. Soc. Lond., 1. (1886) pp. 172-87. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 587 


present, acetic acid is reduced by the bacterium to carbonic acid and 
water. With normal propylic alcohol, propionic acid is formed after 
fourteen days. Methylic alcohol had to be purified before B. aceti 
would act upon it, and then the solution became alkaline, ammonia 
being formed ; this happened only after three weeks. B. aceti did 
not oxidize isoprimary butylic alcohol, and the organism will not even 
grow in amylic alcohol. From dextrose the author obtained gluconic 
acid; with cane-sugar he was unable to obtain any action; from 
mannitol, levulose was obtained, without any acid being formed. The 
author gives constitutional formule for the products, constructed from 
considerations of the action of B. aceti. He concludes by saying 
that the above reactions “help to show that the vital functions of 
certain organized ferments are most intimately connected with the 
molecular constitution of the bodies on which they act.” 


Microphytes of Normal Human Epidermis.*—Dr. G. Bizzozero 
employed the following methods for demonstrating these organisms. 

After removing the fat from the epidermis by means of alcohol 
and ether, the epidermic scales were either (A) soaked on a slide in 
a 50 per cent. acetic acid or a 10 per cent. solution of caustic potash, 
and examined after putting on a cover-glass ; acetic acid preparations 
may be permanently preserved by placing a drop of glycerin round 
the edge of the cover-glass; or (B) they are teased out in glycerin, 
slightly coloured with methyl-blue, and then examined ; or (C) they are 
placed in a small drop of 50 per cent. acetic acid on a cover-glass and 
after soaking for a quarter of an hour are needled out. The acetic 
acid is then driven off by gentle heat, the cover-glass passed twice or 
thrice through the flame of a spirit-lamp, the dried layer is then 
wetted for half-an-hour with some nuclear anilin stain (methyl-blue is 
the best), and having been next carefully washed with distilled water, 
the preparation, when dry, is mounted in dammar or Canada balsam. 


Preparing Tubercle-bacillus.t—Dr. Glorieux has much improved 
Neelsen’s method for demonstrating the presence of tubercle-bacilli in 
cover-glass preparations of sputum. The first step of Neelsen’s 
process is to immerse the cover-glass in the following solution :— 
Fuchsin 1 grm.; absolute alcohol 10 grm.; 5 per cent. solution of 
phenic acid 100 grm. 

The second step is to decolorize in a 25 per cent. solution of 
sulphuric acid. It is this second stage which has been modified by 
Dr. Glorieux, whose formula is:—Sulphuric acid 10 grm.; alcohol 
15 grm.; distilled water 50 grm. Methyl-blue to saturation; filter. 

Thus treated, cover-glass preparations may be double-stained in 
from 60 to 90 seconds. 


Schulze’s Dehydrating Apparatus.t — Prof. F. E. Schulze 
describes a simple contrivance for securing the rapid and yet uninjured 
dehydration of small and delicate objects. 


* Virchow’s Arch. f. Path. Anat., xcviii. (1885) p. 441. See this Journal, 


vy. (1885) p. 849. 4 
+ Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., xii. (1886) pp. 44-8. 
+ Arch. f. Mikr, Anat., xxvi, (1886) pp. 539-42 (1 fig.). 


Ser. 2.—Vou. VI. Qn 


5388 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


The apparatus (fig. 109) is on the principle of a dialyser, and 
consists of a broad glass tube with a projecting upper rim (like that 
of a hat), and with a paper membrane at the lower end. This is 
inserted in a larger vessel with a broad rim at the neck. The two 
rims fit together closely, and seal the larger vessel. The latter is 


Fig. 109. 


ae Mes 
Ingest 
a “ial Uf. ff) 


filled to a convenient level with absolute alcohol, the smaller contains 
the object with a little of the weak alcohol in which it previously lay. 
A gradual diffusion occurs and a very perfect dehydration is rapidly 
effected. The process may be made more gradual by the use of a 
double tube, the outer containing weaker alcohol. At the foot of the 
large vessel is a layer of burnt sulphate of copper which prevents the 
dilution of the absolute alcohol. ‘The dehydration of the inner tube 
containing the object may be conveniently tested (after twenty-four 
hours or so) by removing a little of the fluid in a pointed pipette, and 
allowing a drop to pass slowly into a test-tube with 98° alcohol. If 
the fluid be absolute alcohol, a small portion from the pipette will 
be detected passing upwards, or downwards if the fluid be below 98°. 

Prof. Schulze also describes a modification of a method of securing 
the safe preparation of delicate objects by allowing them to sink 
through layers of different fluids. In his improved form a closed 
tube contains an inferior layer of Canada balsam, above that 3 c.cm. of 
xylol, and uppermost 1 ¢.cm. of absolute alcohol. At the level of the 
Canada balsam there is a cock for allowing the upper layers to flow 
off, after which the object is removed from the Canada balsam into 
which it has sunk. ' 


Efficiency of the Micrometer-screw.*—Herr J. Ost discusses the 
action of the micrometer-screw as used in microtomes, and endeavours 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 295-300. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 539 


to show that it affords the most convenient and surest means of raising 
the object, as applied in the microtome which he has devised. Errors 
in the construction of the screw are not cumulative, and will not 
amount to anything that is appreciable in section-cutting ; the thread 
of the screw regarded as formed by the hypothenuse of a right-angled 
triangle wound upon a cylinder is merely a particular application 
of the inclined plane of Rivet’s microtome, and has the advantage of 
being more accurate and of insuring a longer surface of contact 
between the fixed and moving parts than is the case with the slider 
of the latter. 

The author tested the accuracy of a microtome-screw (and that 
one which worked loosely in its bearings), observing under a Micro- 
scope the motion of a fine needle-point carried by the screw, using 
an eye-piece micrometer. The displacements produced by a single 
turn of the screw were measured for 25 turns; of these, 7 gave a 
motion of 543 », 8 of 534 p, and 10 of 537 »; similarly the dis- 
placements corresponding to each two divisions on the head of the 
screw, which was divided into 50 parts, were in 18 cases 20°8 p, in 
4 cases 19°5 uw, and in 3 cases 22:2». The difference of 1°3 uw 
may reasonably be ascribed to errors of observation, and the author 
concludes that the accuracy of the screw is all that can possibly be 
required. Backlash may be got rid of by the use of a spring. 


Rapid Section-cutting.*—For the benefit of those who have so 
little time for microscopic work that every minute is precious, 
Mr. J. E. Whitney describes a contrivance for section-cutting which 
is nearly as rapid as free-hand cutting, and yet enables really good 
sections to be made with more certainty. Where one wishes to make 
sections of numerous vegetable tissues for comparative study, and has 
only a short time for the purpose, the tedious process of imbedding 
necessary with ordinary machines is a serious obstacle. 

To avoid the necessity of imbedding the object, the author simply 
cuts in a block of hard wood (say 3 in. by 4 in., and 14 in. thick) a 
wedge-shaped opening, 1} in. by 2 in. or thereabouts (fig. 110), into 


Fia. 110. 


which the object to be cut is placed so that its sides touch the tapering 
sides of the opening, and prevent motion. On the top of the block 
over which the blade of the razor is to pass cement two pieces of glass 


* Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann, Meeting, 1886, pp. 122-3 (1 fig.). 
2N 2 


540 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


slides with their smooth edges parallel with the edges of the wedge- 
shaped cut. 

For the ordinary rapid examination of vegetable tissues, the 
specimen is held gently in the opening by the thumb of the left hand, 
while the razor dipped in alcohol is drawn steadily over the glass 
slips towards the apex of the wedge, with the cutting edge held at 
the usual angle. After the first cut, if uniformity in the thinness of 
the sections is not necessary, the object can be simply advanced 
slightly by the hand, and after a few trials it will be found that 
really thin sections can easily be made in this simple way. 

When, however, it is necessary to have sections of extreme or 
uniform thinness, it is best to screw across the under side of the 
block a strip through which a thumb-screw with fine thread is fitted 
to work. By this means the object can be raised regularly any desired 
distance at each cutting. 

The block can be prepared in a few minutes by any one, and with 
all ordinary vegetable tissues very satisfactory sections can be cut. 
Hard wood cannot be cut safely in a section-cutter without being first 
soaked or steamed, and as a keen-edged plane will cut beautiful 
sections quickly and easily, it is best to cut such wood in that way. 
Sections of different kinds of wood can be cut at the same time by 
screwing small blocks of each together and taking a section of all at 
one stroke of the plane. 


Natural Injection of Leeches.*—Dr. C. O. Whitman has often 
noticed that leeches hardened in weak chromic acid, or in any chromic 
solution, are beautifully and naturally injected with their own blood. 
Where the circulatory system is to be studied by means of sections, 
this method seems to be the simplest and most reliable one. Not only 
the larger sinuses, but the intra-epithelial capillaries may be easily 
traced by this method, as was first pointed out by Prof. H. R. 
Lankester.f 


Methods of Injecting Annelids.t—For annelids with dark tissues 
like Hirudo, M. M. Jaquet recommends that a light-coloured (white or 
yellow) injection-mass should be employed, while for transparent 
animals dark colours are preferable. Chrome yellow serves asa good 
colouring substance. It is easily obtained by mixing solutions of 
bichromate of potassium and acetate of lead. A copious yellow pre- 
cipitate is formed, which should be washed on the filter, and then 
exposed to the air until nearly dry. The pigment, after being 
reduced to a pulp-like state. is added to an ordinary aqueous solution 
of gelatin; and the mass is then filtered warm through linen, If the 
injection-mass is to be blue, then the gelatin may be dissolved directly 
in liquid Prussian blue, and the mass filtered through paper. 

As a rule, annelids must be killed before they can be injected. 
Chloroform and alcohol are the means commonly employed in killing 


* Amer. Natural., xx. (1886) pp. 313-4. 

+ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xx. (1880) p. 306. 

t MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vi. 1885) pp. 298-300. Cf. Amer. Natural., xx. 
(1886) p. 314. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 541 


for the purpose of injection ; fresh water may also be used for some 
marine species. A leech, for example, is placed in water containing 
a small quantity of chloroform; after a few moments it sinks to the 
bottom and remains motionless. It should be allowed to remain in 
the water for one or two days before attempting to inject it. 

The simplest and most convenient form of syringe consists of a 
glass tube drawn to a fine point at one extremity, and furnished at 
the other with a rubber tube. Preparatory to injecting, the glass 
should be plunged in warm water for a few moments; then, after 
expelling the water, it may be filled with the injection-mass by sucking 
the air from the rubber tube. If the injection-mass is turned into 
the large end of the glass, it may happen that granules are introduced 
which are large enough to obstruct the narrow passage of the small 
end. After inserting the cannular end in the vessel, clasp both with 
the forceps, and then force the injecting fluid, by aspiration through 
the rubber tube, which is held in the mouth. When the operation is 
completed, place the animal in cold water, in order to stiffen the 
injected mass. 


Anilin Staining.*—Dr. Bareggi, in order to render more perma- 
nent preparations stained with anilin colours, proposes to merely 
cover the section, &c., with Canada balsam dissolved in chloroform, 
and to allow the balsam to dry slowly, no cover-glass being used. 

When working with dry or with water-immersion lenses, such 
preparations can be examined withont detriment, as water is not 
miscible with balsam. But when working with oil-immersion lenses 
and with cedar oil, which dissolves balsam, it is necessary to be 
careful during the examination. 

It would perhaps be preferable to use instead of cedar oil the 
salt solutions which have been proposed for this purpose, or the 
solution of chloral hydrate in glycerin, or still better, the solution of 
zine iodide in glycerin. 

Chrome Alum in Microscopical Technique.t—Dr. G. Martinotti, 
from a consideration of the behaviour of potash alum which is a pro- 
minent constituent of certain stains (carmine, hematoxylin, &c.), 
wished to make some experiments with ammonia and chrome alums. 
The results from the use of ammonia alum were not encouraging, 
but by substituting chrome alum or the double sulphate of potassium 
and chromium for potash alum he obtained sufficiently satisfactory 
results. 

Chrome alum is isomorphous with potash alum and crystallizes 
in dark violet octahedra soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. 
If the watery solution be heated above 80° ©. the violet colour turns 
to a green, and this hue is retained on cooling. Carmine chromate 
is prepared by boiling 10 parts cochineal in 500 parts water and 
adding 1 part chrome alum, filtering while hot and then allowing it 
to stand. The residue is carefully washed and dried at a temperature 
not exceeding 30° C. It is easily soluble in ammonia, and possesses 


* Gazzetta degli Ospitali, 1884, p. 645. 
+ Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., i, (188+) pp. 361-6. 


542 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


all the properties of ordinary carmine except in being of a dark violet 
colour. Over this the author is not so enthusiastic as over the next two 
solutions where he has substituted chrome alum for potash alum in the 
formulas given by Czokor and Grenacher for making alum cochineal 
and alum carmine. The ingredients are mixed in the exact propor- 
tions as given by Czokor and Grenacher. The mixture is then left 
in an oven at the temperature of about 70° C. for 24 to 48 hours. 
When cold the liquid is filtered. 

Both fluids are of a violet colour, and both stain nuclei perfectly. 
The author gives the palm to the cochineal stain. Preparations may 
remain in this solution for more than 24 hours without becoming 
diffusely stained. If the preparations are to be preserved in resinous 
media it is necessary to wash carefully in water, otherwise the alum 
chromate, which is insoluble in water, is precipitated on the surface of 
the section as brownish needles. A special advantage of this cochineal 
chromate solution is that it keeps well for an indefinite period with- 
out the addition of any preservative agent. Another advantage is 
that the nuclei assume a violet colour closely resembling that given 
by hematoxylin. 


Modification of Arcangeli’s Carmine Stain.*—M. P. Francotte 
finds that in Arcangeli’s first formula | 50 egrm. carmine is too much, 
and proposes the following modified formula, which is based on the 
solubility of boric acid in alcohol. Alcohol at 90, 75 ce.; distilled 
water 25 cc.; boric acid 5 grm.; carmine 40 cgrm. This mixture is 
boiled for fifteen minutes, and a beautiful red alcoholic solution is 
obtained on filtration. 


Staining the Central Organs of the Nervous System.{— Prof. 
C. Golgi, after some strictures on gold chloride methods (which he 
condemns because neither the manner in which the interlacement 
of the fibres takes place, nor the different parts which contribute to 
their formation, are demonstrated) states that whatever success he has 
had is due to the three following methods :— i 

1. Method of black staining obtained by treating specimens 
successively with potassium or ammonium bichromate and silver 
nitrate. 

2. Method of the successive action of a mixture of osmic acid and 
potassium bichromate followed by silver nitrate. 

3. Method of the combined action of potassium and ammonium 
bichromate and perchloride of mercury (by transmitted light the 
colour is apparently black; by direct light, a metallic white). 

By the method of the combined action of bichromate of potash 
and of nitrate of silver, the black staining is obtained as the result 
of two operations. Pieces of nervous tissue about a centimetre square 
are hardened in a 2 per cent. solution of bichromate, or in Miller’s 
fluid. The strength of the bichromate may be gradually increased 
from 2 to 5 per cent. In any case, this fluid should be frequently 


* Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., xii. (1886) pp. 48-51. 
+ See this Journal, v. (1885) p. 1094. 
{ Arch. Italiennes de Biologie, vii. (1886) pp. 15-47. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 543 


changed. The proper degree of hardening is reached in from two 
weeks (in warm weather) to seven weeks (in cold weather). The 
second step is to immerse the hardened pieces in a 0°75 per cent. 
solution of silver nitrate for twenty-four to forty-eight hours. The 
room in which this silver process is carried on must be kept well 
warmed. 

The black staining is successively imparted to the axis-cylinders 
of the nerve-fibres, the ganglion-cells, and, lastly, the neuroglia-cells. 
When the black staining is attained, and this is verified by ex- 
amining a few trial sections in glycerin, the pieces are placed in 
alcohol, frequently changed, until the alcohol remains clear, in order 
to remove all traces of the silver nitrate. This must be done 
effectually, otherwise the specimens will not keep. The treatment 
preparatory to mounting in dammar, which is preferable to Canada 
balsam, consists in washing several times in absolute alcohol, trans- 
ferring to creosote, and in clearing up in oil of turpentine or in oil 
of origanum. The sections are to be preserved in dammar without the 
imposition of a cover-glass. The author mounts his specimens on 
large cover-glasses and then adjusts them in a wooden frame or slide 
with a window, so that the sections are kept quite free from dust, and 
can also be examined from both sides. It is of course necessary to 
preserve the mounted specimens in a dark place. 

The disadvantages of the method, says Prof. Golgi, are the length 
of time required to obtain the requisite reaction, the uncertainty 
arising from the varying periods necessary to produce the proper 
degree of hardness, and the different conditions in which the different 
layers of the same piece are frequently found. These disadvantages 
are modified by :—(a) Copious and frequent injections of either a 2} per 
cent. solution of bichromate, or a similar selution in which five or six 
grammes of gelatin have been dissolved. The injection may be made 
with an ordinary syringe or a siphon apparatus, through the aorta or 
carotid. (b) By hardening with bichromate at a constant temperature. 
In an incubator, maintained at a temperature of 20°-25° C., the 
reaction point was reached in eight or ten days. (c) By hardening in 
equal parts of Erlicki’s and Miiller’s fluid, the necessary consistence 
was obtained in five to eight days. 

The second method consists in hardening the pieces in a mixture 
of bichromate and osmic acid, followed by immersion in silver 
nitrate. It may be applied as follows: by immersing small pieces 
of quite fresh nervous tissue in the following mixture :—of potassium 
bichromate 2 to 2} per cent. solution, eight parts; of osmic acid 
1 per cent. solution, two parts. Having been transferred to the 
silver nitrate solution, as in the first method, the black reaction is 
found to begin on the second or third day, and to be completed by the 
tenth or twelfth. But in this method the pieces must be allowed to 
remain in the silver nitrate until they are wanted for section, allowing 
two days for soaking in alcohol. Although this treatment gives 
sufficiently good and rapid results, it is better to place the pieces in 
the bichromate solution for two to thirty days, and then change to 
the mixture of osmic acid and bichromate, and afterwards in due 


544 SUMMARY OF OURRENT RESEAROHES RELATING TO 


course to the silver nitrate. In this case, too, the pieces should 
remain in the silver solution until wanted for immediate use, when 
they are repeatedly soaked in frequently changed alcohol, passed 
through absolute alcohol, creosote, oil of turpentine, to dammar. 

This last is the method most preferred by the author. 

In the method of the successive action of bichromate of potash 
and of perchloride of mercury, the first stage is the same as that 
which is given for the bichromate and silver methods. This over, the 
pieces are placed in a 0°5 per cent. solution of perchloride of mercury. 
The reaction is effected in not less than eight days for small pieces, 
while for large, such as whole brains, two months at least are 
required. The perchloride solution must be renewed daily, until it 
is no longer tinged with yellow. When the reaction has reached its 
maximum, the nervous tissue is quite pale, and resembles fresh brain 
matter recently washed in water. The pieces of nervous tissue may 
be allowed to remain in the mercury solution for an indefinite period. 
The sections may be mounted in some resinous medium, but in 
either case frequent washing in water is necessary, in order to prevent 
the formation of a deposit of acicular crystals upon the surface. The 
sections are then dehydrated in alcohol, and having been cleared up 
in oil of cloves or creosote, are mounted in dammar or in Canada 
balsam. 


Application of Weigert’s modified Hematoxylin Stain to 
the Peripheral Nervous System.*—Dr. T. Gelpke’s experience 
of the above method is that while it is most excellent in 
principle, giving most brilliant results with normal nerves, yet, 
when used to demonstrate certain morbid states, e. g. sclerosis, 
the nerve-fibres were found to remain quite unstdined, either 
in longitudinal or in transverse section. By controlling experi- 
ments made with osmic acid and carmine on sclerosed nerves, and 
also by showing that the Weigert stain itself acted efficiently on 
normal nerves, the author concluded that the want of success was to 
be sought in the decoloration process. Further, that the ferrid- 
cyanide solution was too strong, and as the result of his experiments, 
he found that decoloration was most safely effected by using very 
dilute solutions of the reagent. 

The author’s emendation of this process is that for transverse 
sections the ferridcyanide solution should be diluted down to one- 
fiftieth of the strength given by Weigert. For longitudinal sections 
a somewhat stronger solution may be employed. Naturally, the time 
occupied by the stage is now much longer, decoloration taking from 
one to twelve hours. 


Fixing Sections to the Slide.;—Mr. H. E. Summers says that 
the following method has been tested with paraffin and celloidin 
sections. For either kind of sections the slides are first coated with 
collodion, either by flowing from a bottle or by a brush, and allowed 
to dry. The celloidin used for imbedding, thinned with alcohol and 


* Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ii. (1885) pp. 484-9. 
+ The Microscope, vi. (1886) pp. 66-7. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO. 545 


ether, answers admirably. The coated slides may be kept indefinitely 
before using. 

Paraffin sections are arranged upon the slide and a small amount 
of a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether is then dropped upon 
the slide. The liquid will be immediately drawn under the sections. 
Bubbles of air will rarely remain beneath the sections, but, if they 
do, they may easily be displaced by gently touching the section with 
a soft brush. The liquid is allowed to evaporate spontaneously. 
When quite dry, which will take but a few minutes, the paraffin may 
be dissolved and the sections will be found firmly fixed. 

Celloidin sections are placed for a few minutes in 95 per cent. 
alcohol, and then arranged on the coated slide. They are drained as 
free of alcohol as possible, and as soon as their surface is nearly dry, 
as is shown by its assuming a dull appearance, the mixture of alcohol 
and ether is dropped upon them rather freely. When this has 
evaporated until the surface of the sections again assumes a dull 
appearance, the slide is placed in 80 per cent. or weaker alcohol, and 
may then be treated by any of the reagents applicable to paraffin 
sections fixed with collodion. 

The advantages claimed for this method are three: the use of heat 
is dispensed with, and thus one source of inconvenience and injury 
to the sections is avoided ; the paraffin is not removed (or melted) 
until the sections are fixed, and thus in sections consisting of discon- 
nected parts, the position of these parts is preserved; labour and 
work-table space are saved by having a single method, which is 
applicable to both paraffin and celloidin sections. 


Peirce Cell for Opaques.*—This form of cell was devised by 
Prof. J. Peirce, for “ dry mounts” (figs. 111 and 112), The cell and cap 
are made from sheet brass, the latter fitting not too tight nor too loose. 
While dust is perfectly excluded, the 
cover-glass and its frequent accom- ‘Fis. 111. Fig. 112. 
paniment of “dewed” under surface 
is done away with. “This gives the 
additional advantage that the light by 
which the object is seen does not have to pass twice through a cover- 
glass, and thus the object is seen in its full clearness and beauty.” 
Prof. Peirce also recommends the use of these cells soldered to a 
3 x 1 tin slide. 


A.—Mounting Odontophores of Snails. 
[Best mounted in a weak form of Goadby’s solution. ] 
Scientific Enquirer, I. (1886) p. 68. 
APpEL, W.—Beitrag zur Anatomie und Histologie des Priapulus caudatus (Lam.) 
und des Halicryptus spinulosus (v. Sieb.). 
Saving . killing Gephyrea. Amer. Natural., XX., 1886, p. 315; supra, 
p. 532. 


Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., XLIT. (1885), pp. 459-529 (3 pls.). 
See this Journal, ante, p. 73. 

B.S c.—Double-staining Botanical Preparations. [ Post.] 
Scientif. Enquirer, I. (1886) p. 33. 


* Mier, Bull. (Queen’s), iii, (1886) p. 3. 


546 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


Beatty’s (@. 8.) Methods for staining and double-staining vegetable tissues. 

[Reprinted from ‘ Pop. Sci. Monthly’ and ‘ Amer. Journ. of Micr.’] 

Amer. Mon, Micr. Journ., VII. (A886) pp. 43-8. 
BeEssELL, J. B—Mounting Fish Skins. 

[For the polariscope, wash, dry under pressure, soak in spirits of turpentine 

for two or three days, and mount in balsam or balsam and benzole.] 
Scientif. Enquirer, I. (1886) p. 73. 
BIDWELL, F. H.—Staining for diagnosis. 

[Has used ordinary eosine ink for staining urinary deposits.] 

Micr, Bulletin (Queen’s), IIT. (1886) p. 8. 

B1zz0ZERO, G.—Nuovo metodo per la dimostrazione degli elementi in cariocinesi 

nei tessuti. (New method for the demonstration of the elements in karyo- 

kinesis.) [Post.] Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., 111. (1886) pp. 24-7. 
Bovuut, H. R.—Mounting Bird Parasites. 

[Directions for mounting the smaller kinds.] 

Journ. of Micr., V. (1886) p. 119. 
Bucuner, H.—veber das Verhalten der Spaltpilzsporen zu den Anilinfarbstoffen. 
(On the behaviour of the spores of schizomycetes with the anilin stains.) 
Post. 
: es Rep. SB. Gesell. Morph. u. Physiol. Miinchen, 1885, 4 pp. and 1 fig. 
Cf. Bot. Centralbl., XXVI. (1886) pp. 55-6. 
C., A.—Mounting Chemical Crystals. [Post.] 
Scientif, Enquirer, I. (1886) pp. 70-1. 
CunninGcHAM, K. M.—{Arranged and other Slides from Vienna.] 
Amer, Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) p. 78. 
Cuerris, L.—The Cultivation of Bacteria and the Cholera Bacillus. 

[Describes :—the preparation of peptonized gelatin and plate and needle 
cultures; growth of forms in hanging drops; culture on potatoes; 
cholera bacillus. ] 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 142--50. 
Cusuine, E. W.—Bacillus tuberculosis. 
[Koch’s method of preparing and other remarks. } 
WMicr. Bulletin (Queen’s), III. (1886) pp. 2-3. 
Deses, E.—Sammeln und Behandlung Jebender Diatomaceen. (Collection and 
treatment of living Diatomacez.) [-Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., III. (1886) pp. 27-38. 
Diatoms, Sections of. 

[Cementstein from Mors, Denmark. ] 

Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), III. (1886) p. 5. 
DiENELT, F.—Durability of White Zinc Cement. 

[Calling attention to transverse cracks caused by shrinkage, and suggested 

remedy by the editor of a coat of shellac in alcohol.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) p. 78. 
Draper, E. T.—Graphie Microscopy. ITI. 
[No. 8. Ovary of toad x 40. No. 4. Vertical section of tooth of cat x 30.] 
2 pp: and 2 pls. (8vo, London, 1886). 
EwincG, P.—On mounting small Mosses for Microscopic Examination. 

[The following was the medium employed, the specimens being mounted 
as transparencies on cards of a suitable size:—7 parts pure glycerin, 
1 part French gelatin, 6 parts distilled water; add 1 drop carbolic acid 
to every 100 drops of above mixture. The whole to be boiled till the 
flakes caused by the carbolic acid disappear, and filtered through spun 
crystal.” 

: : Proc. and Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow, I. (1886) p. xlviii. 
F., M.—A Hint on the keeping of Melicerta ringens. (Supra, p. 450.] 
Scientif. Enquirer, I. (1886) p. 46. 
Fuiescu, M.—Notizen zur Technik mikroskopischen Untersuchungen am Cen- 
tralen Nervensystem. (Notes on the technique of microscopical investigations 
of the central nervous system.) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., 111. (1886) pp. 49-52. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 547 


Gaa«z, 8. H.—Notes on Histological Methods, including a brief consideration of 
the methods of pathological and vegetable histology and the application of 
the Microscope to Jurisprudence. 56 pp. (8vo, Ithaca, N.Y., 1885-6). 

GireRKE, H.—Die Stiitzsubstanz des Centralnervensystems. 

[Macerating mixture (Amer. Natural., XX. 1886, p. 315), supra, p. 532.) 
Arch. f. Mikr, Anat., XXV. (1885) pp. 441-554. 

Gierke, H.—Staining Tissues in Microscopy. X. 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 70-3, 97-9. 

Girrorp, H.—Eine Methode, unbehandelte Serienschnitte in situ aufzube- 
wahren. (A method of preserving series sections in situ.) [Post.] 

Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., IIL. (1886) pp. 45-7. 

GIFFORD, J. W.—A Method for the preparation of Sections for examination 
with the highest powers. [Supra, p. 531.) 

Scientif. Enquirer, I. (1886) pp. 25-7. 

GuLoRIEUXx.—Le Bacille de la Tuberculose. (Bacillus tuberculosis.) 

[Supra, p. 537.] Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., XII. (1886) pp. 44-8, 
from Rev. Medicale, Louvain. 


GorrscHav, M.—Erwiderung an die Herren J. Ost und Dr. A. Brass. (Reply 
to J. Ost and Dr. A. Brass. [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., III. (1886) pp. 14-8, 
GRiFFin, A. W.—Smith’s Stannous Chloride Mounting Medium. 
[The stannous chloride must be of the utmost purity.] 
Scientif. Enquirer, I. (1886) pp. 46-7. 
GRIFFITH, EK. H.—Some new and improved Apparatus. 
[Turntable No. 4 improved; No. 6. Post.] 
Proc, Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann, Meeting, 1885, pp, 112-3 (2 figs.). 
GrRovuut, P.—Le nouveau Microtome a levier. (The new lever microtome.) 
[ Post. ] Le Naturaliste, VIII. (1886) pp. 241-3 (8 figs.). 


H., J—Balsam Mounts. 

[Pressure isa mistake. “ For if, where the balsam is made to inclose the 
object, the cover is pressed down with but a very moderate degree of 
force, and so left, as the balsam shrinks by the evaporation of its essential 
oil it must pull the cover closer and closer to the slip, so that the ultimate 
pressure on the cover is in direct proportion to the amount of hardening 
which the balsam has undergone.” ] 

Scientif. Enquirer, I. (1886) pp. 66-7. 
HALL, L. B.—Mounting Fresh-water Algz. [Supra, p. 536.] 
11th Ann, Rep. Amer. Post. Micr. Club, 1886, pp. 13-4. 
Hauer, B.—Untersuchungen tiber marine Rhipidoglossen. 

[Macerating fluid for central nervous system of marine Rhipidoglossata 
(Amer. Natural., XX. 1886, p. 316). Glycerin, 5 parts; glacial acetic 
acid, 5 parts; distilled water, 20 parts. It causes no shrinkage and 
accomplishes its work in 30-45 minutes. ] 

Morphol. Jahrb., XI. (1885) pp. 321-430 (8 pls.). 
See this Journal, ante, p. 225. 
[Hircucock, R.]—Wax Cells. 

[‘“* We do not favour them so much as we did a few years back, for there is 
almost certain to be a deposit on the cover-glass after a time.” 

Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) p. 56. 

Hirrer, F.—Die Methoden der Bakterien-Forschung. (The methods of investi- 

gating bacteria.) [Post.] 

3rd ed., 244 pp., 40 figs. and 2 pls. (8vo, Wiesbaden, 1886). 

Imuor, O. E.—Methoden zur Erforschung der pelagischen Fauna. (Methods 
for the investigation of the pelagic fauna.)  [ Post.] 

Zool. Anzeig., IX. (1886) pp. 235-6. 

James, F. L.—Shrinkage of Cement Cells the Cause of Leakage in Glycerin 

Mounts. 

{Discussion only. ] 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann, Meeting, 1885, pp. 228-9, 


5048 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 


James, F. L.—A new Injecting Apparatus. [ Post.] 
St. Louis Med. and Surg. Journ., L. (1886) pp. 237-9 (1 fig.). 
93 x Elementary Microscopical Technology. 

[VII. Section-cutting (contd.). The section knife. Other accessories. 
Arrangement of the work-table. Cutting. Care of instruments. VIII. 
Staining animal tissues. ] 

Ibid., pp. 239-44 (1 fig.), 305-10. 
os e Cleaning old and damaged Slides. 

[Put them into a mixture of gasolin or benzin, spirits of turpentine and 
alcohol in equal parts. A good wiping and polishing leaves the slide 
optically clean.] 

Tbid., p. 304. 
J AQUET, M.—Recherches sur le Systéme vasculaire des Annelides. 

[Methods of injecting annelids. (Amer. Natural., XX. 1886, p. 314.) 

[Supra, p. 540.] 
MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, VL. 1885) pp. 298-300. 
JELGERSMA, G.—Notiz iiber Anilinschwarz. (Note on anilin-blue-black.) 
[Post.] Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., ILI. (1886) pp. 39-40. 
JOLY, J.—On the Melting-points of Minerals. 

[Account of experiments with the Meldometer.] 

Nature, XXXIV. (1886) p. 22 
(Report of Proceedings of Dublin Univ. Exper. Sci. Assoc., March 16). 
Kinne Self-centering Turn-table. 

[Now made with projecting hand-rest.] 

Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), III. (1886) p. 6. 
KLEEBERG, A.—Die Markstrahlen der Coniferen. 
[Directions for removing resin from conifers. Ante, p. 270.] 
Bot. Zig., XLII. (1885) pp. 673-86, 689-97, 705-14, and 721-9 C1 pl.). 
Kins tier, J.—Sur la Structure des Flagellés. (On the structure of the 
Flagellata.) [Methods, posé.] 
Journ. de Microgr., X. (1886) pp. 17, 58-63 (1 pl. and 1 fig.). 
Latuam, V. A.—The Microscope and how to use it. VI. 
[Double staining, contd.] Journ. of Micr., V. (1886) pp. 105-11. 
Lenuoss&kx, M. v.—Ein neues Hiilfsmittel zur Herstellung von Serienpraparaten 
aus dem centralen Nervensystem. (A new expedient for making series pre- 
parations of the central nervous system.) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., III. (1886) pp. 53-5 (1 fig). 
Lert, H. W.— Mounting Fish Skins. 

[Clean with potash and water and dry for two months in a warm spot. 

Mount dry.] 
Scientif. Enquirer, I. (1886) p. 73. 
List, J. H—Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Technik. (Contributions to micro- 
scopical technique.) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., III. (1886) pp. 43-4. 
Mapvavn, H. G.—Note on some organic substances of high refractive power. 
([G) Naphthyl-phenyl-ketone dibromide. Ref. Ind. 1°666. (2) Meta- 
cinnamene. Ref. Ind. 1:593. (8) Monobromo-naphthalene. Ref. Ind. 
1:662. “The most hopeful direction in which to look is undoubtedly 
towards some of those complex organic compounds which are now being 
built up by many workers in England and Germany.” | 
Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond., VII. (1886) pp. 364-6. 
Manton, W. P.—0n the preparation of Chick Embryos for microscopical exami- 
nation. 
[Directions for preparing. ] 
Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 66-70. 
Micuua, W.—Notiz iiber eine Ausbewahrungsmethode von Algenpraparaten. 
(Note on a preservative process for alge.) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss Mikr., III. (1886) p. 47. 
Mout, J. W.—Micro-chemical determination of Tannic Acid. [Post] 
St. Louis Nat. Druggist, VILL. (1886) p. 188, from Chem. Zig. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 549 


Moore, A. Y.—The detection of renal tube casts. 
[Directions for examining urine. Also as to mechanical stages. Post.] 
The Microscope, VI. (1886) p. 80-3. 
Moore’s (A. Y.) Stained Amphipleura. [ Ante, p. 376.) 
Micr. Bulletin (Queen’s), III. (1886) p. 3. 
NoOrwer, C.—Zur Behandlung mikroskopischer Priparate. (On the treatment 
of microscopical preparations. [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., III. (1886) pp. 19-23 (1 fig.) 
ONDERDONK, C.—Native Styrax. 

[Recommending native liquidambar from the tree for mounting.] 

Micr, Bulletin (Queen’s), ILL. (1886) p. 8. 
PritzNer, W.—Zur Kenntniss der Kerntheilung bei den Protozoen. (On 
nuclear division in the Protozoa.) 

[Method of preparing Upalina. Amer. Natural., XX. 1886, pp. 408-10. See 
this Journal, ante, pp. 258-60 ] 

Morphol. Jahrb., XI, (1885) pp. 454-67 (1 fig.). 
Pierce’s (J.) Cell for Opaques. [Supra, p. 546.] 
Micr, Bulletin (Queen’s), III. (1886) p. 3 (2 figs.). 
PRISMATIQUE—Transparent Cements. 

[First English opticians that made cemented work were his grandfather 
and A. Ross. (Cf. ante, p. 337, Edmunds, J.) In pre-balsamic times 
serum from human blood was used. ] 

Engl. Mech,, XLII. (1886) p. 174. 
REYNOLDS, R. N.—Remarks on improved Methods. 

[1. To transmit sections by mail (post). 2. To mark desirable parts of 
mounts without Maltwood finder or special diamond. 3. To safely 
handle fresh balsam mounts. (Two pieces of thin gummed paper, 
3/8 in. square, applied to the slide on opposite sides of the cover-glass, 
extending about 1/16 in. upon the cover. ] 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 124-5. 
Rocellin. [Post.] The Microscope, V1. (1886) p. 95. 
Santonine, Preparing. 
[Directions by H. F. Parsons, C. F. Tootal, and A. Nicholson.] 
Journ, of Micr., V. (1886) pp. 118 and 119. 
ScHIEFFERDECKER, P.—WMittheilung vertreffend das von mir verwandte Anilin- 
griin. (Communication on the anilin-green employed by me.) [Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Mikr., III. (1886) pp. 41-3. 
Sepewick, W. T.—An alcoholic drip for the Thoma-Jung Microtome. [Post.] 
Amer, Natural., XX. (1886) pp. 488-90 (8 figs.). 
Suanks, 8. G.—A method of mounting several groups of small microscopic 
objects under one cover. [Post.] 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 64-5. 
<i 2 Mounting Starch. 

[Very thick Farrants’-solution is the best.] 

11th Ann. Rep. Amer. Post. Micr, Club, 1886, p. 14. 
Smitu, H. L—Mounting Media of High Refractive Index. 

[See Vol. V. (1885) p. 1097.] 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 86-90 (1 fig.). 

. si A new High-refractive Mounting Medium. 

[ Ante, p. 356, and remarks by the President, C. Van Brunt.] 

Journ. New York Micr. Soc., II. (1886) pp. 18-6, 18-9. 

Smitru, T.—Notes on the Biological examination of Water, with a few statistics 

of Potomac drinking-water. Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) pp. 61-4. 
SrEEL, T.—Method of mounting objects with Carbolic Acid. [Post.] 

Scientif. Enquirer, I. (1886) p. 41-3. 

StreNnG, A.—Ueber einige mikroskopisch-chemische Reaktionen. (On some 

micro-chemical reactions. Contd. 

Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral., Geol., u. Palzontol., I. (1886) pp. 49-61 (6 figs.). 

Summers, H. E,—New method of fixing sections to the slide. [Supra, p. 545.] 

The Microscope, VI. (1886) pp. 66-7. 


550 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES, ETC. 


Summers, H. E.—Improved method of constructing Slide Cabinets. [Post.] 
Proc. Amer. Soc, Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 108-9 (1 fig.). 
Tayior, G. H.—Water-washed Diatoms. 

[Describes the process of cleaning diatoms from mud by treatment with 
clean water, without the use of acids—at one point boiling in water with 
the addition of a little cooking soda. | 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 207-8. 
‘5 - Cleaning Diatoms from Marine Muds. 
[Detailed directions. ] Ibid., pp. 208-10. 
Taytor, J. E.—Hunting for Amebas. [Supra, p. 530.] 
Sci.- Gossip, 1886, pp. 113-4. 
Tayuior, T.—Butter and Fats. To distinguish one fat from another by means 
of the Microscope. 

[General examination of butter and its substitutes by the naked eye. 
Microscopic test. How to crystallize butter and other fats, and separate 
the crystals so as to be seen with the naked eye or pocket lens. The 
butter of several States examined. Mounting butter crystals. Sulphuric 
acid and other tests for butter, oleomargarine, and butterine. How to 
detect the crystals of lard by the eye, unaided by a lens. General notes. | 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 128-38 
(no plate yet) pp. 234-5. 
[Reply to Prof. Weber.] 
The Microscope, V1. (1886) pp. 78-9, see also pp. 85-6. — 
THomepson, J. C—Mounting Dermanyssus. 

[To avoid curling up of legs, allow it to walk on the slide, then drop 
tolerably cool glycerin jelly on it, and then warm cover. ] 

Journ. of Micr., V. (1886) p. 119. 


” ” 


Trichophyton tonsurans. 

[Directions by T. Sympson and V. A. L. for preparing. ] 

Scientif. Enquirer, I. (1886) pp. 55-6. 
Typical Slides. 

[Report of Committee of Amer. Soc. Micr. as to collecting, storing, and 
circulating typical slides of mounted objects and illustrations of special 
methods, and recommendation to the Society “to acquire, hold, and 
circulate the same.” Also rules for storing and circulating the objects. ] 

Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 246-7. 
Ups, H.—Ueber die Riickenporen der terricolen Oligochaten. 
[Methods for showing dorsal pores of terricolous Oligochsta. Post.] 
Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., XLIII. (1885) pp. 87-143 (1 pl.). 
Van Brunt.—See Smith, H. L. 
Vorce, C. M.—Killing Insects’ Eggs. 

[Soaking in carbolic acid will destroy vitality without affecting the appear- 

ance for a dry or balsam mount. ] 
~ 11th Ann, Rep. Amer. Post. Micr. Club, 1886, p. 14. 
W[arp], R. H.—Curtain-ring Mounts. 

[Regularly go to pieces in the circuits,” and comment by R. Hitchcock. 
“This we believe need not be. Curtain-rings are exceedingly useful in 
mounting, and it will be a pity if we must give them up.”] 

11th Ann. Rep. Amer. Post. Micr. Club, 1886, p. 15. 
White Zinc Cement. ; ; 
[Unfavourable reports of experiences with it, and comment by R. Hitch- 
cock. ] 11th Ann. Rep. Amer. Post. Micr. Club, 1886, p. 15. 
Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., VII. (1886) p. 56. 
Wuitman, C. O.—Natural Injection. (Leeches.) [Supra, p. 540.] 
Amer. Natural., XX. (1886) pp. 313-4. 
Wuitney, J. E.—Rapid Section-cutting. (Supra, p. 539.] 
Proc. Amer. Soc. Micr., 8th Ann. Meeting, 1885, pp. 122-3 (1 fig.). 
Wiarp, M. S.—Preparing section of Human Toe-nail. 

[Place between two strips of moderately hard wood and plane off thin smooth ~ 
shavings with an ordinary carpenter’s plane—mount in balsam and 
benzole. } 

11th Ann. Rep. Amer. Post. Micr. Club, 1886, p. 14. 


( 551) 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Meetine or 141TH Aprit, 1886, at Kine’s Cottear, Stranp, W.C., 
tHe Presment (THE Rey. Dr. Datuineer, F.RS.) i THE 
CHarr. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 10th March last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) 
received since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the 
Society given to the donors. 

From 
Balfour, F. M., The Works of. Memorial edition. 4 vols. 

(8yvo, London, LS8D)) Seem ace .. The Relatives. 
Cheshire, F. R., Bees and Beekeeping, Scientific and Practi- 

cal, A complete Treatise on the Anatomy, Physiology, 

Floral Relations, and Profitable Management of the 

Hive Bee. Vol.I. Scientitic. viii. and 336 PP- .» 71 figs. 


and 8 pls. (8vo, London, 1886) .. The Author. 
Draper, E. T., Graphic Microscopy, No. 1. 4 pp. ‘and 2 pls. 
(8vo, London, 1886) .. The Author. 


Hudson, C. T., and P. H. Gosse. The Rotifera or Wheel- 
animalcules. Part III., pp. 81-128, Preface and 


Title to vol. i., pls. 11-15. (8vo, London, 1886) .. .. The Publishers. 
Lubbock, Sir J., Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves. xv. and 

147 pp. and 95 figs. (8v0, London, TSSG)A cee wos «> Mr.iCrisp: 
Rees’s Encyclopedia. 39 vols. (4to, La PD »» Dr. Millar. 
Microscope, Apparatus and Slides .. .. on The late Miss Tucker. 
Slides of Pumice-stone Ne .. Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis. 
Slides of leaf of Deutzia scabra and seeds of Orthocar "pus .. Lr. W. E. Dumon, 


Mr. Deby exhibited and described his “' Twin Microscope” (see 
Vol. V. p. 854), which he had improved by the addition of a mechanical 
finger worked by a small micrometer screw. By this means he was 
able with the greatest facility to pick up a diatom or other minute 
object appearing in the field of one Microscope, and to swing it round 
and place it in any required position upon a slide upon the stage of the 
other. He thought this arrangement likely to be useful to any one 
whose hand was not steady enough for such delicate work, as it would 
enable them to arrange diatoms after the manner of Herr Moller. 

Mr. Crisp said that in this connection might be mentioned the 
apparatus devised by M. Inostranzeff for testing the exact colour of 
minerals. He used two Microscopes placed side by side, one having 
on the stage the standard object, and the other the mineral to be 
tested. By means of an arrangement of reflecting prisms the two 


images were received in one eye-piece, and a comparison readily 
made. (Supra, p. 507.) 


Mr. Crisp exhibited and described Mayer’s new form of dissecting 
Microscope (supra, p. 507). It was designed by Dr. Mayer, of the 
Naples Zoological station, and had been very highly commended. 


552 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


Amongst its special features was the very convenient arrangement of 
sliding plates, one white and the other black, either of which could 
be used as a background. 

Mr. J. Beck said he saw this Microscope in use when he visited 
the station a short time ago, and it seemed to him to be a very 
complete instrument for the purpose of dissecting. There was 
abundance of play for the mirror, so that plenty of light could be 
obtained in any direction; but there was no means of rotating the 
stage. Although this rotation was but rarely provided in a dissecting 
Microscope, he thought it was a very desirable provision, as it was 
much more inconvenient to have to move the mirror or lens, and 
perhaps the source of light also, than it was to move the object. 
He had pointed this out to Dr. Mayer, who agreed that it would be a 
desirable improvement. 


Mr. E. M. Nelson read a note in explanation-of some models of 
the markings of diatoms, which he exhibited. ‘ 

The President said that Mr. Nelson’s communication was a most 
interesting one, and the models had made the subject exceptionally 
clear. 


Mr. Nelson also exhibited a new achromatic oil-immersion con- 
denser of 1:28 N.A., made by Mr. Powell. He said that the great 
advantage of it was that it allowed of the use of such a large central 
solid cone of light. He had never previously been able to get a 
condenser which had a greater angle than 1:0 N.A., and he had, 
therefore, never before been able to examine test-objects as effectively 
as was now possible, although it was not every objective which 
would stand the full blaze of light from the whole aperture of the 
condenser. 


Mr. Deby’s letter was read, in which he stated that he was 
prepared to open his library on Saturdays, from 10.30 a.m. to 10 p.m., 
to all Fellows engaged in special scientific research. Besides the 
principal standard works on the following subjects and most of the 
principal periodicals, he had collected in the last thirty years the 
following portfolios of pamphlets, &c.:—Bryozoa 10, Insect Ana- 
tomy 12, Arachnida 5, Crustacea 10, Vermes 10, Rotifera 4, Coelen- 
terata 4, Protozoa 25, Desmids 5, Diatoms 36, and Microscopy 
proper 15. 

The President said that the meeting had already, by the applause 
which followed the reading of Mr. Deby’s letter, expressed its 
appreciation of the generosity of the writer in throwing open his 
library. It appeared to be a specialized library of considerable 
value, and the offer was therefore one well worthy of their appreciation 
and thankfulness. 


Prof. Stewart, after remarking that' it was a well-known fact 
that certain insects and others of the lower forms of animal life 
possessed the means of producing sounds by which they could warn 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 553 


their enemies or call to their friends, said that this kind of primitive 
language was also found amongst a few of the crustacea and the 
myriopods, and he exhibited, and by means of black-board drawings 
described, the stridulating organs found in some of the decapod and 
other crustacea. 


Prof. Bell exhibited two young grayling, which he said were, 
in some respects, very interesting. For one thing, the eges of the 
grayling were remarkable amongst those of the Salmonide as being 
quite transparent, so that their course of development could be very 
clearly observed. Since they came under his observation, the speci- 
mens on the table had come out of the eggs, and were to be seen with 
the yolk-sacs still adherent, and the heart beating. Another in- 
teresting point was the bending up of the notochord at the end of the 
tail. In the sharks the tail was always asymmetrical, but in the case 
of the Salmonide it was symmetrical. It would, however, be seen 
that in the early section the notochord had an upward bend, and 
although in the shark this was never cured, in the salmon it was 
cured by the peculiar arrangement of the supporting bones. 


Mr. G, Massee gave an extended résumé of his paper on “The 
Structure and Evolution of the Floridez,” illustrating the subject by 
numerous drawings upon the black-board (post). 

The President said that, whether or not they had made this 
subject a special study, they must all have been convinced that it was 
one of great interest, and that their thanks were due to Mr. Massee 
for giving them such a summary of the contents of his paper. 

Mr. A. W. Bennett thought that the Society might well congratu- 
late itself that one who was so competent for the work which he had 
taken in hand as Mr. Massee was, had been devoting himself to matters 
of such great interest as the subject of the communication which he 
had laid before them; for, though these forms of vegetable life were 
such exceedingly common objects, there was, perhaps, no group in 
relation to which it might be said that there remained so much to be 
discovered. To the scientific botanist the Floridez were especially 
interesting, from the fact that they were the only class of cryptogams 
in which there were distinct sexual organs, and in which the male 
organ had no power of motion by means of vibratile cilia; also as 
illustrating the very important part which marine organisms, such 
as the Vorticellz, perform in the process of fertilization. One point 
referred to by Mr. Massee was of extreme interest, and that was the 
connection between Chantransia and Batrachospermum. He quite 
agreed that the term “alternation of generations” was misapplied in 
this case, the phenomenon not being of the same kind as that which 
occurs in ferns; but was simply due to the circumstance that a differ- 
ence of habitat induced different conditions of development, a large 
amount of light forming the one and the absence of light giving rise 
to the other. With regard to the genesis of the Florides, he thought 
there could be but little doubt that they had sprung from the green 
sea-weeds. He was himself always glad when he found that hard 

Ser. 2—Vou. VI. 20 


554 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


and fast lines were disappearing. The difference between an apical 
cell and a group of apical cells was not an invariable distinction 
between the higher and the lower forms of the vegetable kingdom. 
Mr. Massee had brought out so many points of interest arising out 
of this subject that it was obviously quite impossible to discuss them 
in a short time. 

Mr. Cheshire asked if it was correct to say that ferns presented true 
instances of alternation of generations ? 

Mr. Bennett said that the term was properly used to express the 
fact that the process of sexual union produced a plant which did not 
immediately again produce a sexual plant; but before this occurred 
it passed through an intermediate form. They had an instance of 
this in the case of ferns which alternately produced the non-sexual 
generation and the prothallium. 

Prof. Bell said he was particularly glad to hear one remark of 
Mr. Massee’s, because it seemed to him to answer a requirement which 
he had felt for some time. Within the last eighteen months Prof. 
Weismann had raised the question of the immortality of protoplasm, 
and those who read other journals besides their own had, no doubt, 
seen an article upon the subject in a journal not always remarkable 
for its accuracy on scientific subjects, in which it was said that this 
had always appeared to be a purely academic discussion. Mr. Massee’s 
remarks doubtless would appear in the same way, as regarded the 
question of supply and demand, so that if Prof. Weismann was wrong, 
as he believed him to be, these things would go on until they came to 
an end at last from want of food, just as this academic discussion 
would come to an end also. 


The President announced that the Second Conversazione of the 
Session would be held on May 5th. 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 

Prof. Bell :—Young Grayling. 

Mr. Bolton :—Larve of Caddis-fly. 

Mr. Crisp :—(1) Mayer’s Dissecting Microscope; (2) Malassez’s 
Camera Lucida. 

Mr. Deby :—Twin Microscope. 

Mr. Nelson :—(1) Models of markings of Diatoms; (2) Powell’s 
Achromatic Oil-immersion Condenser of 1°28 N.A. 

Prof. Stewart :—Stridulating organs of Crustacea. 


New Fellows.—The following were clected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. Arthur Clegg Bowdler, Lewis M. Eastman, M.D., and 
Francis John Fraser, M.A. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE §OCIETY. 555 


Mertine or 12TH May, 1886, ar Kine’s CoLiecr, Stranp, W.C., 
THE Preswwent (THE Rev. Dr. Dawiinerr, F.R.S.) 1 THE 
CHAIR. 


The Minutes of the meeting of 14th April last were read and 
confirmed, and were signed by the President. 


The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) re- 
ceived since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the 
Society given to the donors. 


Baker, H., The Microscope made easy. 5th ed., xvi. and From 
324 pp., 15 pls. (8vo, London, 1769) See oeia cts ear Vir Crasn 
Gage, S. H., Notes on Histological Methods, including a 
brief consideration of the methods of Pathological and 
Vegetable Histology, and the application of the Micro- 
scope to Jurisprudence. 56 pp. (8vo, Ithaca, N.Y., 


TSSH=O yi cast Meat nies a coie se ae. Pooh tte | 2 sdel 8 hw a nat Ae SA UENORE 
Gerlach, J., Die Photographie als Hilfsmittel Mikroskop- 

ischer Forschung. 86 pp., 9 figs. and 4 pls. (S8vo, 

Leipzig, 1863) ANemcr hs Side bob) Weocalb Sra MCmatr mee cria Wes (Oin ty rE 
Gould, C., The Companion to the Microscope, with full direc- 

tions for preparing the Vegetable Infusions to produce 

Animalcules, 3rd ed., 47 pp. and 3 pls. (8vo, London, 

1828) Ses vole Nadal ees ee erates cnoakon hain pcre ee 5 
Slide of Synedralzvigata .. .. s« «6 «8 0 eo « Dr. Bossey. 
Slide of spicules, Spongilla fluviatilis .. .. se ee ee we) Mrs. Farquharson. 


The President referred to the death of Dr. Matthews—a Member 
of the Council—which had recently occurred. He was with them at 
their last meeting with his usual geniality, and he had some pleasant 
conversation with him on that occasion. He was shocked to hear 
but a few days afterwards that Dr. Matthews was dead. The Council 
had that evening recorded their sense of the affectionate regard in 
which Dr. Matthews was held by the Fellows of the Society, and of 
the loss which they had sustained by his death. They had also 
passed a resolution of sympathy and condolence with the surviving 
relatives, in which he invited the meeting to join. The resolution of 
the Council was then adopted by the meeting. 


Mr. J. Mayall, jun., exhibited and described a new pattern of the 
Radial Microscope, by Mr. Swift, which he thought would be found 
to embody several useful improvements upon those previously con- 
structed upon that principle. The first of these consisted of a rack 
and pinion applied to the are inclining movement by means of 
which the Microscope could be smoothly and readily placed at any 
required inclination by turning the milled head instead of using 
manual force. Another improvement, for which he was himself 
responsible, was a modification of the mechanical stage applied in a 
very simple manner to the rotating glass stage of the instrument. 
He had repeatedly tried to impress upon opticians the importance of 


Z202 


556 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


making a mechanical stage without plates, so that the object might 
rest at once upon the most solid part of the stage itself. ‘The device 
which he now exhibited fulfilled this requirement, the slide being 
held in its place by a clip, to which motion in two directions could 
be given by means of milled heads, whilst the whole rested upon the 
glass stage-plate perfectly free from any flexure. Moreover, if the 
mechanical movement was not wanted to be used, it was readily 
removable, leaving the stage clear. Another small improvement had 
been made, by means of which the mirror could be placed in a fixed 
position, so as to get variations in the inclination of the light from 
the fixed mirror when the radial movement was used. 

The President thought that the ease with which the mechanical 
movement could be removed from the stage made Mr. Mayall’s 
modification a most excellent feature. 


Mr. G. D. Hirst’s communication was read referring to the 
report in the Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales (ante, 
Vol. V. 1885, p. 1077), attributing to him the view that a highly 
refractive mounting medium enabled objectives of small aperture to 
compete in resolution with wide-angled oil-immersion objectives. 
Mr, Hirst explained that the report was unfortunately worded so as 
to convey a totally erroneous impression of what he claimed, which 
was only that the highly refractive medium would render difficult 
test diatoms so easy to a good high-angled water lens, that the 
superiority of the oil-immersion objective will not be apparent, except 
under the very deepest eye-piecing. 


Dr. Hudson’s request was read for specimens of Brachionus 
pala, which he was unable to procure in his own locality, and which 
he required for the purpose of illustration in his ‘ Rotifera.’ 


Mr. C. D. Ahrens’s paper “ On a new Polarizing Prism” was read 
(supra, p. 397). Mr. Crisp said that, having asked the opinion of 
Professor Silvanus P. Thompson as to the merits of the prism, he 
had received from him the following reply :—‘ My opinion of 
Ahrens’s new prism is that for use as a polarizer it is absolutely 
unrivalled. Flat ends, wide angle, absence of distortion, absence of 
troublesome coloured fringes, all go in its favour. The line that 
marks the junction of the sections is all but imperceptible, and never 
troubles the clearness of the field, as used for this purpose. For use 
as an analyzer I am not so clear about the prism; but even so it 
works very well. ‘Take it all round, I consider it the best polarizing 
prism that has yet been devised.” 


Dr. Sternberg’s paper “On Micrococcus Pasteuri” was read (supra, 
p- 391), in which he called attention to the characters which dis- 
tinguish it in a very definite manner from the microbe of fowl-cholera, 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 557 


it differing from the latter not only in its morphology, but in the fact 
that it is not fatal to fowls. 

Mr. Dowdeswell said that the question of the specific identity of 
organisms of this kind was as difficult as it was also important. Dr. 
Sternberg was a great authority upon the subject, and his opinion 
was entitled to great consideration. He thought that the additional 
particulars now adduced, so far disposed of the question of identity 
that he must accept the conclusions arrived at. 

The paper was further discussed by Mr. Michael and the President, 
who referred to the death of Dr. T. R. Lewis, the discoverer of the 
microbe of the human mouth. 


Mr. F. H. Evans exhibited some photo-micrographs produced by 
the Woodbury-type process, from negatives taken by himself and 
transferred to glass for the purposes of lantern illustration, and so 
that in many cases the objects could be seen on the screen more 
perfectly than under the Microscope. To show what an advance 
had been made in this direction, sixty of the slides were shown upon 
a portable screen by Mr. George Smith (of the Sciopticon Company), 
who had printed the slides from the original negatives. The objects 
illustrated comprised Diatoms and Desmids, Foraminifera, Polycistina, 
star-fish, sections of Hchinus spines, insect preparations, animal 
parasites, and anatomical and vegetable sections, the remarkable 
clearness of most of the photographs calling forth frequent favourable 
comments from the Fellows present. 

Mr. Evans, who had temporarily lost his voice, handed in the 
following note from himself and Mr. Smith :— 

“These slides are intended specially for educational purposes, to 
help the optical lantern to fulfil its manifest destiny as the great 
educational demonstrating instrument of the future. 

They are not put forward as perfection, but as an earnest effort 
towards the limit of perfection attainable by human skill. 

The measure of success already reached is controlled to a great 
extent by the inherent imperfection of even the most skilfully con- 
structed lenses; but while the definition is possibly less perfect than 
may be considered desirable, it is certainly not inferior to that obtain- 
able by any ordinary high-class Microscope, while, if the degree of 
magnification is taken into account, it is probable that it is not likely 
to be greatly surpassed. It has also to some extent been controlled by 
the character of the photographic plates in commercial use, which from 
the exigences of the case have been necessarily employed—for while 
rapidity is an extremely important feature of modern commercial 
photography, the granular character of the sensitive film, apparently 
almost inseparable from the enhanced rapidity, is decidedly inimical 
to microscopic work, where structureless films are specially important. 
It is a curious fact in the development and improvement of photo- 
graphic processes that the important feature of structureless films 
and development has been overlooked and neglected in favour of 
rapidity, generally attended by granularity of the deposit. The wet- 
collodion process with pyrogallic development, as given to the world 


558 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


by Scott Archer, gave a structureless film and a pure stain-like 
deposit, but this was speedily and completely superseded by the 
iron development and coarse granular deposit for the sake of the 
meretricious advantages of redevelopment and local intensification as 
a correction for error of exposure. 

The question of illumination of microscopic objects has its im- 
portance too; in this matter the slides must speak for themselves. 
It is well known that the same objects may be shown very differently 
under various degrees and qualities of light. In all cases, in order 
that a comparison between the enlargements to be shown upon the 
screen may be made with the aspect under the Microscope itself, the 
light used for producing the photograph has been the ordinary 
mineral oil lamp. Indeed, no unusual accessory of any kind has been 
employed—no monochromatic light or any other expedient, but the 
object was arranged in the ordinary way, examined and adjusted with 
the A eye-piece, and the photographic image obtained at once by 
placing the camera in front of the eye-piece, the only change being 
the readjustment of focus, according to the degree of enlargement 
required in the negative. No allowance, or correction, was found 
necessary with the objectives employed to make the visual and actinic 
foci agree. The objectives were high class, of English make. 

It is hardly necessary to say that the negatives are entirely 
untouched, excepting to remove mechanical defects inseparable from 
the mounting of microscopic objects, and that otherwise the resulting 
slides are the result of pure photography. 

The process employed is that known as the Woodbury-type 
process.” 

[The remainder of the note deals with the Woodbury process, and 
the “Sciopticon” used. See Mr. Smith’s remarks infra. | 

Mr. Crisp said that Mr. Evans claimed that he had been more 
than ordinarily successful in overcoming the chief difficulty in the 
matter, that of obtaining such a focus as would properly represent 
the various planes of even deep objects, and this without loss of 
natural effect. 

The President said that the meeting were very much obliged to 
Mr. Evans and his colleague for this exhibition, which was certainly 
the most interesting which he had yet seen. He had been much 
struck by the beauty of many of the pictures, and inquired if there 
was anything special in the mode of preparation, which allowed of so 
much delicate detail being shown without any sacrifice of natural 
character or beauty of result. 

Mr. Smith said there was nothing special in the mode of produc- 
tion. The photographs were all taken with an A eye-piece, and by 
the light of an ordinary paraffin Microscope lamp. The slides were 
prepared by what was known as the Woodbury process—that is they 
were printed from metal plates—the result being that they got very 
much greater transparency and better detail, with a uniform colour. 
When once the proper tone had been obtained any number of prints 
could afterwards be produced of exactly the same depth. The 
process was undoubtedly the finest possible for the purpose. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 559 


Mr. Curties inquired if any special means were adopted in photo- 
graphing the opaque objects. He thought it must be admitted that 
they had been extraordinarily well shown, their sharpness of detail 
being such that he had supposed they must have been taken by the 
electric light. 

Mr. Smith said that there was nothing unusual about the process 
in any way, it was simply a question of manipulative skill. Some of 
the transparent objects were illuminated by the spot-lens, and ordinary 
objectives were used. 

Mr. Crisp said that for the next number of the Journal he had 
written a note on the question whether photographs of microscopic 
objects were better for purposes of class illustration than the objects 
themselves thrown on the screen, and had expressed himself in favour 
of the natural objects. What, however, he had seen that evening 
certainly required him to alter his opinion. 

Mr. Smith in reply to an inquiry as to what kind of lantern 
apparatus had been used for showing the slides upon the screen, said 
it was the ordinary form of lantern known as the Sciopticon, the 
illumination being by a paraffin oil lamp with a double burner. It 
was very simple to use, did not produce an unusual amount of heat, 
and held enough oil to burn well for several hours. A dissolving 
apparatus was added for the purpose of changing the slides. 

Dr. Millar asked how the slides were prepared ; were they printed 
upon the glass ? 

Mr. Smith said that in the first instance a photographic negative 
was taken in the usual way; this negative was upon a glass plate, 
and was so called because all the lights and shadows were reversed 
from what they were in the natural picture. From this negative an 
ordinary photograph was produced by printing from it in the usual 
way. The Woodbury-type process made use of the property acquired 
by gelatin when mixed with bichromate of potash, in virtue of which 
it became insoluble after being exposed to the action of light. A 
film of gelatin, so prepared, had the photograph placed upon it and 
after being exposed to light was washed in hot water which dissolved 
away those parts which the light had not affected. In this way a 
very delicate film was obtained not exceeding the 1/300 in. in thick- 
ness, but containing every line of the picture in relief. This film 
was put upon a steel plate, and a piece of lead having been placed 
upon it, they were subjected to a pressure of many tons weight, by 
which means an intaglio mould was formed upon the lead. The 
plates were practically casts from this mould made in gelatin and 
darkened with lampblack. 

The President was sure he should be doing what would commend 
itself to the whole meeting, in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. 
Evans and his colleague Mr. Smith, for the very interesting exhibition 
for which they were indebted to them, and upon the success of which 
they were to be very heartily congratulated. 

The thanks of the meeting were then unanimously voted to Mr. 
Evans and Mr. Smith. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 


List or PHoro-MicroGRApus. 
(The diameters given are those of the magnification on the lantern slide.) 


1. Foraminifera, grouped, x 14. 

. Ditto, from Porto Seguro, x 19. 
. Ditto, ditto, x 21. 

. Ditto, from Connemara, x 12. 
. Ditto, Lagens, x 27. 

. Ditto, Operculina, x 23. 


. Ditto, Quinqueloculina, x 27. 
. Ditto, Dentalina, x 30. 
. Ditto, siliceous casts of, x 16. 
. Ophiocoma Rosula, x 12. 
. Ray of ditto, x 19. 
. Denial apparatus of ditto, x 10. 
. Ditto plates of ditto, x 25. 
. Ophiocoma neglecta, x 8. 
. Urastea rubens. 
5. Polycystina, grouped, x 35. 
4. Ditto, ditto, x 28. 
6. Ditto, ‘‘ Bull’s Horns,” x 62. 
39. Ditto, grouped, x 17. 
40. Ditto, ditto, x 42. 
22. HEchinus, grouped sections, x 9. 
23-8. Ditto, section of spine, x 18-34. 
8. Coralline, x 14. 
9. Ditto, ditto, x 12. 
. Bicellaria grandis, x 14. | 
. Ditto, ciliata, x 20. i bar 
. Head of Vanessa urtice, x 10. 
. Ditto of Tipula oleracea, x 11. 
. Antenna of yapourer moth, x 10. 
. Synapta, anchors and plates, x 33. 
. Pinna shell, section of, x 66. 
. Eider down, x 13. 
. Scales of fern, x 38. 
. Fairy fly, x 43. 
. Cecidomyia, x 32. 
. Oak-apple fly, x 10. 
. Exuvia of Cercopsis (on oak leaf), 
x 17. 
. Seale of perch, x 14. 
. Sponge spicules, x 31. 
. Winged parasite of Indian bat, 
x 18. 
. Section of chalcedony, x 14. 


. Ditto, Section of Nummulite, x 34. 


No. 
143. Ditto of Lapageria rosea, x 18. 
97. Diatoms on coralline, x 17. 

The whole of the above were taken by 
spot lens, or as opaque objects, except 
Nos. 72, 90, 98, 99, these being taken by 
polarized light. 


The following were taken by transmitted 
light :-— 


No. 

135. Flea of wild rabbit. 

59. Parasite of ox. 

126. Ditto of elephant. 

44. Ovipositor of saw-fly. 

42. Proboscis of blow-fly, x 124. 
50. Jaws of spider, x 21. 

48. Spinnerets of spider, x 135. 
49. Claws from house-spider, x 240. 
36. Trachea of silkworm, x 34. 
43. Cirri of barnacle, x 14. 

70. Spiracle of Dytiscus, x 32. 
67. Hye of ditto, x 160. 

64. Pygidium of flea, x 248. 

147. Leiosoma palmicinctum, x 60. 
88. Glyciphagus plumiger, x 147. 
37. Maple aphis, x 63. 

57. Nycteribia of Indian bat, x 14. 
56. Abdominal fringe of ditto, x 104. 

150. Parasite of vampire bat, x 28. 

127. Mange insect of horse, x 100. 

130. Foot of parasite of queen bee, x 164. 


. Section of sugar-cane. 

. Section of ovary of tiger lily, x 13. 
. Triceratium fayus, x 485. 

. Ditto quadratum, x 357. 

. Ditto septangulatum, x 192. 

. Liemophora flabellata, x 154. 

. Auliscus coelatus, x 216. 

. Gephyrea, x 338. 

. Pinnularia, x 389. 

. Aulacodiscus margaritaceus x 192. 
. Coscinodiseus, x 343. 
Heliopelta, x 208. 


The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited :— 
Mr. T. Bolton :—Spawn of Perch. 

Mr. Crisp :—Ahrens’s new Polarizing Prism. 

Mr. F. H. Evans and Mr. G. Smith :—Photo-micrographs shown ~ 


with the Sciopticon. 


Mr. Swift :—Radial Microscope with rack and pinion to arc, 
Mayall’s removable mechanical stage and fixed mirror fitting. 


New Fellows :—The following were elected Ordinary Fellows :— 
Messrs. Marshall D. Ewell, Charles I’. Forshaw, D.D.S., William 
Johnson, Alfred H. Mason, F.C.S., John D. Thomas, M.D., T. B. 


Tyson, Walter Wier, M.B., and Thomas 8. Wilkins. 


Prof. W. A. 


Rogers was elected an Honorary Fellow. 


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